2025 for January 1970

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981, Objectives, Provisions

November 19, 2025

Air pollution poses a serious threat to human health, ecosystems, and climate. To regulate emissions and protect air quality, the Government of India enacted the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, which provides a legal framework to prevent, control, and abate air pollution across the country.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, formally Act No. 14 of 1981, was enacted by the Indian Parliament on 29 March 1981 and came into force on the date notified by the Central Government. It extends to the entire territory of India. The purpose of the Act is to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, and to establish Boards with powers and functions to enforce this regime.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Objectives

The primary objectives of the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 are:

To prevent and reduce air pollution so as to protect public health and the environment.
To provide statutory bodies (Boards)- Central and State, with powers to monitor, regulate, and enforce air quality norms.
To coordinate national and state-level programmes for the abatement of air pollution.
To lay down standards for emissions from sources such as automobiles and industrial plants.
To support research, training, technical assistance, and public awareness on air pollution.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Need

There were several compelling reasons for enacting Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act in 1981:

Rising Industrialization: Rapid industrial growth was increasing emissions from factories, power plants, and manufacturing units.
Vehicular Emissions: The expansion of road transport contributed significantly to air pollution via exhaust gases.
International Commitment: India had participated in the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, where the need to control air pollution was emphasized.
Lack of Regulatory Framework: Before this Act, there was no unified legal mechanism specifically targeting air pollution (though the Water Act of 1974 existed for water pollution).
Public Health Risks: Air pollutants such as particulate matter, gases, and noise posed serious risks to human health, agriculture, and ecosystems.
Environmental Degradation: Without regulation, unchecked emissions could degrade the quality of life, damage property, and harm biodiversity.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Provisions

The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 contains a range of provisions to ensure effective control of air pollution:

Definitions (Section 2): Defines key terms such as “air pollutant” (including noise), “air pollution,” “approved appliance,” “approved fuel,” “automobile,” etc.
Boards (Sections 3-5):
- Central Board: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), already constituted under the Water Act, performs functions under this Air Act as well.
- State Boards: State Pollution Control Boards are constituted (or designated) for air pollution control.
Powers of Boards (Sections 16-18):
- The Central Board has powers to advise the Central Government; plan national pollution abatement programmes; coordinate State Boards; conduct research; train personnel; monitor; lay down air quality norms; and more.
- The State Boards have the responsibility to inspect industrial premises, ensure compliance, fix industrial emission standards, and regulate fuel and appliance usage.
Declaration of Pollution Control Areas (Section 19): State Governments, after consulting the Board, can notify any area as an “air pollution control area” where special restrictions apply (e.g., on fuel types, appliances, burning of material).
Automobile Emission Regulation (Section 20): State Governments, in consultation with the boards, may direct vehicle registration authorities to ensure that vehicles comply with emission standards.
Industrial Consent Regime (Section 21): No person may establish or operate an industrial plant in a declared pollution control area without prior “consent” of the State Board.
Laboratory, Funds, Accounts (Sections 33-36): Boards must maintain funds, keep proper accounts, set up/recognize laboratories, produce annual reports.
Enforcement: The Act empowers Boards to issue directions, grant or withdraw consents, and inspect premises to ensure compliance.
Offences and Penalties (Sections 37-39): The Act provides for imprisonment, fines, and other punitive measures for violations.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Amendments

The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 was amended by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1987 (Act No. 47 of 1987). Major changes included:

Definition Expansion: The 1987 amendment explicitly included “noise” as an air pollutant under the definition.
New Section 19: Empowered State Governments (with Boards’ advice) to declare “air pollution control areas” and impose restrictions on fuel, appliances, and burning practices.
Stricter Penalties: The amendment increased the severity of penalties for violation.
Clarification of Consent Regime: It laid down clearer provisions for prior consent by State Boards before establishing or operating industrial plants in declared areas.

Also Read: Forest Rights Act

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Organizations

Under the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981, the institutional structure is composed of:

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
- Already established under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Under the Air Act, it performs additional tasks related to air pollution.
- Functions include advising government, coordinating State Boards, research, setting air standards, and public awareness.
- It may also delegate its functions and set up laboratories.
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs):
- Each State has an SPCB that implements Air Act provisions at the state level, enforces standards, grants or denies consent for industrial plants, inspects, monitors, and takes action.
Committees & Technical Bodies: Boards may set up committees for specific roles (e.g., training, research), and associate experts temporarily for special tasks.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Challenges

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 faces several implementation challenges. To strengthen the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981, steps that could be taken are discussed below.

Challenges:

Limited enforcement capacity at State Pollution Control Boards.
Inadequate coverage of monitoring infrastructure in many regions.
Delays in granting or renewing industrial consents.
Weak public awareness and involvement in enforcement.
Non-compliance by industries, especially in unorganized sectors.
Pollution control areas not declared timely or enforced strictly.
Poor inter-state coordination among State Boards.
Insufficient research and technical capacity for air quality management.
Penalties sometimes not deter violations effectively.
Lack of integration with other environmental laws and climate goals.

Way Forward:

Enhance capacity building and staffing of SPCBs for better enforcement.
Expand and modernize air quality monitoring networks across all states.
Simplify and fast-track the consent process for industries, with transparency.
Promote public participation via citizen monitoring and grievance redressal.
Target non-compliant and informal sectors with stricter inspections and audits.
Declare more pollution control areas and enforce fuel/appliance restrictions.
Foster better coordination among State Boards for transboundary pollution control.
Invest in research labs, training, and technical support for pollution control strategies.
Review and raise penalty provisions so they act as a strong deterrent.
Align the Act’s implementation with national climate and sustainable development policies.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Penalties

Penalties under the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 ensure that industries, individuals and authorities follow air pollution rules.

Failure to follow emission rules can lead to 1.5 to 6 years imprisonment, along with fines, and 5000 rupees daily fine if violation continues after conviction.
If the violation goes beyond one year after conviction, imprisonment increases to 2 to 7 years with additional fines.
Damaging Board property, stopping officials, or giving false information can lead to 3 months jail or 10,000-rupee fine.
Any violation without a specific penalty can also attract 3 months jail or 10,000-rupee fine, with 5000 rupees daily for continuing offences.
Companies and government departments are liable when offences occur, and responsible officers can also be punished unless they prove due diligence.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Achievements

Since its enactment, the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 has achieved several important milestones:

Institutional Framework: It established the Central and State Pollution Control Boards, which are now central to India’s air quality governance.
Standards and Regulation: It enabled the formulation and enforcement of emission standards for industries and automobiles.
Consent Regime: The mechanism of “consent to operate” has made air-polluting industries accountable.
Research & Data Generation: Through its mandate, CPCB has collected and published large amounts of air-quality data, guiding policy and public awareness.
Preventive Measures: The power to declare “air pollution control areas” has allowed states to restrict use of unapproved fuels and appliances.
Public Awareness: Boards organize training programmes and use mass media to educate people about air pollution prevention.
Laboratory Network: Establishment and recognition of laboratories help in monitoring, testing, and research.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 Recent Developments

In recent years, some notable developments relating to the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 include:

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) continues to update its functions; as of 2025, it advises the government, plans national programmes, resolves inter-state issues, and enforces pollution standards.
Grants and Rules: New guidelines have been issued for grant, refusal, or cancellation of consent under the Act. For example, the CPCB’s website shows recent updates on air-pollution control rules.
Judicial Oversight: Environmental cases often cite the Air Act in court, emphasizing its continuing relevance in legal enforcement.
Technological Monitoring: Researchers are now using satellite imagery and machine-learning tools to detect non-compliant sources (like brick kilns), highlighting gaps in enforcement and compliance.
Policy Integration: The Act’s implementation is being aligned more closely with national air quality programmes and climate change policy goals.

Also Read: Biodiversity Act

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 UPSC

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 represents India’s foundational legal instrument to fight air pollution. By establishing institutional mechanisms, defining standards, enabling consent-based regulation, and setting penalties, the Act provides a robust framework for protecting air quality. However, persistent challenges such as enforcement gaps, resource constraints, and evolving pollution sources demand consistent policy updates and stronger implementation. Strengthening monitoring, enhancing public participation, and leveraging technology are critical for the Act’s long-term effectiveness.

The Act also plays a crucial role in addressing Delhi Pollution, as it provides the primary legal framework for regulating emissions from industries, vehicles, construction activities, and waste burning in the National Capital Region. Under this Act, the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), functioning as the State Board for Delhi, issues consent to operate, monitors air quality, enforces emission norms, and restricts polluting activities during severe pollution episodes.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 FAQs

Q1: What is the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981?

Ans: It’s an Indian law enacted in 1981 to prevent, control, and reduce air pollution, and to set up regulatory Boards.

Q2: What are the key objectives of the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981?

Ans: Its objectives include regulating emissions, establishing Boards, promoting research, and improving national air quality.

Q3: Who enforces the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981?

Ans: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards enforce the Act in their respective jurisdictions.

Q4: What happens if someone violates the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981?

Ans: Violations can lead to imprisonment (up to several years), fines, and repeated daily penalties for ongoing offences.

Q5: How has the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 been amended?

Ans: The Act was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air pollutant, declare control areas, and strengthen penalties.

UPSC Daily Quiz 19 November 2025

November 19, 2025

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions.

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UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Classical Languages of India, List, Criteria, Contributions, Benefits

November 19, 2025

India has a very old and diverse linguistic tradition, with many languages contributing to its cultural identity. The government recognises this heritage by granting Classical Language status to languages that show high antiquity, deep literary traditions, and historical value. This status helps preserve ancient knowledge for future generations. On October 3, 2024, the government added Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali to the Classical list. With these additions, India now has eleven officially recognised Classical Languages as of October 2025.

Classical Languages of India

Classical Languages of India represent the country’s oldest linguistic roots, containing some of the world's earliest texts, inscriptions, and philosophical works. These languages have shaped literature, religion, science, mathematics, arts, and governance for thousands of years. Their recognition strengthens cultural continuity and encourages academic research. Six languages were recognised as Classical between 2004 and 2014, and five more were added in 2024. Together, these eleven languages reflect the country’s strong commitment to safeguarding its ancient intellectual and cultural heritage.

Also Read: Longest Rivers in India

Classical Languages of India List

India has eleven Classical Languages recognised for their antiquity, literature, and cultural value. The list below shows their year of recognition, historic time, language family, branch, and their living or dead status.

Classical Languages of India
Serial	Language	Year of Recognition	Historic Attribution Time	Language Family	Language Branch	Living/Dead
1	Tamil	2004	300 BCE-700 CE	Dravidian	South Dravidian	Living
2	Sanskrit	2005	~1500 BCE	Indo-European	Indo-Aryan	Dead
3	Kannada	2008	450-1200 CE	Dravidian	South Dravidian	Living
4	Telugu	2008	575 CE	Dravidian	South-Central Dravidian	Living
5	Malayalam	2013	~830 CE	Dravidian	South Dravidian	Living
6	Odia	2014	600-700 CE	Indo-European	Eastern Indo-Aryan	Living
7	Assamese	2024	600-700 CE	Indo-European	Eastern Indo-Aryan	Living
8	Bengali	2024	600-700 CE	Indo-European	Eastern Indo-Aryan	Living
9	Marathi	2024	500-700 CE	Indo-European	Southern Indo-Aryan	Living
10	Pali	2024	300-100 BCE	Indo-European	Middle Indo-Aryan	Dead
11	Prakrit	2024	500-100 BCE	Indo-European	Middle Indo-Aryan	Dead

What are Classical Languages of India?

The Classical Languages of India include Tamil, Sanskrit. Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Odia, Assamese, Bengali, Marathi, Pali and Prakrit:

Tamil

Tamil, recognised in 2004 as India’s first Classical Language, has one of the world’s longest continuous literary traditions. Its early texts date between 300 BCE and 700 CE. Tamil belongs to the Dravidian family and preserves ancient Sangam literature, grammar, poetry, and philosophy. Works like Tolkappiyam and the Sangam poems show the richness of early Tamil culture. Tamil inscriptions, manuscripts, and classical texts provide strong evidence of its antiquity and influence on South Indian society, arts, administration, and temple traditions.

Sanskrit

Sanskrit, recognised as a Classical Language in 2005, dates back to around 1500 BCE with Vedic literature. It is one of the world’s oldest Indo-European languages and contains sacred Hindu texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, epics, and philosophical works. Sanskrit shaped early Indian knowledge systems, including mathematics, astronomy, grammar, and medicine. Though considered a dead spoken language, it continues to thrive in scholarship, rituals, and classical studies. Its influence extends to many modern Indian languages due to its foundational literary and linguistic structure.

Kannada

Kannada, recognised as a Classical Language in 2008, has early records from 450-1200 CE. As a major Dravidian language, it carries a strong literary tradition reflected in inscriptions, poetry, and philosophical works. Old Kannada appears in Halmidi inscription and early literary compositions. Kannada later expanded with great writers, philosophers, and poets who shaped its cultural growth. Today, classical Kannada studies continue through Centres of Excellence, preserving manuscripts, editing texts, and promoting academic research to maintain the language’s historical and literary continuity across centuries.

Telugu

Telugu, recognised as a Classical Language in 2008, has written records from 575 CE. As a South-Central Dravidian language, it has a deep heritage built through poetry, philosophy, temple inscriptions, and grammatical works. Early grammar texts like Andhra Sabda Chintamani and prosody works like Kavijanasramam provide strong evidence of Telugu’s antiquity. The Centre for Classical Telugu has documented nearly 10,000 classical works, inscriptions, and temple records. Telugu continues to reflect cultural continuity while preserving ancient literary works for research and education.

Malayalam

Malayalam, granted Classical Language status in 2013, emerged around 830 CE. It is a Dravidian language with deep connections to early Tamil and later developed its own grammar, script, and literature. Classical Malayalam texts include poems, commentaries, and literary works written on palm leaves and stone inscriptions. The Centre for Classical Malayalam at Tirur works to preserve manuscripts, inscriptions, and ancient texts. Malayalam’s classical tradition remains influential in literature, performing arts, temple culture, and Kerala’s historical identity shaped across centuries.

Odia

Odia, recognised in 2014, has early works from the 600-700 CE period. As an Eastern Indo-Aryan language, Odia evolved with a strong literary and cultural base seen in inscriptions, mural paintings, palm-leaf manuscripts, and Apabhramsa forms. Classical Odia literature includes philosophical, religious, and poetic works. The Centre for Classical Odia works on documenting inscriptions, manuscripts, and archaeological sources. This strengthens the understanding of Odia’s long-standing heritage and its major contribution to eastern India’s intellectual, artistic, and cultural development.

Assamese

Assamese, recognised in 2024, traces its origin to Magadhi Apabhramsa, with development beginning around the 7th century AD. Its early influence is found in the Charyapadas, which show linguistic features of Assamese. Assamese evolved through inscriptions, literary works, and socio-cultural traditions of the Brahmaputra valley. The language has links with Bengali and Odia due to shared origins in Eastern Indo-Aryan languages. As one of India’s oldest regional languages, Assamese preserves heritage through poetry, texts, and historical sources reflecting early regional identity.

Bengali

Bengali, recognised in 2024, developed from Magadhi Prakrit and Apabhramsa traditions. With early records from 600-700 CE, Bengali later produced great literary works, including Charyapadas, epics, devotional literature, and modern writings. Bengal’s 19th and 20th century figures like Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra, and others shaped India’s national consciousness. Bengali literature contributed slogans like Jai Hind and Vande Mataram and produced India’s national anthem and national song. Its literary heritage influenced political, social, and intellectual movements across India for centuries.

Marathi

Marathi, recognised in 2024, has early roots from 500-700 CE and evolved from Maharastri Prakrit and Apabhramsa forms. With nearly 110 million speakers, it is one of the world’s major languages. Ancient inscriptions like the Naneghata inscription show its antiquity. Works like Gathasaptasati, Lilacharitra, and Jnanesvari reflect strong literary traditions. Marathi literature includes devotional works by saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, and Tukaram. Its historical continuity makes Marathi one of India’s most culturally influential and linguistically rich languages.

Pali

Pali, given Classical status in 2024, dates back to 300-100 BCE. It is central to Buddhist literature, containing the entire Tipitaka, including Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Pitakas. Pali was used by Buddha to deliver sermons, making it crucial for understanding ancient Indian thought. Jataka tales, inscriptions, and canonical texts preserve early social, ethical, and philosophical traditions. Although a dead language, Pali is studied globally in Buddhist countries, enabling reconstruction of ancient Indian history and spiritual traditions across Asia.

Prakrit

Prakrit, recognised in 2024, dates back to 500-100 BCE and represents a group of Middle Indo-Aryan languages. It shaped many modern Indian languages and appears in inscriptions of Ashoka, Kharavela, and early literary works. Scholars like Panini, Vararuchi, and Bharatmuni recognised Prakrit’s importance. Prakrit was used by Buddha and Mahavira to communicate with ordinary people. It influenced poetry, drama, philosophy, and sciences like astronomy and botany. Understanding Prakrit is essential to trace India’s linguistic, cultural, and literary evolution.

Also Read: National Symbols of India

Classical Languages of India Contributions

Classical Languages of India have contributed greatly to literature, philosophy, culture, and knowledge systems for thousands of years.

1. Tamil Contributions

Tamil has one of the world’s oldest continuous literary traditions, with texts dating over 2000 years. Key Contributions:

Sangam literature covering ethics, society, polity, and early Tamil culture.
Tirukkural offering universal moral teachings.
Devotional works of Alvars and Nayanmars shaping Bhakti philosophy.
Rich grammar tradition through Tolkappiyam.
Strong influence on art, temple inscriptions, and performing traditions.

2. Sanskrit Contributions

Sanskrit shaped Indian knowledge systems for over 3000 years through extensive philosophical, scientific, and literary works. Key Contributions:

Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas forming core Indian thought.
Classical dramas like Kalidasa’s works.
Foundational texts on astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and grammar (Panini’s Ashtadhyayi).
Rich epics- Ramayana and Mahabharata influencing society and culture.
Preserved in thousands of manuscripts across the country.

3. Telugu Contributions

Telugu has a millennium-old literary tradition with a strong poetic and courtly culture. Key Contributions:

Early copper plate inscriptions demonstrating linguistic maturity.
Classical poets like Nannaya, Tikkana, Errana shaping Telugu Mahabharata.
Rich devotional and musical literature under Vijayanagara rulers.
Development of classical prosody and distinctive musical metres.
Major contribution to temple inscriptions and regional histories.

4. Kannada Contributions

Kannada literature spans over 1500 years, beginning with early inscriptions and Jain poetic works. Key Contributions:

Kavirajamarga (850 CE) establishing early literary norms.
Rich Jain literature emphasising philosophy and poetry.
Medieval works by Pampa, Ranna, and Ponna forming the “three gems.”
Vachana movement of Basavanna promoting social reform.
Extensive inscriptional heritage contributing to historical knowledge.

5. Malayalam Contributions

Malayalam evolved from the western coastal dialects of Old Tamil and later developed its independent script and literature. Key Contributions:

Earliest Ramacharitam showing linguistic transition.
Manipravalam literature combining Tamil and Sanskrit influences.
Devotional poetry by Cherusseri and Ezhuthachan.
Advanced grammatical works like Lilatilakam.
Strong literary modernism from 19th century onward.

6. Odia Contributions

Odia has a documented history of more than 1500 years, with inscriptions and texts showing early maturity. Key Contributions:

Early Charyapada links demonstrating antiquity.
Sarala Mahabharata shaping Odia literary and cultural identity.
Works of Jagannath Das deeply influencing devotional tradition.
Temple inscriptions of Odisha preserving socio-political history.
Rich medieval poetry and philosophical writings.

7. Marathi Contributions

Marathi’s literary history spans over a thousand years, with roots going back 2500 years through Maharastri Prakrit and Apabhramsa. Key Contributions:

Gathasaptasati (1st century CE), one of the earliest poetic works.
Mature literature through Lilacharitra and Jnanesvari.
Numerous inscriptions, plates, and manuscripts showing early use.
Naneghata inscription proving ancient antiquity.
References in Vinayapitaka, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and works of Kalidasa.
Rich Bhakti literature by Sant Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram.

8. Pali Contributions

Pali played a central role in spreading Buddhist philosophy and documenting Indian cultural history. Key Contributions:

Buddha’s sermons forming the foundation of the language’s significance.
Complete Buddhist canon (Tipitaka) preserved in Pali.
Vinaya Pitaka laying monastic rules.
Sutta Pitaka preserving philosophical dialogues.
Abhidhamma Pitaka analysing knowledge, ethics, and mind.
Jataka tales illustrating moral and cultural traditions.
Primary source for reconstructing early Indian history.

9. Prakrit Contributions

Prakrit shaped major Indian languages and preserved cultural and philosophical traditions. Key Contributions:

Grammar shaped by scholars like Panini, Vararuchi, Samantbhadra.
Used by Buddha and Mahavira to communicate with masses.
Significant role in drama, poetry, philosophy, and sciences.
Influenced linguistic development of Hindi, Bengali, Marathi.
Inscriptions from Ashoka, Kharavela, and pre-Mauryan rulers preserved in Prakrit.
Recognized in Bharatmuni’s Natyashastra as language of common people.

10. Assamese Contributions

Assamese evolved from Magadhi Apabhramsa and developed a strong literary heritage. Key Contributions:

Charyapadas showing early Assamese vocabulary and structure.
Strong link with other eastern Indo-Aryan languages.
Growth in Assam valley from early medieval period.
Rich script and manuscript tradition.
Words, phonetics, and morphology preserved in modern Assamese.
Katha Gurucharit offering early references.

11. Bengali Contributions

Bengali possesses a vibrant literary tradition with deep cultural and political influence. Key Contributions:

Charyapada hymns (8th-12th century) forming early base.
Translations of Sanskrit epics marking early literature.
Bhakti movement led by Chaitanya shaping religious literature.
Masters like Mukunda Ram, Bharat Chandra shaping medieval works.
Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Vidyasagar shaping modern prose.
Tagore’s literature influencing national identity.
National Anthem and National Song emerging from Bengali poets.

Recently Added Classical Languages of India

In October 2024, the Government of India added five new languages- Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali, to the list of Classical Languages of India. These languages were recognised after meeting criteria such as high antiquity, ancient literature, inscriptions, and cultural influence. Their inclusion strengthens India’s linguistic heritage by acknowledging their historical importance. With these additions, India now has eleven Classical Languages, which has expanded research opportunities, preservation work, and national cultural recognition at academic and institutional levels. Recently Added Languages:

Marathi
Pali
Prakrit
Assamese
Bengali

Demands for Classical Language Status

Several languages with strong literary history continue to seek classical status because they meet major antiquity and cultural heritage requirements. Key Ongoing Demands on Classical Languages of India Status are for Meitei (Manipuri) and Maithili:

Meitei (Manipuri): A Sino-Tibetan language with a long and established literary tradition, supported by ancient Meitei texts.
Maithili: An Eastern Indo-Aryan language with roots in the 7th-8th centuries, shown through the Mandar Hill Sen inscription and the Charyapada.
Maithili has a rich heritage of epic poetry, philosophy, devotional works, and contributions by Vidyapati (14th century).
Spoken mainly in Mithila region of Bihar, Jharkhand, and Nepal, with Tirhuta as its traditional script.
Both languages are culturally significant but still not recognised as classical by the Government of India.

Classical Languages of India Criteria

The criteria for granting Classical Languages of India status evolved over time, reflecting the need to verify antiquity, literature, and historical linguistic evidence.

Criteria as of 2004:

Early texts must show over 1000 years of antiquity.
Rich ancient literature valued across generations.
Literary tradition must be original, not borrowed.

Revised Criteria as of 2005:

Antiquity raised to 1500-2000 years.
Clear distinction between classical and modern forms.

Updated Criteria as of 2024:

Evidence from prose, poetry, inscriptions, and knowledge texts.
Allows discontinuity between classical and later forms.
Assamese, Bengali, Marathi, Pali, Prakrit declared classical in 2024.
Expert Committee removed “originality” rule due to shared ancient influences.

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Classical Languages of India Benefits

Recognising a language as “classical” helps protect its ancient literature, promotes research, and ensures long-term preservation of manuscripts and traditional knowledge. This status also brings institutional support through specialized centres and expert-led academic programmes.

Encourages detailed research on ancient literature, inscriptions, and grammar.
Supports translation of classical texts into Indian and foreign languages.
Helps digitize old manuscripts with help from museums and archives.
Promotes interdisciplinary studies linking language with archaeology, history, epigraphy, and anthropology.
Creates university-level courses and research projects on classical languages.
Strengthens global awareness by establishing language chairs in international universities.
Improves accessibility by publishing texts in Braille and producing documentaries.
Protects linguistic heritage by supporting comparative grammar and dialect studies.
Two major international awards annually for eminent scholars.
Establishment of a Centre of Excellence for each classical language.
UGC to create Professional Chairs in universities for advanced research.
More jobs in teaching, research, archiving, and manuscript preservation.
Opportunities in translation, digitisation, publishing, and documentation.
Increased demand for scholars in epigraphy, linguistics, and classical studies.

Classical Languages of India Funding

The Indian government provides financial assistance to promote classical languages through dedicated centres, language universities, research projects, and manuscript preservation. These funds support research centres, digitisation of manuscripts, academic publications, training programmes, and translation projects.

Funding Details (Based on 2012-13 data):

Kannada: 0.25 million pounds
Telugu: 0.25 million pounds
Tamil: 0.745 million pounds
Sanskrit: 21.22 million pounds

Classical Languages of India Government Initiatives

Promotion of Classical Languages of India is carried out mainly through the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) and its specialized centres across India. Major Government Initiatives:

CIIL-led Promotion: Supports all classical languages through research, training, documentation, and academic activities.
Dedicated Centres: Centres of Excellence established for Classical Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia.
New Sanskrit Universities (2020):
- Central Sanskrit University (New Delhi)
- Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University (New Delhi)
- National Sanskrit University (Tirupati)
Support to Institutions: Funding for Adarsh Sanskrit Mahavidyalayas and Shodha Sansthans.
Classical Tamil Initiatives:
- Translation of Tolkāppiyam and 41 ancient Tamil texts.
- Tirukkural translated into 28 Indian and 30+ world languages, including Braille.
- Research on Dravidian grammar and Tamil dialects.
Classical Telugu Initiatives:
- Database of 10,000 classical epics, inscriptions, temple histories, village records.
- Editing and publishing Telugu inscriptions (Telugu Sasanaalu).
- Translation of early grammar texts (Andhra Sabda Chintamani, Kavijanasramam).
Classical Kannada Initiatives:
- Research, teaching, documentation, and dissemination activities.
- Publication of 7 books, 22 more ready for release.
- Translation of musical text Sankeerthana Lakshanam into Kannada.
Classical Odia Initiatives:
- Projects on inscriptions, mural paintings, archaeological remains, palm-leaf manuscripts.
- Compilation of references from ancient Odia texts.
Classical Malayalam Initiatives:
- Centre established at Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University, Kerala.
- Focus on research, documentation, and preservation of Malayalam’s classical heritage.

Classical Languages of India Court Cases

A legal challenge was brought questioning the official Classical Languages of Indiastatus of Malayalam and Odia.

In 2015, a lawyer from the Madras High Court filed a petition challenging the granting of classical language status to Malayalam and Odia.
The case continued for nearly one year, examining the criteria and recognition process.
In 2016, the Madras High Court dismissed the petition, upholding the official classical status of both languages.

Classical Languages of India UPSC

India’s Classical Languages reflect thousands of years of cultural, literary, and intellectual development. These languages preserve ancient texts, inscriptions, philosophical works, and historical knowledge that form the foundation of Indian civilisation. With eleven recognised Classical Languages, India shows strong commitment to linguistic preservation and academic research. Recent recognitions in 2024 highlight the inclusive approach toward diverse linguistic traditions. Continued government support ensures that these languages remain alive through education, research, digitisation, and cultural promotion for future generations.

Political involvement has influenced several demands for classical language recognition, with regional parties strongly advocating for their linguistic heritage. Tamil received support from DMK and the UPA, while Telugu was backed by TDP and the UPA at state and national levels. Kannada gained support from BJP and the UPA in Karnataka, and Odia was promoted by BJD with national approval. Bengali saw advocacy from TMC, BJP, and Amra Bangali, whereas Marathi was pushed by MNS, Shiv Sena, BJP, and INC.

Classical Languages of India FAQs

Q1: What are Classical Languages of India?

Ans: Classical Languages are those with high antiquity, rich ancient literature, and historical significance as defined by the Government of India.

Q2: How many Classical Languages are officially recognised?

Ans: India currently recognises 11 Classical Languages including Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali, and Marathi.

Q3: Who grants Classical Language status?

Ans: The Government of India, based on recommendations from an expert committee under the Ministry of Culture.

Q4: What benefits come with Classical Language status?

Ans: Benefits include Centres of Excellence, academic chairs in universities, international awards, and support for research and preservation.

Q5: Why do some languages still demand Classical status?

Ans: Some languages have rich histories but have not yet met or been evaluated under official criteria, leading to ongoing recognition demands.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters, List, History, Impact, Significance

November 19, 2025

India’s freedom struggle was shaped not only by movements, protests, and sacrifices but also by powerful slogans that inspired millions. These slogans created emotional unity, political awareness, and national identity during the long battle against British colonial rule. They helped mobilize masses, strengthen resistance, and communicate complex ideas in simple words. Many of these slogans continue to guide India even today, reminding us of the courage and vision of our freedom fighters.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters

Slogans were short, impactful statements used to motivate people, communicate political messages, and unify the masses. During the independence movement, leaders used slogans to demand freedom, oppose injustice, and awaken national consciousness. These slogans played a major role in public mobilization and collective action, making them an essential part of India’s political history.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters Historical Background

The use of Slogans of Freedom Fighters intensified during the major phases of India’s freedom movement. These slogans became symbolic expressions of resistance and courage.

Swadeshi Movement (1905): Use of slogans promoting indigenous goods.
Home Rule Movement (1916): Short political phrases encouraging self-rule.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Mass use of slogans for boycotts and unity.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): Slogans promoting salt satyagraha and national pride.
Quit India Movement (1942): The most powerful and unified slogans demanding immediate freedom.

Major Slogans of Freedom Fighters

The major Slogans of Freedom Fighters with their background and significance has been listed below:

“Do or Die”
- Given by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 during Quit India Movement.
- Called for complete commitment to independence.
- Aimed to push British rule out of India immediately.
“Satyameva Jayate”
- Promoted by Gandhi during social and political reform.
- Originally from the Mundaka Upanishad.
- Meaning- Truth Alone Triumphs
“Give me blood and I shall give you freedom”
- Delivered by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose at a rally in Burma in 1944.
- Encouraged Indians to join the INA.
“Jai Hind”
- Adopted by the INA under Bose.
- Earlier used by Chempakaraman Pillai
- Later became India’s national salutation.
“Inquilab Zindabad”
- Meaning- Long Live the Revolution
- Popularised by Bhagat Singh, used first by Maulana Hasrat Mohani.
- Became the rallying cry of revolutionary nationalism.
“Down with Imperialism”
- Used by Bhagat Singh during trials and writings.
- Represented resistance to colonial oppression.
“Simon Go Back”
- Lala Lajpat Rai delivered it during protests against the Simon Commission (1928).
- Became a symbol of rejecting imperial policies without Indian participation.
“Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it”
- Originally expressed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak popularised it widely.
“Aaram haram hai”
- Meaning- Rest is forbidden
- Used by Nehru to motivate youth for national service.
“Jana Gana Mana” (National Anthem)
- Delivered by Rabindranath Tagore
- A patriotic composition expressing India’s unity.
- Publicly adopted as the national anthem in 1950.
“Vande Mataram”
- Written in the novel Anandamath (1882) by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
- Became a national song inspiring Swadeshi and early nationalism.
“We will face bullets but will not bow before the British”
- Strongly associated with Chandrashekhar Azad’s revolutionary ideology.
“I am proud to die for my motherland”
- Ashfaqulla Khan expressed before his execution.
- Symbolised sacrifice and unity beyond religion.
“Quit India”
- Used widely by masses during the 1942 uprising.
“Britishers Leave India”
- Demonstrated urgency for independence.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters Classification

India’s freedom movement witnessed a wide range of slogans that inspired courage, unity, and resistance against British rule. These slogans can be understood better when grouped into meaningful categories, as each reflects a specific phase, emotion, or ideological direction of the struggle.

1. Revolutionary Nationalist Slogans

This category includes slogans that sparked aggressive resistance and encouraged people to rise against colonial oppression. They were powerful calls for immediate action and sacrifice.

Examples:

“Inquilab Zindabad”

“Vande Mataram”

2. Non-Violent Mass Mobilization Slogans

These slogans promoted peace, truth, and civil disobedience. They were central to movements like Non-Cooperation and Quit India, helping mobilize millions without violence.

Examples:

“Do or Die”

“Satyameva Jayate”

3. Social Reform and Unity Slogans

These slogans highlighted equality, harmony, and the need to break social barriers that weakened national unity.

Examples:

“Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna”

“Jai Hind”

Slogans of Freedom Fighters List

The List for the Slogans of Freedom Fighters based on the Personalities has been given below:

List of Freedom Fighters and Their Slogans
S. No.	Freedom Fighter	Slogans
1	Mahatma Gandhi	Do or Die- Quit India speech (1942) Satyameva Jayate (promoted from Mundaka Upanishad) Ahimsa Parmo Dharma (Gandhian principle) Sarvodaya My Life is My Message
2	Subhas Chandra Bose	Give Me Blood and I Shall Give You Freedom – INA speech Jai Hind (earlier used by Chempakaraman Pillai) Dilli Chalo It is Blood Alone That Can Avenge the Blood We Shall Not Rest Until Delhi Is Ours
3	Bhagat Singh	Inquilab Zindabad Down With Imperialism – leaflet trial papers Revolution is an Inalienable Right The Sword of Revolution is Sharpened on the Whetting-Stone of Ideas
4	Chandra Shekhar Azad	We Will Face Bullets but Will Not Bow I Will Never Be Captured Alive
5	Ram Prasad Bismil	Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna Ab Hamare Dil Mein Hai (coined by Bismil Azimabadi) Hum Desh Ke Liye Marenge
6	Ashfaqulla Khan	Our Blood Will Bring Freedom One Day
7	Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel	Work is Worship Forget Self for the Nation
8	Bal Gangadhar Tilak	Swaraj is My Birthright and I Shall Have It Freedom is Life
9	Lala Lajpat Rai	Simon Go Back Every Blow on My Body Will Break the Chains of Slavery
10	Bipin Chandra Pal	We shall be free not because we claim freedom, but because we practice it The meaning of Nationalism is not that one nation is against another, but that every nation is for itself
11	Gopal Krishna Gokhale	What Bengal Thinks Today, India Thinks Tomorrow
12	Jawaharlal Nehru	Aaram Haram Hai Unity is the Greatest Strength The Light Has Gone Out of Our Lives
13	Rabindranath Tagore	Jana Gana Mana Amar Sonar Bangla
14	Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay	Vande Mataram
15	Sri Aurobindo	India Will Rise, India Will Be Great Swaraj We Must Have
16	Annie Besant	Better remain silent, better not even think, if you are not prepared to act
17	Maulana Abul Kalam Azad	Unity is the Strength of India Hindustan is One Nation
18	Hasrat Mohani	Inquilab Zindabad (original coinage)
19	Mangal Pandey	Maaro Firangi Ko (war cry, 1857)
20	Rani Lakshmibai	Main Apni Jhansi Nahi Doongi
21	Tatya Tope	Desh Ke Liye Ladna Hai
22	Kunwar Singh	Chalo Dilli Angrezi Hatao
23	Bhikaji Cama	Vande Mataram (flag at Stuttgart, 1907)
24	Sukhdev Thapar	Freedom Demands Courage
25	Udham Singh	I Will Avenge Jallianwala Bagh
26	Matangini Hazra	Vande Mataram (last words)
27	Sarojini Naidu	Rise for Freedom
28	Birsa Munda	Abua Dishum, Abua Raj (Our Land, Our Rule)
29	C. Rajagopalachari	Peace Leads to Freedom
30	Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan	There is Nothing Greater than Peace
31	Vinayak Damodar Savarkar	Independence is never given, it is always taken Better to die fighting for freedom then be a prisoner all the days of your life An educated mind is the greatest weapon in the struggle for freedom
32	Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya	India is for Indians Let Education Build the Nation
33	Mahatma Jyotiba Phule	Education is the greatest weapon to eradicate social evils There cannot be a nation worth the name until and unless all the people of the land become truly educated
34	Dr. B. R. Ambedkar	Educate, Agitate, Organise Freedom of Mind is Real Freedom
35	Alluri Sitarama Raju	Fight Till Your Last Breath
36	Velu Nachiyar	Victory to My Land (battle cry)
37	Tiruppur Kumaran	Do Not Drop the National Flag
38	Surya Sen (Master-da)	Chittagong Will Be Free
39	Jatin Das	Death is Preferable to Surrender
40	Aruna Asaf Ali	March Forward With Courage
41	Durgawati Devi (Durga Bhabhi)	The Fight Must Continue
42	Tantia Bhil	We Shall Not Submit
43	Lakshmi Sahgal (INA)	March to Freedom
44	Captain Lakshmi (Azad Hind Fauj)	Women Will Fight for Freedom
45	Jhalkari Bai	Jhansi Will Never Fall
46	Chakali Ilamma	We Will Resist Oppression
47	Peer Ali Khan	We Shall Not Live as Slaves
48	Kanaklata Barua	Do Not Move, I Will Carry the Flag
49	Thakkar Bapa	Serve the Poor, Serve the Nation
50	Syama Prasad Mukherjee	Whatever work you undertake, do it seriously, thoroughly and well; never leave it half-done or undone Political and social justice requires... equality of opportunity for all
51	V. O. Chidambaram Pillai	Freedom Through Swadeshi
52	Lokenath Bal	Take Up Arms for Freedom
53	Benoy-Badal-Dinesh	Death Before Dishonour
54	Pritilata Waddedar	Down With Imperialism
55	Veerapandiya Kattabomman	We Shall Never Bow to the British

Slogans of Freedom Fighters Impact

The Impact of the Slogans of Freedom Fighters can be seen in several aspects as given below:

Political Impact
- United people against colonial policies.
- Strengthened the call for self-rule.
- Created emotional pressure on the British government.
Social Impact
- Spread awareness among illiterate masses.
- Brought diverse communities together.
- Built national identity and collective consciousness.
Psychological Impact
- Boosted courage in times of suppression.
- Made freedom fighters fearless.
- Converted passive citizens into active participants.
Cultural Impact
- Inspired literature, songs, and theatre.
- Helped create a nationalist cultural renaissance.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters Significance

Significance of Slogans of Freedom Fighters in India’s Freedom Movement is discussed here:

Made the freedom struggle accessible to the masses.
Strengthened emotional unity across regions.
Served as tools of peaceful and revolutionary resistance.
Created memorable symbols of national identity.
Guided strategies of both moderate and revolutionary movements.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters UPSC

Slogans were powerful weapons in India’s freedom struggle. They shaped the political mindset of the people, awakened national consciousness, and inspired sacrifices. Each slogan carried the emotions, courage, and determination of the leaders and common citizens who fought for independence. Even today, these slogans remain part of India’s collective memory, reminding us of the values of unity, bravery, truth, and patriotism that formed the foundation of modern India.

Slogans of Freedom Fighters FAQs

Q1: Which is the most famous slogan of the freedom struggle?

Ans: "Vande Mataram" and "Inquilab Zindabad" are among the most iconic slogans of India’s freedom movement.

Q2: Who gave the slogan “Do or Die”?

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi announced it during the Quit India Movement in 1942.

Q3: Which slogan is associated with Subhas Chandra Bose?

Ans: “Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom” and “Jai Hind”.

Q4: Who popularised “Swaraj is my birthright”?

Ans: Bal Gangadhar Tilak made the slogan widely popular.

Q5: What role did slogans play in the freedom movement?

Ans: They united people, spread political awareness, and built emotional strength against British rule.

Lachit Borphukan (1622-1672), Biography, Battles, Statue, Death

November 19, 2025

Lachit Borphukan was a legendary general of the Ahom Kingdom (in present-day Assam) in the 17th century, best remembered for his daring leadership in the Battle of Saraighat (1671), where he defeated a strong Mughal naval force. His life has become a powerful symbol of courage, patriotism, and Assam’s resistance to external invasion. Over time, his legacy has been celebrated widely in Assam, and his memory continues to inspire.

Lachit Borphukan

Lachit Borphukan (born 24 November 1622, died 25 April 1672) was a top military commander of the Ahom Kingdom, holding the high rank of Borphukan (viceroy of western Assam) and commander-in-chief of the Ahom army. He is especially famous for leading the Ahom forces to victory at the Battle of Saraighat in 1671, which successfully resisted Mughal expansion into Assam.

Lachit Borphukan Biography

Lachit was born into an influential Ahom family. His father was Momai Tamuli Borbarua, an important official in the Ahom court, and his mother was Nang Lacheng Aaideu. He was trained in both statecraft and military matters from a young age, developing a strong sense of loyalty to the Ahom king and kingdom.

He rose through the ranks over time: he held roles such as Ghora Barua and Dolakasharia Barua, which involved command over horses and the royal guard. His rise culminated in his appointment as Borphukan, a position with military, administrative, and judicial duties, particularly over western Assam (region around Kaliabor).

Lachit Borphukan Military Career

Lachit’s military career was defined by the ongoing conflict between the Ahom Kingdom and the Mughal Empire. He participated in earlier skirmishes and battles, including confrontations at Dikhaumukh against Mir Jumla’s forces.

Over time, the Mughal threat grew stronger, and the Ahom rulers recognized the need for a capable military leader. Under King Chakradhwaj Singha, Lachit was appointed commander-in-chief to lead operations against Mughal encroachments.

Lachit Borphukan Battles

In August 1667, Lachit established his base in Kaliabor and launched a campaign to retake Guwahati, which had been under Mughal control. After several battles, he successfully recaptured Guwahati (Itakhuli) in November 1667.However, not all early battles were successful.

The Battle of Alaboi (1669)

In 1669, there was the Battle of Alaboi, fought in the Alaboi Hills near Guwahati. According to historical sources, the Ahom army suffered heavy losses, as many as 10,000 Ahom soldiers died. This defeat was painful, but Lachit used the experience to refine his strategies.

The Battle of Saraighat (1671)

The Battle of Saraighat, fought in March 1671, is Lachit Borphukan’s most celebrated military achievement. The Mughals, led by Ram Singh I of Jaipur and acting under orders from Emperor Aurangzeb, launched a massive assault by river on the Ahom territories. He devised excellent riverine warfare tactics. He used guerrilla warfare, smaller, fast-moving boats, and made intelligent use of the Brahmaputra’s narrow channels to neutralize the Mughal numerical and artillery advantages. According to some accounts, he even built an earthen embankment overnight to direct Mughal forces where he wanted them.

At a critical moment, despite being gravely ill, Lachit arrived on a war boat to rally his demoralized troops. His presence reignited their morale, and the Ahom forces launched a fierce counterattack. His bold leadership brought a decisive victory, the Mughals were forced to retreat beyond the Manas River. This win not only saved the Ahom kingdom from Mughal domination but also secured Assam’s political independence for many years.

Lachit Borphukan’s Death

Lachit Borphukan died on 25 April 1672, only about a year after his greatest victory. He passed away in Kaliabor, and his body was buried in a maidam (Ahom-style burial mound) at Holongapar, Jorhat in Assam. Over the centuries, his memory has grown into a symbol of Assamese pride and resistance. In modern Assam, his birthday (24 November) is celebrated as Lachit Divas. The National Defence Academy (NDA) in India honors him by awarding the Lachit Barphukan Gold Medal to its best graduating cadet each year.

There is also a 125-foot bronze Lachit Borphukan Statue in Jorhat, unveiled to commemorate his valor. A memorial park near Guwahati, the Saraighat War Memorial Park, keeps his legacy alive.

Lachit Borphukan Statue

The Lachit Borphukan Statue, also called the “Statue of Valour,” is a 125-foot bronze monument unveiled by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 9 March 2024 at Hollongapar (Teok) in Jorhat district, Assam. The statue itself stands 84 feet tall and is placed on a 41-foot pedestal. It was sculpted by renowned artist Ram Vanji Sutar, who also created the Statue of Unity. The memorial complex includes not just the monument but also a museum and auditorium, making it a major heritage and tourist site.

Lachit Borphukan in Contemporary World

Lachit’s life is more than a military story. He is deeply woven into the cultural and political identity of Assam. For many, he represents the spirit of Assamese autonomy and resistance against outside rule.

Some historical debate surrounds the way his legacy has been used. While many celebrate him as a unifying, secular hero, others argue that modern political narratives sometimes try to cast him in increasingly communal or religious terms, which distorts the more complex historical reality. Still, his story remains central in Assam’s public memory. His tomb (maidam) at Holongapar is a pilgrimage site, and the annual celebrations reinforce his heroic status.

Lachit Borphukan Significance

The significance of Lachit Borphukan’s Life can be studied as:

Military brilliance: He masterfully combined guerrilla tactics, riverine strategy, and terrain knowledge to defeat a stronger force.
Strategic leadership: He showed extraordinary discipline, motivating his soldiers even when seriously ill.
Patriotic sacrifice: Lachit famously executed his own uncle (who was in charge of river fortifications) for negligence, declaring, “My uncle is not greater than my country.”
Symbol of Assamese autonomy: He has become a powerful icon for Assam’s historical resistance to external domination.
Cultural hero: Through memorials, annual observances, and awards, his legacy continues to inspire generations.

Lachit Borphukan Legacy

Lachit Borphukan remains one of the greatest heroes in the history of Assam and India. His life combined administrative skill, a deep sense of duty, and unmatched military courage. By leading the Ahom army to victory in the Battle of Saraighat, he not only defended his kingdom but also created a lasting legacy of resistance, patriotism, and strategic genius. Today, he stands as a timeless symbol of Assam’s valor and the power of leadership rooted in commitment to one’s land.

Lachit Borphukan UPSC

This year on 24th November, it will mark the 403rd birth anniversary of Lachit Borphukan. Recently, Lachit Borphukan is in the news because the Indian Army has recently established the Lachit Borphukan Military Station at Bamunigaon in Dhubri district, Assam, as part of a major strategic reinforcement of India’s eastern frontier. This move comes amid shifting regional dynamics, security concerns linked to changes in Bangladesh, and China’s expanding activities near the Siliguri Corridor. The new station, along with forward bases at Kishanganj and Chopra, is intended to boost surveillance, operational readiness, and coordination with the BSF in this sensitive region. The station has been named in honour of Lachit Borphukan to reflect his legacy of defence and leadership.

Indian Army establishes the Lachit Borphukan Military Station in Dhubri, Assam.
Part of three new garrisons near the vulnerable Siliguri Corridor.
Enhances surveillance, readiness, and coordination with the BSF along the India-Bangladesh border.
Lt. Gen. R. C. Tiwari reviewed progress and laid the foundation stone of the station.
Naming honours Lachit Borphukan’s historic leadership in protecting Assam.

Lachit Borphukan FAQs

Q1: Who was Lachit Borphukan?

Ans: Lachit Borphukan was a 17th-century Ahom military commander known for leading the Ahom Army to victory in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.

Q2: What is Lachit Borphukan famous for?

Ans: He is most famous for defeating the Mughal forces at the Battle of Saraighat, a major naval battle fought on the Brahmaputra River.

Q3: When was Lachit Borphukan born?

Ans: He was born on 24 November 1622 in the Ahom Kingdom, according to historical records.

Q4: Where is Lachit Borphukan buried?

Ans: He is buried at Lachit Borphukan’s Maidam in Holongapar, Jorhat district of Assam.

Q5: Why is Lachit Borphukan remembered today?

Ans: He is remembered as a symbol of Assamese courage and leadership, representing resistance against Mughal expansion and dedication to his homeland.

Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution, List & other Details

November 19, 2025

Fundamental Rights are discussed in Articles 12 to 35 of the Indian Constitution, form the foundation of India's democratic structure. These Fundamental Rights ensure essential freedoms and protect individuals from arbitrary state action. There are six fundamental rights, including the Right to Life, Right to Dignity, and Right to Education, which safeguard the dignity and liberty of every citizen. Recognized as a crucial part of the Constitution, Part III of the Indian Constitution is often referred to as the "Magna Carta of India" due to its role in upholding justice, equality, and personal freedoms.

Fundamental Rights

The Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution are applied to all individuals, ensuring equality and protection without discrimination. These rights were introduced to ensure equality, freedom, and protection for all individuals, regardless of background and preventing any misuse of power by the state. The Fundamental Rights ensures that the country is governed by laws, not by individuals, protecting citizens from arbitrary actions by the authorities.

Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution

Initially, The Indian Constitution includes 7 Fundamental Rights. The Right to Property was originally a Fundamental Right, but was removed by the 44th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978. It is now classified as a legal right under Article 300-A in Part XII of the Constitution.

Right to Equality (Articles 14–18): Ensures equal treatment before the law and prohibits discrimination.
Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22): Grants freedoms such as speech, expression, and movement while protecting individuals' rights in legal matters.
Right Against Exploitation (Articles 23–24): Prohibits human trafficking, forced labor, and child labor.
Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28): Guarantees the freedom to practice, profess, and propagate any religion.
Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30): Protects the cultural and educational rights of minorities.
Right to Constitutional Remedies (Articles 32–35): Empowers citizens to seek enforcement of Fundamental Rights through the Supreme Court and High Courts.

List of Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution

The Fundamental Rights of India are discussed in Part III of the Constitution (Articles 12 to 35). These rights serve as essential safeguards, ensuring the protection of individuals from any unjust actions by the state.

List of Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution
Fundamental Rights	Articles
Right to equality	(a) Article 14 - Equal protection of laws and Equality before law. (b) Article 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, caste, sex, place of birth or race. (c) Article 16 - Equality of opportunity in terms of public employment. (d) Article 17 - Abolition of untouchability and prohibition of its practice. (e) Article 18 - Abolition of titles except military and academic.
Right to freedom	(a) Article 19 - Protection of six rights regarding freedom of: (i) speech and expression, (ii) assembly, (iii) association, (iv) movement, (v) residence, and (vi) profession (b) Article 20 - Protection in a conviction for offences. (c) Article 21 - Protection of life and personal liberty. (d)Article 21A - Right to elementary education. (e) Article 22 - Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against exploitation	(a) Article 23 - Prohibition of traffic in forced labour and human beings. (b) Article 24 - Prohibition of employment of children in Companies and factories, etc.
Right to freedom of religion	(a) Article 25 - Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion. (b) Article 26 - Freedom to manage religious affairs. (c) Article 27 - Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any religion or religious affairs. (d) Article 28 - Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship in certain educational institutions
Cultural and educational rights	(a) Article 29 - Protection of language, script and culture of minorities. (b) Article 30 - Rights of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
Right to constitutional remedies	(a) Article 32 - Right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of fundamental rights including the writs of Habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto (b) Article 33 - Provides the Parliament with the authority to limit or abolish the fundamental rights of “Members of the Armed Forces, paramilitary forces, police forces, intelligence agencies, and analogous forces”. (c) Article 34 - Provides for the restrictions on fundamental rights while martial law(military rule) is in force. (d) Article 35 - Empowers the Parliament to make laws on Fundamental Rights.

Fundamental Rights in India

The Indian Constitution grants its citizens 6 Fundamental Rights, ensuring justice, equality, and freedom in various aspects of life. Below is a detailed breakdown of these rights:

Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)

Right to Equality guarantees that all individuals are treated equally under the law and enjoy equal protection.
It prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
It ensures equal opportunities in public employment, abolishes untouchability, and prohibits the use of titles except for military and academic distinctions.

Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)

Right to Freedom includes safeguards against arbitrary punishment and unlawful detention. The State is also responsible for providing free and compulsory education to children aged 6 to 14 years. The Right to Freedom includes six essential freedoms for Indian citizens:

Freedom of speech and expression
Freedom to assemble peacefully
Freedom to form associations or unions
Freedom to move freely within India
Freedom to reside and settle anywhere in the country
Freedom to practice any profession or business

Right Against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)

Right Against Exploitation protects individuals from forced labor, human trafficking, and child labor. It strictly prohibits children under 14 years of age from working in hazardous industries, such as factories and mines.

Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)

Every individual in India has the freedom to practice, profess, and propagate any religion of their choice. Religious groups also have the right to:

Establish and manage religious institutions
Handle their religious affairs independently
Own and manage property for religious purposes
Be exempt from paying taxes specifically for religious promotion

Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)

Cultural and Educational Rights safeguard the cultural, linguistic, and educational interests of minorities. They ensure:

The right to preserve one’s language, culture, and heritage
Equal access to educational institutions without discrimination
The right of minorities to establish and administer their own educational institutions

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Articles 32–35)

Right to Constitutional Remedies is called the "Heart and Soul of the Constitution" as it empowers citizens to approach the courts if their fundamental rights are violated. Under this, the Supreme Court (Article 32) and High Courts (Article 226) can issue five types of writs to protect rights:

Habeas Corpus – To prevent unlawful detention.
Mandamus – To compel a public official to perform their duty.
Prohibition – To stop lower courts from exceeding their jurisdiction.
Certiorari – To quash an illegal order or decision of a lower court.
Quo Warranto – To challenge a person’s authority in holding a public office.

Fundamental Rights for Indian Citizens and Not for Foreigners

Apart from Fundamental Rights, the Indian Constitution provides certain rights that are applicable only for Indian citizens and not for foreigners which includes the below mentioned rights.

Fundamental Rights for Indian Citizens and Not for Foreigners
Articles	Fundamental Rights
Article 15	Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
Article 16	Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
Article 19.	Protection of six rights regarding freedom of : (i) speech and expression, (ii) assembly, (iii) association, (iv) movement, (v) residence, and (vi) profession
Article 21	Protection of life and personal liberty
Article 30	Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions

Fundamental Rights for both Indian Citizens and Foreigners

Apart from Fundamental Rights, the Indian Constitution includes certain rights that are applicable to both Indian citizens and foreigners (except enemy aliens). These rights ensure legal protection, equality, and access to justice for everyone residing in India.

Fundamental Rights for both Indian Citizens and Foreigners
Articles	Fundamental Rights
Article 14	Equality before the law and equal protection of laws
Article 20	Protection in respect of conviction for offences
Article 21	Protection of life and personal liberty
Article 21A	Right to elementary education
Article 22	Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
Article 23	Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
Article 24	Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc.
Article 25	Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion
Article 26	Freedom to manage religious affairs.
Article 27	Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any religion
Article 28	Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship in certain educational institutions)

Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: Are there 6 or 7 fundamental rights in India?

Ans: There are six fundamental rights that include right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and right to constitutional remedies.

Q2: What are the fundamental rights from article 14 to 32?

Ans: Right to equality (Article 14–18) Right to freedom (Article 19–22) Right against exploitation (Article 23–24) Right to freedom of religion (Article 25–28).

Q3: Who is called the father of fundamental rights?

Ans: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel considered as the father of Fundamental rights in India.

Q4: What is the Article 14 to 18?

Ans: Right to Equality is the Article 14 to 18.

Q5: What is Article 51A G?

Ans: Article 51A (g) places a duty on the citizens of India to protect and improve the natural environment and have compassion for all living creatures.

New Initiatives to Improve the Public Distribution System (PDS)

November 19, 2025

New Initiatives to Improve the Public Distribution System Latest News

The Union Food and Public Distribution Ministry recently launched several digital initiatives aimed at modernising warehousing operations, improving supply chain efficiency, and enhancing transparency across the Public Distribution System (PDS).

About Anna Sahayata Holistic AI Solution (ASHA)

It is an AI-based platform that allows Public Distribution System (PDS) beneficiaries to share their feedback on ration distribution through AI-enabled calls in their preferred language.
It was introduced by the Department of Food and Public Distribution.
The platform runs at a cost of ₹5 lakh.
ASHA reaches 20 lakh beneficiaries monthly across India, developed in partnership with the Wadhwani Foundation and backed by the India AI mission via Bhashini’s multilingual AI infrastructure.
Through ASHA, beneficiaries can report whether they received their full entitlement, the quality of foodgrains, and any difficulty faced at Fair Price Shops.
The system uses multilingual translation, sentiment analysis, automated grievance categorisation, and real-time dashboards for administrators.

About Bhandaran 360

It is the Central Warehousing Corporation’s new Enterprise Resource Planning platform.
Implemented ahead of schedule, the system integrates 41 modules covering HR, finance, marketing, warehouse management, contract management, project monitoring, and other core functions.
It is also linked with 35 external systems, including ICEGATE, port systems, FCI, NAFED, NCCF, and WDRA, enabling seamless digital connectivity across the food storage and movement ecosystem.
The New System Introduces:
- Single Sign-On and role-based access to improve security and reduce manual dependency.
- End-to-end data encryption and audit trails.
- Real-time dashboards showing operations from warehouse level to corporate level.
- Automated workflows with Chatbots and RPA to improve turnaround time.
- Predictive analytics for faster decision-making
The upgraded platform also adds several new features such as a lead and marketing management module, integrated HRMS, project planning, SAP FICO, smart material management, biometric and geo-tagged attendance, a mobile app for measurement books, and strengthened contract monitoring.

About Smart EXIM Warehouse System

It was introduced by the Central Warehousing Corporation for container freight stations and general warehouses.
This system uses AI, IoT, FASTag, OCR/ANPR, GNSS, and other technologies to automate key processes.
Major Components:
- Gate Automation System integrated with port and rail systems for auto-fetching vehicle and container details, FASTag-based entry, and automatic record generation
- Yard Management with Digital Twin, providing real-time tracking of containers and equipment and optimizing movement inside the yard
- Smart Inventory Management, which counts and tracks cargo in real time and auto-updates records with ERP-WMS integration.

About ANNA DARPAN

It was introduced by the Food Corporation of India (FCI).
It is a new microservices-based platform that replaces the existing Depot Online System.
It connects key activities such as procurement, storage, movement, sales, quality checks, labour management and contract monitoring under one integrated system.
It serves as a single unified source of truth for both FCI and the Department of Food and Public Distribution.
Key Features:
- A mobile-first design for anytime access.
- Smooth integration with internal and external systems for uniform data.
- Real-time dashboards across mandis, depots, railheads, and offices.
- A single, reliable information flow for faster decisions and improved transparency.
The platform is expected to significantly improve the efficiency of India’s food supply chain.

Source: TH

New Initiatives to Improve the Public Distribution System (PDS) FAQs

Q1: What is the main purpose of the Anna Sahayata Holistic AI Solution (ASHA)?

Ans: Enable PDS beneficiaries to provide feedback through AI-enabled calls.

Q2: What is Bhandaran 360 in the context of warehousing?

Ans: It is the Central Warehousing Corporation’s new Enterprise Resource Planning platform.

Q3: Which technologies power the Smart EXIM Warehouse System’s automation?

Ans: This system uses AI, IoT, FASTag, OCR/ANPR, GNSS, and other technologies to automate key processes.

Q4: What is ANNA DARPAN platform?

Ans: It is a new microservices-based platform that replaces the existing Depot Online System.

Raulane Festival

November 19, 2025

Raulane Festival Latest News

Bright, colourful, and quite fascinating photos of the Raulane festival from Himachal Pradesh recently went viral on social media, with users discussing the unique ritual and culture of a centuries-old tradition.

About Raulane Festival

It is a traditional festival celebrated in Kalpa, Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh, in winter or early spring.
It is believed to be around 5,000 years old.
This ancient festival honours celestial fairies, known as Saunis, said to be radiant and gentle beings.
Locals believe that the Saunis protect villagers during harsh winters by offering warmth and guidance.
During the festival, two men symbolically "marry" and become vessels for the Saunis, embodying a divine couple, the Raula (groom) and the Raulane (bride).
They get dressed in heavy woollen robes, ornaments and unique face masks.
They also perform a slow, meditative dance at the Nagin Narayan Temple, and the whole community joins in.
The Raulane festival preserves ancient Himalayan culture and traditions, with villagers coming together to honour their protectors.

Source: NDTV

Raulane Festival FAQs

Q1: The Raulane Festival is traditionally celebrated in which region?

Ans: Kalpa in Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh

Q2: The Raulane Festival is believed to be approximately how old?

Ans: 5,000 years

Q3: The Raulane festival is dedicated to which celestial beings?

Ans: Raulane festival honours celestial fairies, known as Saunis, said to be radiant and gentle beings.

Q4: During Raulane, two men symbolically “marry” to represent which figures?

Ans: A divine couple, the Raula (groom) and the Raulane (bride).

Tetrachloroethylene

November 19, 2025

Tetrachloroethylene Latest News

Researchers have identified that Tetrachloroethylene commonly used in dry cleaning and household items could lead to a 3x increased risk of liver diseases.

About Tetrachloroethylene

It appears as a clear colorless volatile liquid having an ether-like odor.
It is noncombustible and insoluble in water.
Other names for tetrachloroethylene include perchloroethylene, PCE, perc, tetrachloroethene, and perchlor
Health Impacts: Exposure to very high concentrations of tetrachloroethylene can cause dizziness headaches, sleepiness, incoordination confusion, nausea, unconsciousness, and even death.

How does it enter the Environment?

It breaks down very slowly in the air and so it can be transported long distances in the air.
It evaporates quickly from water into air. It is generally slow to break down in water.
It is generally slow to break down in soil.
It can also seep into soil and groundwater through factory waste or improper disposal, making drinking water another potential source of exposure.

Applications of Tetrachloroethylene

It is used to remove grease in industrial and household settings.
It is widely used for dry cleaning of fabrics
It is also used to make other chemicals and is used in some consumer products.

Source: HT

Tetrachloroethylene FAQs

Q1: What is the use of tetrachloroethylene?

Ans: It is used as a degreasing agent in vapour and liquid forms.

Q2: What is the primary route of exposure to Tetrachloroethylene?

Ans: Inhalation is the most common route of exposure to Tetrachloroethylene.

Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS)

November 19, 2025

Antiphospholipid Syndrome Latest News

A 29-year-old man with a rare autoimmune condition, antiphospholipid syndrome, survived a second stroke and simultaneous clots in his heart and leg after a coordinated emergency intervention at a Chennai city hospital.

About Antiphospholipid Syndrome

It is a rare autoimmune condition in which the immune system mistakenly makes certain abnormal antibodies that attack tissues in the body.
These antibodies target proteins attached to fat molecules (phospholipids), which makes the blood more likely to clot.
APS can cause blood clots to form in arteries and veins.
- Blood clots can form in the legs, lungs, and other organs, such as the kidneys and spleen.
- The clots can lead to heart attack, stroke, and other conditions.
During pregnancy, APS also can result in miscarriage and stillbirth.
Some people who have the antibodies may not have any symptoms.
There's no cure for this uncommon condition, but medicines can reduce the risk of blood clots and miscarriage.
It is more common in women than in men.
Having another autoimmune condition, such as systemic lupus erythematosus or other connective tissue diseases, increases the risk of APS.

Source: TH

Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS) FAQs

Q1: What type of medical condition is Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS)?

Ans: A rare autoimmune condition involving abnormal antibodies.

Q2: What do the antibodies in Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS) primarily target?

Ans: Proteins attached to phospholipids.

Q3: What is the major complication of Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS)?

Ans: Formation of blood clots in arteries and veins.

Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal

November 19, 2025

Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal Latest News

Recently, the Union Minister of Commerce and Industry launched the Trade Intelligence & Analytics (TIA) Portal in New Delhi.

About Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal

It is a one-stop trade intelligence and analytics platform that integrates multiple global and national databases.
It is developed by the Department of Commerce, Minister of Commerce and Industry.

Features of Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal

It serves as a centralized digital hub that consolidates diverse trade databases—both global and bilateral—into a single integrated system.
It is designed to enhance trade analytics and foster data-driven evidence-based policymaking through a comprehensive and integrated platform.
It offers more than 270 interactive visualisations across over 28 dashboards.
It provides real-time, interactive insights on India and global trade, commodities and sectoral analytics, market intelligence.
It also includes automated trade reports and tracking of trade trends for the production-linked incentive (PLI) sectors and critical minerals.
It also provides tools to compare and contrast macroeconomic, trade and investment indicators across countries.
It incorporates trade indices such as
- Trade Complementarity Index: It assesses alignment between India’s export profile and partner countries’ import needs.
- Revealed Comparative Advantage index: It highlights products where India holds a competitive edge.
- Trade Intensity Index: It measures the strength of bilateral trade relationships relative to global flows.
Significance: Its new and more exhaustive capabilities of the TIA Portal significantly improve accessibility and usability of trade data at one place.

Source: PIB

Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal FAQs

Q1: What is the primary objective of the Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal?

Ans: To provide real-time trade data and analytics.

Q2: Which department developed the Trade Intelligence and Analytics Portal?

Ans: Department of Commerce

Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale

November 19, 2025

Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale Latest News

Recently, a team of scientists has spotted the rare ginkgo-toothed beaked whales (Mesoplodon ginkgodens) for the first time in the wild along the coast of Baja California in Mexico.

About Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale

It is one of 24 species of beaked whales, which are the second most diverse group of cetaceans after dolphins.
Distribution: It resides in tropical and temperate waters throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Appearance of Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale

It has a robust body and is less heavily scarred than other beaked whales.
The flippers are small, pointed and narrow.
It has a pair of distinguishing ginkgo-shaped teeth, one on each side of the lower jaw towards the middle of the beak.

Characteristics of Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale

These beaked whales are the deepest-diving mammals on Earth.
They spend most of their lives in the oceans, only coming to the surface for air for a few minutes at a time, usually far away from coastlines.
They are very shy and easily frightened when approached by a boat.

Conservation Status of Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale

IUCN Red List: Data Deficient
CITES: Appendix II

Source: IE

Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale FAQs

Q1: What is distinctive about the Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale's teeth?

Ans: They are shaped like a ginkgo leaf.

Q2: What is the conservation status of the Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale?

Ans: Data Deficient

Viscose Staple Fibre

November 19, 2025

Viscose Staple Fibre Latest News

Recently, the Central Government has revoked the Quality Control Order (QCO) requirement for Viscose Staple Fibre (VSF) with immediate effect.

About Viscose Staple Fibre

It is a natural and biodegradable fiber which has characteristics that are similar to cotton.
It is produced by regenerating natural materials, such as cotton linter or wood pulp.

Production Process of Viscose Staple Fibre

It is made by processing cellulose xanthate, (main constituent of plant cell walls) which is extracted from wood and plant fibres into a viscous liquid.
It is then subjected to a series of chemical processes to make a fibre.

Characteristics of Viscose Staple Fibre

It is used as a substitute for cotton or polyester due to its favorable properties, such as good breathability, high moisture absorbency, and comfort.
It is a versatile fibre which blends very well with other fibres.
It has excellent colour retention capacity and is relatively light.
Chemically, viscose resembles cotton, but it can also take on many different qualities depending on its manufacture.

Applications of Viscose Staple Fibre

It is a highly versatile material that is widely adopted in the fashion & apparel industry.
It is widely used for home textiles, dress materials, knitted wear and non-woven applications.

Source: News On Air

Viscose Staple Fibre FAQs

Q1: Which country is a major producer of Viscose Staple Fibre?

Ans: China

Q2: What is viscose staple fiber?

Ans: It is a biodegradable fiber derived from natural sources that shares similarities with cotton.

What is National Institute of Indian Medical Heritage (NIIMH)?

November 19, 2025

About National Institute of Indian Medical Heritage (NIIMH):

The NIIMH, formerly known as the National Center of Indian Medical Heritage (NCIMH), provides resource materials for historians, scientists, and other workers who are interested in studying and documenting the historical aspects of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, Homoeopathy, and Sowa Rigpa (AYUSH), along with Modern Medicine.
It came into existence as the Upgraded Department of History of Medicine from 26-09-1956 under the Govt. of Andhra Pradesh and was handed over to Govt. of India on 14-02-1969 due to its national and international importance.
The institute is functioning under the administrative control of the Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS), Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India.
This Institute, which is only of its kind in South East / Asia is located in Dilsuknagar, Hyderabad.
Mandate:
- Literary Research and Documentation
- Revival and retrieval of texts from Ancient manuscripts and rare books
- Search and Collection of information, descriptive notes, editing and publication of rare medical manuscripts/books on AYUSH.
- Documentation
- Ayurveda Encyclopedia
- Museum on History of Medicine
- Referral library on AYUSH Systems of Medicine and modern medicine.
- AYUSH Research Portal
- CCRAS-Research Management Information System
- National AYUSH Morbidity and Standardized Terminoligies Electronic - Portal.
- Development of W.H.O International Terminologies of Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani.
- Development of SNOMED CT National Extension for Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani.
It has global access owing to its enormous collection of research materials on History of Medicine.
The institute has aMedico-Historical Library, Museum and Documentation section.
The Institute's library is unique with collection of more than 10,000 books, which include very rare publications date back to 15th century on History of Medicine & allied subjects in various languages and serving to medical fraternity as research referral centre.
It has complete collection of standard National & International Journal on History of Medicine since its inception.
The institute also publishes the Journal of Indian Medical Heritage.

Q1: What is WHO-Collaborating Centre (CC)?

By definition, a WHO collaborating centre is an institution designated by the Director-General of WHO to form part of an international collaborative network set up by WHO in support of its programme at the country, intercountry, regional, interregional and global levels. In line with the WHO policy and strategy of technical cooperation, a WHO collaborating centre also participates in the strengthening of country resources, in terms of information, services, research and training, in support of national health development.Designation is made with the agreement of the head of the establishment to which the institution is attached or with that of the director of the institution, if it is independent, and after consultation with the national government.

Sources: WHO collaborates with Hyderabad-based NIIMH for traditional medicine research

Vice President Removal

November 19, 2025

About the Vice President of India

Constitutional status: The Vice President holds the position of the second-highest constitutional office in India, after the President.
- Article 63 of the Constitution mandates the existence of the Vice President's office.
- The Vice President of India serves a dual role, modelled on the lines of the American Vice President.
Eligibility criteria: According to Article 66 of the Constitution, a person must meet the following conditions to be eligible for the office of Vice President:
- The candidate must be an Indian citizen.
- The individual must be at least 35 years of age.
- The candidate must be qualified to be elected as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
- The candidate must not hold any office of profit under the Union, state government, or any local or public authority.

Election Process

The Vice President is elected through a proportional representation system by an electoral college that includes both elected and nominated members of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. This differs from the Presidential election process, which also includes state legislative assemblies.
The election is conducted using a single transferable vote system, and voting is carried out by secret ballot.
Any doubts or disputes regarding the election of the Vice President are adjudicated by the Supreme Court, and its decision is final.

Tenure and Removal

Tenure: The Vice President serves a five-year term, starting from the date they assume office.
- The Vice President can continue in office until a successor takes charge, even after the completion of the term.
- The Vice President is eligible for re-election.
Resignation: The Vice President can resign by submitting a formal resignation letter to the President of India.
Removal process: According to Article 67(b), the Vice President can be removed through a resolution passed by the Rajya Sabha with an effective majority (majority of all the then members).
- This resolution must also be agreed to by the Lok Sabha with a simple majority.
- A 14-day notice is required before moving the resolution.

Q1: What is impeachment?

Impeachment is the process by which the President of India can be removed from office for "violation of the Constitution." It is a quasi-judicial procedure initiated by Parliament, requiring a special majority in both Houses after thorough investigation and discussion.

News: Opposition moves resolution to remove Vice-President Jagdeep Dhankhar from office - The Hindu

African Swine Fever

November 19, 2025

African Swine Fever Latest News

The Assam Government recently banned the inter-District movement of live pigs in the State to arrest the spread of African swine fever, a highly contagious and lethal disease.

About African Swine Fever

It is a highly contagious and hemorrhagic viral disease affecting pigs and wild boar.
The disease does not infect humans (not zoonotic) or other livestock species.
ASF causes a destructive effect on piggery due to high morbidity and mortality (up to 90-100%).
Originally found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, ASF is now prevalent in many countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa.
India notified the first outbreak of ASF virus in January, 2020 in the Northeastern States of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
Transmission:
- The virus is highly resistant in the environment, meaning that it can survive on clothes, boots, wheels, and other materials.
- It can also survive in various pork products, such as ham, sausages, or bacon.
- Therefore, human behaviours can play an important role in spreading this disease.
- Infection can occur through direct contact between pigs or boars, but also, for example, through soft ticks in (sub)tropical regions, through contaminated materials or contaminated feed.
Symptoms: The clinical symptoms can look very much like those of classical swine fever: fever, weak pigs, lack of appetite, inflamed eye mucous membranes, red skin, (bloody) diarrhea, and vomiting.
Prevention: Currently, there is no treatment or vaccine available against ASF, so prevention by adopting strict biosecurity measures, such as culling the animals, is the only way to prevent ASF.

Source: TH

African Swine Fever FAQs

Q1: What is African Swine Fever (ASF)?

Ans: It is a highly contagious and hemorrhagic viral disease affecting pigs and wild boar.

Q2: What is the mortality rate associated with African Swine Fever (ASF) outbreaks?

Ans: 90–100%

Q3: India reported its first ASF outbreak in January 2020 in which region?

Ans: Northeastern States

Q4: Does a vaccine exist for African Swine Fever (ASF)?

Ans: Currently, there is no treatment or vaccine available against ASF

Leadership Group for Industry Transition

November 19, 2025

Leadership Group for Industry Transition Latest News

Recently, the Union Minister for Environment, Forest and Climate Change addressed the Leadership Group for Industry Transition (LeadIT) Industry Leaders’ Roundtable, during UNFCCC CoP30 at Belém, Brazil.

About Leadership Group for Industry Transition

It was jointly launched by the governments of Sweden and India at the UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019.
It is supported by the World Economic Forum.
It was the first global high level initiative aimed at reaching net zero emissions from heavy industry.
Aim: It gathers countries and companies that are committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions from industry by 2050.
LeadIT fosters public and private partnerships to enable the necessary policy environment, finance flows, and exchange of best practice for a just and inclusive industry transition.
LeadIT 2.0 was initiated for the period 2024-26, at COP-28 in Dubai which focus on
- Inclusive & Just Industry Transition
- Co-development & transfer of low-carbon technology
- Financial support to emerging economies for Industry Transition
- LeadIT’s three-year Mission Statement, adopted at the annual LeadITSummit at COP28.
Secretariat: It is hosted by the Stockholm Environment Institute.
Member countries: 18 countries and 27 companies

Source: PIB

Leadership Group for Industry Transition FAQs

Q1: What is the primary objective of LeadIT?

Ans: To accelerate the transition of all industry sectors to low carbon pathways to reach net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.

Q2: Which countries launched LeadIT?

Ans: India and Sweden

Army Tactical Missile Systems (ATACMS)

November 19, 2025

Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) Latest News

Ukraine’s military recently said that it had struck military targets inside Russia using US-supplied ATACMS missiles, calling the operation a “significant development.

About Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS)

It is a series of surface-to-surface ballistic missiles developed in the United States.
It is manufactured by the US defense company Lockheed Martin.
ATACMS was first developed by the U.S. in the 1980s to rival the former Soviet Union’s long-range artillery and missile systems.
It is also designated M39 by the US Army, and its Department of Defence (DoD) designation is MGM-140.
The missile first saw use during the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
This weapon’s known operators other than the US are Bahrain, Greece, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United Arab Emirates.

Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) Features

ATACMS are 24/7, all-weather, surface-to-surface, inertially guided ballistic missiles.
Range: It has a range of about 190 miles (305 km).
Propulsion: Single-stage, solid propellant.
These missiles are fired from either the tracked M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) or the wheeled M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS).
Each one costs around $1.5m (£1.2m).
They can be configured to carry two different types of warhead.
- The first is a cluster fitted with hundreds of bomblets designed to destroy lighter-armoured units over a wide area.
- The second type is a single warhead, a 225 kg high explosive variant of which is designed to destroy hardened facilities and larger structures.
ATACMS missiles travel at high altitudes before descending at immense speeds, making them difficult to intercept.

Source: FP

Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) FAQs

Q1: The Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) was developed by which country?

Ans: United States

Q2: Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) was first used in which conflict?

Ans: 1991 Persian Gulf War

Q3: What is the approximate maximum range of Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS)?

Ans: It has a range of about 190 miles (305 km).

Balancing Environment and Development Imperatives – SC Recalls Verdict on Ex Post Facto ECs

November 19, 2025

Balancing Environment and Development Imperatives Latest News

The Supreme Court, by a 2–1 majority, recalled its (May 16, 2025) judgment that had declared retrospective (ex post facto) Environmental Clearances (ECs) as illegal and anathema to environmental law.
The majority—CJI B.R. Gavai and Justice K. Vinod Chandran—held that the earlier ruling would cause massive economic losses and hinder critical public infrastructure.
Justice Ujjal Bhuyan dissented strongly, calling the recall a “retrogression” and a violation of the precautionary principle.

Background

A bench led by Justice A.S. Oka (now retired) and Justice Bhuyan held that ex post facto ECs are illegal.
The court had struck down a 2017 notification and 2021 office memorandum (OM) of the Union government, which in effect recognised the grant of ex post facto ECs.
The government was accused of “crafty drafting” to regularise illegal constructions.

Grounds for Recall (Majority Opinion)

Public interest and economic costs:
- CJI Gavai emphasized devastating consequences if the earlier verdict continued.
- For example, 24 Central projects worth Rs. 8,293 crore and 29 State projects worth Rs. 11,168 crore were stuck.
- Major projects impacted - AIIMS Odisha (962-bed), Vijayanagar greenfield airport, SAIL investments, common effluent treatment plants.
- Demolition of such projects would mean wastage of nearly Rs. 20,000 crore and cause livelihood loss.
Legal precedents ignored earlier:
- The earlier ruling overlooked co-equal bench decisions that allowed post facto ECs in exceptional circumstances. For example, Electrosteel Steels Ltd (2021), Pahwa Plastics (2022), D. Swamy (2022).
As per judicial discipline:
- A coordinate bench must refer to a larger bench if it disagrees.
- The earlier verdict was therefore per incuriam (judicial error).
Penalties as deterrence:
- 2017 and 2021 rules imposed heavy penalties, ensuring - polluter pays principle, deterrence against illegal constructions.
- The majority held that retrospective ECs plus penalties can achieve compliance without demolition.
Pollution paradox:
- Demolishing large structures may cause more pollution - debris, reconstruction emissions
Hence, recall is seen as protecting environmental interest indirectly.

Minority Opinion - Justice Ujjal Bhuyan’s Strongest Dissent

Violation of environmental jurisprudence:
- Ex post facto ECs violate - precautionary principle (core of environmental jurisprudence), sustainable development.
- He termed retrospective ECs “anathema”, i.e., a thing devoted to evil.
Per Incuriam logic reversed:
- Earlier cases Common Cause (2017) and Alembic Pharma (2020) held that ex post facto ECs are impermissible and contrary to law.
- Therefore, Electrosteel, Pahwa, and D. Swamy was per incuriam, not the earlier judgment.
- Critique of ‘false environment vs development’ narrative: He rejected the idea that environment and development are adversaries. Warned the Court is “backtracking on sound environmental jurisprudence”.
Rule of law and accountability:
- Builders who violated EC norms should not be rewarded.
- Review petitions lacked details such as dates of construction, whether EC was originally required.
- Therefore, the review should have been dismissed.
Delhi smog reminder: Highlighted Delhi air pollution as an example of environmental degradation, and the court has constitutional duty to protect the environment.
Precautionary vs polluter pays principles: The precautionary principle cannot be diluted by relying on polluter-pays, which is only compensatory.

Challenges Highlighted in the Judgment

Conflict between infrastructure development and environmental protection.
Weak compliance culture among developers.
Inconsistency in judicial precedents.
Administrative lapses: Delayed EC processes.
Environmental degradation: Air pollution and unsustainable practices.
Risk of setting a lenient precedent encouraging violations.

Way Forward

Establish clear, time-bound EC procedures: Avoid delays that prompt developers to proceed without ECs.
Strengthen monitoring and penalties: Ensure real-time compliance, heavy penalties discouraging violations.
Harmonise judicial precedents through a larger bench: To resolve contradictions on ex post facto EC validity, environmental principles.
Promote sustainable infrastructure development: In line with precautionary principle, public interest, constitutional environmental duties.
Strengthen EIA quality and transparency: Independent audits and public participation should be enhanced.
Balance public interest with environmental safeguards: Critical public projects must comply with law while protecting ecology.

Conclusion

The SC’s recall decision reflects a critical judicial balancing act between environmental protection and developmental imperatives.
It underscores the need for robust EC processes, clear judicial guidance, and sustainable development that respects both environment and economic goals.
The matter now being placed before the CJI may pave the way for a larger bench to finally settle the legal position on ex post facto environmental clearances.

Source: TH | IE

Balancing Environment and Development Imperatives FAQs

Q1: What concerns are associated with granting ex post facto Environmental Clearances (ECs) in India?

Ans: Ex post facto ECs violate the precautionary principle and undermine environmental jurisprudence.

Q2: What is the SC’s reasoning for recalling its earlier judgment on retrospective ECs?

Ans: The Court justified the recall by citing massive public expenditure at risk, procedural errors in overlooking co-equal bench precedents.

Q3: How the principle of judicial discipline influenced the SC’s decision to revisit its earlier judgment?

Ans: The recall was grounded in judicial discipline as the earlier bench failed to follow or refer to conflicting co-equal bench rulings.

Q4: What are the key concerns raised in Justice Ujjal Bhuyan’s dissent?

Ans: He held that retrospective ECs dilute the precautionary principle, reward violators, create a false environment-vs-development binary.

Q5: Whether economic costs and public infrastructure considerations can justify retrospective environmental clearances?

Ans: They cannot legally justify ex post facto ECs if such clearances fundamentally violate constitutional environmental principles.

Centre Proposes Rs. 30,000-Crore Modified UDAN Scheme

November 19, 2025

UDAN Scheme Latest News

The Government of India has proposed an outlay of Rs. 30,000 crore for a revamped version of the UDAN (Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik) regional air connectivity scheme, aiming to extend the initiative beyond April 2027 and expand air access to underserved and remote regions.

Overview of the Modified UDAN Scheme

The refreshed and expanded UDAN framework focuses on strengthening regional aviation infrastructure, making air travel affordable, and supporting airlines to operate in difficult terrains. Out of the Rs. 30,000 crore proposed:
- Rs. 18,000 crore is allocated for new airport development, including greenfield airports, refurbishment of existing airstrips, and construction of heliports in hilly areas.
- Rs. 12,000 crore is earmarked for Viability Gap Funding (VGF) to encourage airlines to operate flights on regional routes despite low initial demand.
The scheme will particularly target:
- Hilly and remote regions,
- Aspirational districts,
- North-Eastern states,
- Small towns with limited or no air connectivity.

Evolution of the UDAN Scheme

The UDAN scheme was launched in October 2016 as part of the National Civil Aviation Policy, with the objective of democratizing air travel by making flights accessible to the “common citizen.”
Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the first UDAN flight from Shimla to Delhi in April 2017. The initial support for the scheme was Rs. 8,000 crore. Since then, 649 out of 915 valid routes have been operationalised.
These routes have connected 92 unserved and underserved airports, including 15 heliports and 2 water aerodromes, facilitating over 1.56 crore passengers across 3.23 lakh UDAN flights.
Despite progress, several identified airports remain non-operational due to land, technical, or regulatory hurdles, necessitating a redesigned approach.

Objectives of the Modified UDAN Framework

Connecting 120 Additional Destinations
- The revamped scheme aims to add 120 new destinations over the next decade, expanding the national aviation map extensively.
Enabling Four Crore Additional Passengers
- The government plans to enable four crore passengers to benefit from regional flights over the next 10 years, significantly boosting domestic aviation.
Supporting New Infrastructure
- The modified version will support:
  - Small airports and airstrips,
  - Helipads in hilly terrains,
  - Water aerodromes, ensuring holistic coverage across diverse geographies.
Enhanced Private Sector Participation
- The new guidelines seek to overcome earlier constraints and bring in more private players by simplifying processes related to aircraft leasing, operator permits, and route bidding.

Need for the Modified Scheme

Several challenges have hampered UDAN’s full-scale implementation:
- Land unavailability and delays in state government clearances,
- Operational constraints at small airports lacking navigational or terminal facilities,
- Shortage of suitable aircraft, particularly 20-70 seater turboprops,
- Maintenance and leasing issues for regional carriers,
- Low passenger demand in remote locations requires long-term subsidy support.
The modified UDAN scheme has been structured to address these gaps through a more flexible funding model and better coordination between the Centre, states, airport operators, and airlines.

Incentives

Airport operators and state governments will provide:
- Reduced fuel taxes,
- Lower airport charges,
- Priority parking bays,
- Faster regulatory clearances.
New airports will receive dedicated capital support to fast-track construction and make them UDAN-ready.
This blended financial support aims to make operations commercially viable and sustainable for regional carriers.

Expected Benefits

Boost to Regional Connectivity
- Connecting remote and underdeveloped regions will enhance mobility, promote tourism, and integrate local economies.
Economic Growth and Employment
- Airport development and increased flight operations will generate direct and indirect jobs, supporting hospitality, transport, and logistics sectors.
Improved Emergency and Medical Access
- Better connectivity will enable faster medical evacuation and smoother delivery of essential supplies to remote districts.
Strengthening the North-East and Hilly Areas
- Special focus on the North-East, Himalayan states, and Aspirational districts will help reduce regional disparities.

Source: TH

UDAN Scheme FAQs

Q1: What is the total proposed outlay for the modified UDAN scheme?

Ans: The Centre has proposed Rs. 30,000 crore for the revamped scheme.

Q2: How much funding is allocated for airport development?

Ans: Rs. 18,000 crore has been earmarked for new airport and infrastructure development.

Q3: What is the Viability Gap Funding allocation?

Ans: Rs. 12,000 crore is proposed for VGF to support airlines on regional routes.

Q4: How many new destinations will the modified scheme target?

Ans: The scheme aims to connect 120 additional destinations over the next decade.

Q5: How many UDAN routes have been operationalised so far?

Ans: 649 routes have been operationalised, connecting 93 airports, heliports, and water aerodromes.

Upcoming Reforms to India’s Plant Variety Act: Key Issues & Farmer Concerns

November 19, 2025

Plant Variety Act Latest News

Union Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan announced that the Centre plans to amend the Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV&FRA).
- The PPV&FRA, 2001 is India’s plant variety protection law that creates an IPR framework for new plant varieties while also safeguarding farmers’ traditional rights.
- It grants breeders and researchers exclusive rights over newly developed varieties, but ensures farmers can save, use, exchange, sell, and even register their own seeds.
- The Act was designed to balance breeder innovation with the long-standing contributions of farmers to conserving and developing plant genetic resources.
He emphasised the need to balance the promotion of high-yielding, improved crop varieties with the preservation of traditional seeds.

Consultations on Amending the Plant Variety Act Begin

A committee led by agricultural scientist R.S. Paroda, set up by the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority (PPVFRA), has begun extensive stakeholder consultations on proposed amendments to the PPV&FRA Act.
The committee will study the rationale for revising the law and engage widely with farmers’ groups, civil society, industry, and researchers.
The panel, comprising scientists and policymakers, will review the Act in the context of current challenges, technological advances, trade changes, and evolving farmer needs.
Its mandate includes identifying issues faced by stakeholders and proposing specific amendments to the PPV&FRA Act, 2001, which has now completed two decades.

Key Issues Being Debated in the PPV&FRA Amendment Consultations

Early discussions indicate several major themes. Stakeholders are considering revising the definition of “variety” to include a combination of genotypes, aligning it with the draft Seeds Bill 2019.
There is also a proposal to broaden the definition of “seed” to cover seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, tissue-culture plantlets, synthetic seeds, and other vegetatively propagated materials.
Consultations also focus on clarifying the definition of “institution” in the term “breeder” to explicitly include both public and private seed-sector entities.
The committee is seeking stakeholder feedback on reforms to the DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity, Stability) test, particularly the inclusion of traits in DUS guidelines.
- DUS testing is a technical process used to evaluate new plant varieties and is the basis for obtaining Plant Variety Protection (PVP).
- The test determines if a new variety is Distinct from all known varieties, Uniform in its traits, and Stable over subsequent generations.
Another key issue is the proposal to define “abusive acts”, making activities such as producing, selling, marketing, exporting, or importing any variety with an identical or misleading denomination punishable under the Act.

Farmer Groups Demand Protection for Community Seeds

Farmer representatives stressed that all community-developed seeds must be registered collectively rather than under an individual or company’s name.
They argue that seeds passing the DUS test should not be privately registered, to prevent monopolisation and future exploitation by seed companies.
Concerns were also raised about alleged misuse of DUS testing, citing the example of njavara paddy, where farmers suspect improper procedures before registration.

Concerns About IPR and Exclusion of Small Farmers

Policy analysts highlighted that small farmers remain outside the techno-legal system and view seeds as shared biocultural resources, conflicting with exclusive Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) frameworks.
They noted growing global efforts to keep local varieties in open-source systems to avoid private ownership, warning against pressure on developing nations to align domestic laws with UPOV-style regimes.

Gaps in Accountability and Farmer Compensation

Experts pointed out that the PPV&FRA Act includes provisions for holding breeders accountable for non-performing seeds.
However, the Rules still lack clear criteria for farmer compensation. This creates uncertainty and weakens farmer protections.

Global Negotiations and Broader Seed-Sovereignty Issues

Stakeholders also emphasised the relevance of upcoming plant treaty negotiations in Peru, particularly discussions on expanding the Multilateral System (MLS) for access and benefit-sharing.
Linked concerns include in situ conservation, equitable benefit sharing with local seed custodians, and safeguarding farmer rights in global seed-governance frameworks.

Source: TH | DTE

Plant Variety Act FAQs

Q1: Why is the PPV&FRA Act being amended?

Ans: Amendments aim to update the law after two decades, address technological and trade changes, strengthen farmer rights, and improve clarity in variety protection and seed governance.

Q2: Who is leading the consultation process?

Ans: A committee headed by scientist R.S. Paroda, appointed by PPVFRA, is holding nationwide consultations with farmers, industry, civil society and researchers to propose amendments.

Q3: What key issues are under discussion?

Ans: Debates include redefining “variety,” expanding “seed” definitions, clarifying “breeder,” improving DUS tests, and defining punishable abusive acts involving misleading seed denominations.

Q4: What concerns have farmers raised?

Ans: Farmers warn against private monopolisation of community seeds, demand collective registration, question DUS test misuse, and seek stronger protections against unfair IPR practices.

Q5: What broader policy issues are linked to the reforms?

Ans: Experts highlight gaps in farmer compensation rules, risks of UPOV-style harmonisation, and the need to preserve local varieties, benefit sharing, and in-situ conservation.

Why India’s Dugongs Are Declining: Threats, Habitat Loss & Conservation Efforts

November 19, 2025

Dugong Latest News

A recent IUCN report released at the Conservation Congress in Abu Dhabi warns that India’s dugongs (sea cows) face a growing risk of extinction.
Found mainly in the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar–Palk Bay, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, their survival outlook is grim: long-term survival in the Gulf of Kutch is “highly uncertain,” conditions in the Andamans are “challenging,” and populations in the Gulf of Mannar–Palk Bay have significantly declined.
Dugongs are listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and enjoy the highest protection in India under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which bans hunting and trade.
These gentle marine herbivores play a crucial ecological role by maintaining healthy seagrass meadows, which support biodiversity and store carbon.
However, dugongs face numerous threats, including coastal habitat degradation, seagrass loss, fishing-net entanglement, boat collisions, pollution, and human disturbances.
The Indian government has initiated conservation. Despite this, the new report indicates that urgent and strengthened action is needed to prevent their decline from becoming irreversible.

Dugongs: The Gentle ‘Sea Cows’ of the Coast

Dugongs (Dugong dugon) are large, gentle marine mammals often linked to mermaid legends due to their calm, graceful behaviour.
Closely related to manatees, they have a rounded body and a dolphin-like tail. Adults can grow up to 10 feet long and weigh around 420 kg.
Exclusively herbivorous, dugongs feed mainly on seagrass meadows, consuming 30–40 kg daily — earning them the name sea cows.
They inhabit shallow, warm coastal waters, typically in sheltered bays, lagoons, and estuaries less than 10 metres deep.

Why Dugongs Matter: Guardians of Seagrass and Coastal Productivity

Dugongs are vital to the health of seagrass ecosystems, which are among the planet’s most efficient carbon sinks.
Their grazing naturally prunes seagrass, removes old shoots, prevents overgrowth, and enhances carbon storage in the sediment.
By stirring up the seagrass beds while feeding, dugongs also release nutrients trapped in the sediment.
These nutrients support a wide range of marine life, including commercially valuable fish, shellfish, sea cucumbers, and other invertebrates.
Research shows that seagrass habitats with dugongs generate at least ₹2 crore more fish production annually, while areas lacking dugongs show significantly reduced productivity.
In essence, dugongs are ecosystem engineers that boost biodiversity, sustain fisheries, and support coastal carbon cycles.

Declining Dugong Numbers

Once common in Indian waters, dugongs have declined drastically. A 2012 government report estimated around 200 individuals.
Current estimates vary: some experts suggest 400–450, while others believe the number is below 250.
Their elusive nature and murky habitats make accurate counts difficult.

Where Dugongs Survive in India

Palk Bay–Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu): Largest and most stable group, 150–200 dugongs
Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Fewer than 50 individuals
Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat): Fewer than 20 individuals
These populations are small, fragmented, and highly vulnerable.

Human Activities Driving the Decline

The main threats come from coastal degradation and human activities:
- Fishing-net entanglement is the most common cause of death.
- High turbidity, pollution, and bycatch threaten dugongs in the Gulf of Kutch and Tamil Nadu.
- Andamans face high fisheries-related mortality.
Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and untreated wastewater also pollute seagrass meadows — dugongs’ primary feeding grounds.

Toxic Pollution Found in Dugong Tissues

A recent study analysing 46 stranded dugongs found dangerous levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, mercury, and lead in organs such as liver, kidneys, and muscles.
These metals accumulate in seagrass sediments, indicating severe ecosystem contamination.

Slow Reproduction Increases Extinction Risk

Dugongs reproduce very slowly — females give birth once every several years.
This low reproductive rate hampers population recovery and makes the species extremely vulnerable to ongoing threats.

Government Efforts to Protect Dugongs — and What More Is Needed

India has taken several steps to conserve dugongs. In 2010, the Centre set up a Task Force for Dugong Conservation, followed by a national dugong recovery programme in collaboration with Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
A major milestone was the creation of the 448 sq km Dugong Conservation Reserve in Palk Bay (2022) to safeguard seagrass meadows and dependent dugong populations.
However, experts say conservation efforts need strengthening. Researchers call for better monitoring, reduced fishing pressure, and incentive-based programmes for coastal communities.
While progress has been made, dugong populations will recover only with sustained, strengthened, and community-inclusive conservation actions.

Source: IE | MB

Dugong FAQs

Q1: Why are India’s dugongs declining?

Ans: Dugongs are declining due to seagrass loss, coastal degradation, fishing-net entanglement, pollution, boat strikes and slow reproduction, making the species vulnerable across fragmented habitats.

Q2: Where are dugongs found in India?

Ans: They survive mainly in the Palk Bay–Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, and Gulf of Kutch, with populations small, isolated, and under increasing ecological stress.

Q3: Why are dugongs important for marine ecosystems?

Ans: Dugongs maintain healthy seagrass meadows, enhance carbon storage, release nutrients that support fish and invertebrates, and significantly boost coastal fisheries and biodiversity.

Q4: What major threats do dugongs face today?

Ans: Key threats include fishing-net bycatch, pollution, industrial waste, seagrass degradation, toxic metals in sediments, high turbidity, and reproductive rates too slow for population recovery.

Q5: What conservation measures has India taken?

Ans: India created a national recovery programme, formed a Task Force, and established a 448-sq-km Dugong Conservation Reserve, but experts urge stronger monitoring and reduced bycatch.

Daily Editorial Analysis 19 November 2025

November 19, 2025

Unpacking the Global ‘Happiness’ Rankings

Context

The 2025 World Happiness Report again ranks Finland as the world’s happiest nation, while India sits at 118 and Pakistan, despite severe crises, places higher at 109.
These contrasts raise a deeper question: What does global happiness really measure? And why do economic realities tell a different story? India, a rapidly expanding economy of $3.7 trillion, trails far behind Pakistan, which survives on IMF
Understanding this gap requires examining how happiness is defined, reported and perceived.

Beyond GDP: The Mirage of Measurement

The World Happiness Report relies on the Cantril Ladder, a self-reported scale supported by variables such as GDP, life expectancy, social support, freedom, generosity and corruption perception.
While these markers seem comprehensive, they overlook a critical truth: happiness is profoundly shaped by expectations and cultural context.
Countries with lower expectations often report higher well-being because citizens adapt to hardship.
In contrast, societies with rising aspirations, like India, experience dissatisfaction not because lives worsen but because expectations rise faster than outcomes.
This form of restlessness signals ambition rather than despair. The United States illustrates this paradox: despite immense wealth, it ranks only 24 due to declining trust and rising social anxiety.
Even the report acknowledges that social trust and belief in community kindness are stronger predictors of happiness than income.
India’s challenge, therefore, is not limited to economic development but to relational well-being.

The Politics of Perception: When Data Becomes Distortion

A 2022 paper by the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister showed that indices like Freedom House rely on small pools of Western experts, embedding subjective and sometimes ideological
The World Happiness Report shares this vulnerability.
Authoritarian states may score better simply because citizens cannot freely express dissatisfaction.
Democracies, by contrast, are penalised because open debate, criticism and media scrutiny make problems visible.
India’s scores often fall during noisy political cycles or intense public scrutiny — reflecting transparency, not unhappiness.
India’s ranking has fluctuated widely across the decade, from 94 to 144.
Yet these swings rarely align with economic performance. What they track instead is public sentiment shaped by scandals, political turbulence or social debate.
Thus, global rankings can mistake democratic cacophony for societal unhappiness.

Trust, Fairness, and the Invisible Architecture of Well-Being

True well-being depends less on income than on trust, trust in institutions, communities and neighbours.
Finland’s high-ranking stems from extraordinary institutional trust.
A lost wallet is likely to be returned, reflecting a belief in fairness.
India’s trust ecosystem is more uneven. Institutional trust varies, but social and familial trust remain strong, forming informal safety nets that global indices rarely measure.
The COVID-19 crisis demonstrated this clearly: millions returned to villages because community bonds offered security unavailable in cities.
Western frameworks often carry a WEIRD bias, shaped by Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic norms.
They privilege individualistic trust systems and overlook collective ones. India, with its familial and community-based networks, rarely fits neatly into these paradigms.
However, India is changing. Initiatives such as Tele-MANAS, workplace well-being programmes and public campaigns around mental health show a growing recognition that emotional health is not a luxury but a public policy priority.

Toward a More Holistic Path: Pairing Aspiration with Empathy

Rebuilding Social Capital
- India needs stronger community fabric, shared public spaces, inter-generational engagement and collective activities.
- Research shows that larger households and belief in community kindness greatly enhance happiness.
Restoring Institutional Trust
- Simplified, transparent public services build trust. When everyday interactions, from ration cards to transport systems, work reliably, citizens feel respected and secure.
Integrating Mental Health into Economic Strategy
- Mental health is directly tied to productivity. WHO estimates that every dollar spent on psychological well-being yields four dollars in returns, highlighting mental health as an economic imperative.

Conclusion

Happiness rankings do not simply measure joy, they capture expectations, values and cultural dynamics.
India’s ranking is less a verdict on misery than a reflection of its ambition, its desire for cleaner air, better governance and fuller lives. Its dissatisfaction speaks not of despair but of aspiration.
As The Pursuit of Happyness suggests, happiness is not a possession but a pursuit.
India’s journey is ongoing. A country that debates, questions and dreams is not unhappy, it is unfinished, still shaping its true idea of happiness.

Unpacking the Global ‘Happiness’ Rankings FAQs

Q1. Why does Finland consistently rank as the happiest country?

Ans. Finland consistently ranks as the happiest country because it has high social trust, strong welfare systems, and a deep belief in fairness and community support.

Q2. Why does India score low despite rapid economic growth?

Ans. India scores low because rising aspirations, uneven institutional trust, and shrinking social connections reduce perceived life satisfaction.

Q3. How can Pakistan rank higher than India despite economic instability?

Ans. Pakistan can rank higher because happiness rankings depend on perceptions, and countries with lower expectations often report higher satisfaction.

Q4. What role does social trust play in happiness?

Ans. Social trust plays a central role in happiness because people feel more secure, supported, and hopeful when they trust their communities and institutions.

Q5. What must India focus on to improve its happiness ranking?

Ans. India must focus on rebuilding social capital, strengthening institutional trust, and integrating mental health into public policy to improve its happiness ranking.

Source: The Hindu

Time to Sort Out India’s Cereal Mess

Context

The recent controversy over paddy procurement during Tamil Nadu’s short-term kuruvai season has underscored the need to critically re-examine India’s overall foodgrain procurement system.
The Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies Corporation (TNCSC), which procures paddy on behalf of the Food Corporation of India (FCI), faced delays, administrative gaps, and allegations of corruption, problems intensified by a predictable rise of nearly two lakh acres in paddy cultivation.
The issue reflects a broader national pattern: farmers increasingly find paddy a safe bet due to assured returns through procurement, raising questions about the long-term sustainability of such incentives.

Paddy Procurement Data

The glut is not confined to Tamil Nadu. Nationwide, paddy procurement (as rice) reached 86 lakh tonnes by October 31, 2025, a sharp rise from 82.08 lakh tonnes the previous year.
Central pool stocks for rice and wheat have consistently exceeded mandated norms over the last three years.
Rice stocks alone stood at 356.1 lakh tonnes in October 2025, more than triple the norm of 102.5 lakh tonnes.
While wheat stocks fluctuate more closely with actual consumption needs, rice has remained consistently oversupplied.
Between 2022 and 2025, annual rice procurement held steady at 525–547 lakh tonnes, whereas offtake under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) remained much lower at 392–427 lakh tonnes.
In contrast, PDS utilisation for wheat exceeded procurement in two of the last three years.
Despite these mismatches, the Union government allocates around ₹2 lakh crore annually in food subsidies.
This rising surplus in rice contrasts sharply with shortages of other essential commodities such as pulses and oilseeds, highlighting structural imbalances in crop production and procurement priorities.

Edible Oil Imports

India’s dependence on imports for pulses and edible oils is persistent and costly.
According to the Agriculture Ministry’s 2024–25 report, India imported ₹1.2 lakh crore worth of edible oil and ₹30,000 crore of pulses in 2023–24. Nearly 55% of edible oil needs are met through imports.
Global disruptions, especially from the Russia–Ukraine conflict, sharply increased import costs, even though the imported quantities remained within 135–157 lakh tonnes annually over the past six years.
Domestic oilseed production has stagnated despite steady cultivation area. Since 2014, annual production has crossed 400 lakh tonnes only once, raising concerns about the long-term viability of the sector.

Systemic Questions Raised

This situation raises several pressing questions. First, is India’s rice procurement policy, justified historically for food security, still sustainable when stocks are far above requirement?
Excessive emphasis on paddy encourages monoculture, undermines soil health, and worsens water scarcity, especially in regions like Punjab and Tamil Nadu.
Second, why have policy efforts to strengthen pulses and oilseed production yielded limited results, failing to replicate the success of the 1960s Green Revolution?
Third, should the country continue with the centralised model of procurement, storage, and transport by agencies like FCI, despite growing inefficiencies?

Leakages and Inefficiencies in the Public Distribution System

Reports such as the one by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) have highlighted leakage rates of nearly 28% in rice and wheat.
Although authorities contest such findings, there is broad consensus that the PDS still suffers from diversion, identification errors, and logistical inefficiencies.
Originally intended to manage food shortages, the PDS has evolved into a vast welfare mechanism, but one that remains vulnerable to systemic gaps.

Crop Diversification as a Strategic Imperative

In light of these challenges, crop diversification emerges as a critical pathway forward.
However, farmers’ hesitation to diversify is rooted in real concerns: market risks, uncertain returns, and inadequate institutional support.
Overcoming such resistance requires a combination of:
Area-specific market studies
Financial incentives and transitional support
Reliable procurement mechanisms for alternative crops
Technical guidance and risk-mitigation strategies
Given India’s rice surplus, enabling free export of rice, rather than imposing sudden restrictions, would help stabilise domestic prices and offer farmers more flexibility.

Strengthening Farmer-Centric Institutions: FPOs, SHGs, and Cooperatives

A promising avenue for reform lies in empowering Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs), self-help groups, and cooperative societies.
These institutions can bridge the gap between farmers and markets, reduce reliance on middlemen, and improve supply chain organisation.
Currently, FPOs are still emerging, but their potential is considerable:
They can facilitate direct linkages between farmers and industries (e.g., papad manufacturers sourcing blackgram directly).
They can provide crucial services such as soil health awareness and crop diversification training.
They can take up procurement functions, as seen in West Bengal’s use of FPOs for paddy procurement.

Conclusion

The Tamil Nadu paddy procurement controversy is not an isolated administrative lapse but a reflection of deeper structural imbalances, overproduction of rice, inadequate diversification, heavy import dependence for essential foods, and mounting fiscal burdens.
Collaborative efforts involving farmers, agricultural scientists, food security experts, and policymakers are essential to redesign a system that is financially prudent, environmentally sustainable, and nutritionally balanced.
Only through such a collective and forward-looking approach can India ensure that its food security strategy remains robust, equitable, and sustainable in the decades to come.

Time to Sort Out India’s Cereal Mess FAQs

Q1. Why did paddy procurement in Tamil Nadu face problems during the kuruvai season?

Ans. Paddy procurement in Tamil Nadu faced problems because of delays, administrative lapses, and corruption allegations, which were worsened by an unexpected increase in cultivated area.

Q2. What does the national data show about rice stocks in recent years?

Ans. National data shows that rice stocks in the central pool have consistently exceeded required norms, indicating a growing surplus.

Q3. Why is India heavily dependent on imports of edible oils?

Ans. India is heavily dependent on edible oil imports because domestic oilseed production has stagnated despite a stable cultivation area.

Q4. What is one major reason farmers hesitate to diversify away from paddy?

Ans. Farmers hesitate to diversify because alternative crops do not offer the same level of assured returns as paddy under the MSP system.

Q5. How can Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) help address procurement challenges?

Ans. Farmer Producer Organisations can help by linking farmers directly with markets, improving supply chains, and taking on procurement responsibilities.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 19 November 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Analogue Space Mission

November 19, 2025

About Analogue Space Mission:

The Analogue space missions are simulated missions conducted on Earth that mimic the conditions and challenges of actual space exploration.
These missions are crucial for testing technologies, studying human behaviour, and preparing for future long-duration space flights.
Aim: It aims to replicate the living conditions astronauts would face on missions to destinations like the Moon, Mars, or asteroids.
Objective: To replicate conditions of living in an interplanetary habitat, tackling the potential obstacles that astronauts may face on future deep-space missions.
They provide a controlled environment to study the physical and psychological effects of isolation and confinement, which are critical for understanding how humans will cope with extended space travel.
It will attempt to simulate life in an interplanetary habitat to tackle the challenges of a base station beyond Earth.
India's mission is a joint effort which involves the Human Spaceflight Centre of ISRO, AAKA Space Studio, the University of Ladakh, IIT Bombay, and is backed by the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council.
Throughout the mission, participants will conduct activities to simulate life on another planet, such as habitat design testing, resource management research, and psychological studies on isolation's impact on crew members.
Significance
- It serves as platforms for testing new technologies and operational concepts. They help in evaluating systems related to habitat design, life support, in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU), and crew health monitoring.
- It aligns with India’s larger goal of advancing its human spaceflight and interplanetary exploration capabilities, including the Gaganyaan project, which seeks to send Indian astronauts into space.
Examples of Analogue Missions
- Nasa's NEEMO: Conducted underwater to simulate microgravity conditions, allowing crews to perform tasks similar to those expected in space.
- SIRIUS Program (UAE): It focuses on understanding the psychological impacts of isolation during long-duration missions. It includes international collaborations to conduct various scientific experiments.
- Arctic Mars analogue Svalbard Expedition (AMASE): Uses the Svalbard archipelago's extreme environments to test equipment and procedures relevant to Mars exploration.

Q1: What is Gaganyaan Mission?

Gaganyaan project envisages demonstration of human spaceflight capability by launching a crew of 3 members to an orbit of 400 km for a 3 days mission and bring them back safely to earth. It is part of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP), which was initiated (in 2007) by the ISRO to develop the technology needed to launch crewed orbital spacecraft into low earth orbit (LEO).

News: Simulating extraterrestrial life: Isro's analogue mission begins in Ladakh

RBI’s Approach to De-Dollarization and Diversifying Risks

November 19, 2025

What’s in today’s article?

Introduction
Key Highlights
Geopolitical Context
Conclusion

Introduction

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has clarified its stance on de-dollarization, stating that its recent policies are aimed at diversifying risks rather than completely moving away from the dollar.
- De-dollarization refers to reducing dependence on the US dollar in international trade and reserves.
- It is often driven by geopolitical tensions and the desire for economic independence.
This approach balances global economic realities while safeguarding India’s financial stability.
The clarification came days after US President-elect Donald Trump threatened “100 per cent tariffs” against BRICS countries if they sought to reduce reliance on the US dollar in international trade.

Key Highlights

Diversification over De-Dollarisation:
- RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das emphasized that measures like local currency trade agreements and Vostro accounts aim to reduce dependency on the US dollar but do not intend to eliminate its role entirely.
Vostro accounts are bank accounts held in India by a foreign bank in Indian rupees.
They facilitate trade in local currencies and reduces reliance on third-party currencies like the dollar.
- The aim is to mitigate risks stemming from over-reliance on a single currency for trade and reserves.
Central Banks’ Gold Buying Spree:
- Central banks globally, including the RBI, are purchasing gold to diversify reserves. In 2022, global central banks acquired a record 1,136 tonnes of gold, followed by 1,037 tonnes in 2023.
- RBI added 27 tonnes of gold in October 2024 alone, the largest among central banks during that period.
- The shift to gold is driven by uncertainties, such as the Ukraine war and the fear of secondary sanctions, especially in countries like Russia and China.
Impact of Dollar Dominance:
- The dollar's share in global foreign reserves has seen a gradual decline, partially offset by the rise of the Chinese yuan.
- Emerging markets like India are seeking alternatives to dollar reliance due to the geopolitical and economic risks associated with the currency’s dominance.
Domestic Currency Trade:
- India is encouraging trade in domestic currencies with partners like Russia and the UAE to partially de-risk its trade ties.
- However, international trade in rupees has been limited due to India's trade deficits with most countries except the US.

Geopolitical Context

BRICS and Currency Discussions:
- BRICS nations have deliberated on creating a shared currency but face challenges due to their geographical and economic diversity.
- India has resisted using the Chinese yuan for Russian oil imports despite its growing acceptance globally, citing economic sovereignty concerns.
Challenges in India's Neighbourhood:
- Surging oil prices and declining dollar reserves have caused social and political unrest in South Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
- While India has maintained robust reserves, it remains vigilant about the dollar’s volatility.

Conclusion

India’s cautious approach to managing dollar reliance reflects a strategic balance between mitigating risks and maintaining global trade stability.
Through increased gold reserves and efforts to promote the rupee in international trade, the RBI is navigating a complex economic landscape while safeguarding national interests.
However, challenges like trade deficits and high transaction costs in domestic currency trade remain barriers to reducing dollar dependence entirely.

Q1. What is a Global Reserve Currency?

A reserve currency is a globally recognized currency held in large quantities by a central bank as part of its foreign exchange reserves.

Q2. Why is USD a global currency?

The dollar has been the world's principal reserve currency since the end of World War II and is the most widely used currency for international trade. High global demand for dollars allows the United States to borrow money at a lower cost and use currency as a tool of diplomacy

News: Why does RBI want a hedge against dollar reliance, but not push for de-dollarisation?

Should Packaged Food Content Be Labeled?

November 19, 2025

What’s in today’s article?

Overview
Key Findings of the Report
Significance for India
Importance of Front-of-Pack Labelling
Recommendations by the Report
What is the Indian Nutritional Rating System?
About FSSAI
Role/Functions of FSSAI
Composition of FSSAI

Overview

A report by the Access to Nutrition Initiative (ATNi) highlights the disparities in the healthiness of food and beverage (F&B) products sold in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) compared to high-income countries (HICs).
This brings attention to the importance of labelling packaged food to guide consumers toward healthier choices.

Key Findings of the Report

Health Star Rating System:
- The report analysed over 52,000 products from major brands like Nestlé, PepsiCo, Unilever, and others.
- Products were rated out of 5 stars, with scores above 3.5 considered healthy.
- Average scores:
  - LMICs: 1.8
  - HICs: 2.3
Disparities in Nutrition:
- Fewer affordable healthy options in LMICs.
- Micronutrient information was less frequently provided for products in LMICs.
Historical Patterns:
- Previous reports revealed similar issues. For instance, Nestlé's baby food in India and African markets contained higher sugar levels compared to European versions, sparking government scrutiny.

Significance for India

Health Crisis:
- Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): India faces a significant burden, with over 10 crore people suffering from diabetes and high obesity rates.
- Undernutrition and Micronutrient Deficiencies: Coexisting challenges due to unhealthy diets and economic disparities.
Dietary Patterns:
- Rising consumption of processed foods rich in sugar and fat.
- Over 56% of India’s disease burden is linked to unhealthy diets (ICMR, 2023).
Affordability Gap:
- Over half of Indians cannot afford a healthy diet.
- Household spending on processed foods is increasing.

Importance of Front-of-Pack Labelling

Global Standards:
- Countries like Chile and Mexico successfully reduced consumption of sugary beverages after mandatory front-of-pack labelling (FOPL).
India’s Current Efforts:
- India is part of World Health Assembly resolutions advocating for protecting children from junk food marketing.
- Policies like the National Multisectoral Action Plan (2017-2022) aimed at tackling NCDs have seen limited success in implementing labeling regulations.
Challenges:
- The 2022 Draft Notification for FOPL is yet to make progress.
- Voluntary efforts by F&B companies have been insufficient.

Recommendations by the Report

Mandatory Regulations:
- Stronger policies for clear labelling of sugar, salt, and fat content on packaging.
Public Awareness:
- Campaigns to educate consumers on interpreting nutritional labels.
Affordable Healthy Options:
- Incentivizing companies to offer nutritious products at accessible prices for low-income groups.
Government Action:
- Strengthening enforcement and adopting global best practices for food labelling.

What is the Indian Nutritional Rating System?

The INR system rates the overall nutritional profile for packaged food by assigning it a rating from ½ star (least healthy) to 5 stars (healthiest).
More stars indicate the food product is better positioned to provide for daily human need of nutrients.
As per the notification, solid food with a score of more than 25 will be given 0.5 stars, and those with a score less than – (minus)11 will get 5 stars.
To generate the star-rating logo for the product, food businesses have to submit nutritional profiles of the products concerned on FSSAI’s portal.

About FSSAI

The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India is a statutory body under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
Objectives:
- To lay down science-based standards for articles of food
- To regulate manufacture, storage, distribution, import and sale of food
- To facilitate safety of food

Role/Functions of FSSAI

Framing of Regulations to lay down the standards/guidelines in relation to articles of food.
Laying down mechanisms/guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies engaged in certification of food safety management system.
Collect and collate data regarding food consumption, incidence and prevalence of biological risk, contaminants in food, etc.
Creating an information network across the country so that public receive reliable and objective information about food safety and issues of concern.
Provide training programmes for persons who are involved or intend to get involved in food businesses.
Contribute to the development of international technical standards for food, sanitary and phytol-sanitary standards.

Composition of FSSAI

The FSSAI comprises of a Chairperson and twenty-two members out of which one – third are to be women.
The Chairperson of FSSAI is appointed by the Central Government.
The Food Authority is assisted by Scientific Committees and Panels in setting standards and the Central Advisory Committee in coordinating with enforcement agencies.
Concerned Ministry: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
The FSSAI appoints food safety authorities at the state level.
The primary responsibility for enforcement is largely with the State Food Safety Commissioners.

Q1. What is Food Adulteration?

Food adulteration is the intentional act of changing the quality of food by adding or removing substances, or by replacing them with inferior ingredients. This is done to gain economic advantage or to modify the food's appearance, taste, weight, volume, or shelf life.

Q2. What are Carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs.

News: Should packaged food content be labelled? | Explained

Gram Panchayat-Level Weather Forecasting initiative

November 19, 2025

About Gram Panchayat-Level Weather Forecasting initiative:

The initiative is developed in collaboration between the Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD), Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
It is aimed at “empowering rural communities and enhancing disaster preparedness at the grassroots, and will benefit farmers and villagers across the country”.
The initiative will provide Gram Panchayats with a five-day weather forecast and hourly updates, enabling rural communities to better plan agricultural activities and prepare for weather-related risks.
It will deliver weather updates via e-GramSwaraj, the Meri Panchayat app, and Gram Manchitra portals. e-GramSwaraj is already operational.
- Users can see data on the current temperature, wind speed, cloud cover (in percentage), rainfall, and relative humidity at the level of gram panchayats; five-day forecasts of minimum and maximum temperatures, rainfall, cloud cover, wind direction, and wind speed, and an overall weather forecast.
Significance: It will “strengthen grassroots governance and promote sustainable agricultural practices, making rural populations more climate-resilient and better equipped to tackle environmental challenges”.

Q1: What is the India Meteorological Department (IMD)?

IMD was established in 1875. It is the National Meteorological Service of the country and the principal government agency in all matters relating to meteorology and allied subjects. The Director General of Meteorology is the Head of the India Meteorological Department.

News:Weather forecasts at panchayat level: what will be known, and how it will help

SEHER Programme

November 19, 2025

About SEHER Programme:

It is a comprehensive credit education program designed to enhance financial literacy and business skills among women entrepreneurs.
This initiative is expected to enable women to access the financial tools necessary for business growth and job creation.
It is an initiative of NITI Aayog's Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) and TransUnion CIBIL.
This initiative supports WEP’s goal of improving financing access for women in India’s 63 million MSMEs.

Key facts about the Women Entrepreneurship Platform

It was incubated in NITI Aayog in 2018 as an aggregator platform that transitioned as a public-private partnership in 2022 to build a comprehensive ecosystem supporting women entrepreneurs across India.
WEP aims at empowering women entrepreneurs by overcoming information asymmetry and providing continuum of support across different pillars - Entrepreneurship promotion, Access to Finance; Market Linkages; Training and Skilling; Mentoring and Networking and Business Development Services.
For this, WEP adopts a wide array of interventions with a focus on convergence and collaboration with existing stakeholders.

Q1: What is National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog?

It was formed via a resolution of the Union Cabinet on 1 January 2015. It was constituted to replace the Planning Commission - instituted in 1950. It is the premier policy think tank of the Government of India, providing directional and policy inputs.

Source: WEP and Transunion Cibil to collaborate to enhance financial literacy and business skills of women entrepreneurs

Black hole Triple’ System

November 19, 2025

About Black hole Triple’ System:

The system comprises a black hole at its centre, currently in the process of consuming a small star spiralling very close to it.
There is also a second star, which appears to be circling the black hole but is actually far away.
The discovery of the system, located about 8,000 light years away from Earth has raised questions about how black holes are formed.
Many black holes discovered until now have been part of binary systems, consisting of a black hole and a secondary object (such as a star or another black hole).
But the black hole triple not only has one star which orbits the black hole about every 6.5 days, but also a more far-off star which orbits it every 70,000 years.
It is situated in the constellation of Cygnus, the system features one of the oldest known black holes, the V404 Cygni, which is nine times as big as the Sun in our solar system.
- V404 Cygni has two stars around it as the black hole did not arise from a supernova, which typically kicks away outer stars in the explosion.
- Instead, it was formed through another process called “direct collapse”, where the star caves in after expending all its fuel, but does not explode.

Q1: What is Black hole?

These are formed after the supernova explosion when the core of a massive dying star more than 2.5 times the mass of the Sun collapses until an infinite density where gravity is so high that even light cannot escape.

News:First ‘black hole triple’ system discovered: What does it mean?

India’s Renewable Energy Revolution Story

November 19, 2025

What’s in today’s article?

Why in News?
Renewable Energy Installed Capacity in India
Growth of Renewable Energy Installed Capacity in India
Key Growth Drivers of Renewable Energy in India
About the RE-INVEST 2024
Government Initiatives/ Achievements in the Green Energy Sector Highlighted by the PM at the RE-INVEST 2024

Why in News?

At the 4th Global Renewable Energy Investors Meet and Expo (RE-INVEST 2024) in Gandhinagar, the PM declared that India's solar revolution story will be painted in gold when the history of the 21st century is written.
This is because installed solar energy capacity in India has increased by 30 times in the last 9 years reaching 89.43 GW (as of August 2024).
The PM also highlighted that the government has taken many big decisions in the green energy sector.

Renewable Energy Installed Capacity in India:

As of August 2024, Renewable Energy (RE) sources (including large hydropower) have a combined installed capacity of 199.52 GW.
The following is the installed capacity for Renewables:
- Wind power: 47.19 GW
- Solar Power: 89.43 GW
- Biomass/Cogeneration: 10.35 GW
- Small Hydro Power: 5.07 GW
- Waste To Energy: 0.60 GW
- Large Hydro: 46.92 GW
As per REN21 Renewables 2024 Global Status Report, India stands 4th globally in RE installed capacity (including large hydro), 4th in Wind Power capacity and 5th in Solar Power capacity.

Growth of Renewable Energy Installed Capacity in India:

India’s installed non-fossil fuel capacity has increased 396%in the last 8.5 years and stands at more than 207.76 GW (including large hydro and nuclear), which is about 46% of the country’s total capacity.
The country has set an enhanced target at the UNFCCC’s COP26 (Glasgow, 2021) of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy by 2030 - the world's largest expansion plan in renewable energy under the Panchamrit pledge.

Key Growth Drivers of Renewable Energy in India:

Government commitments:
- Reduce India’s total projected carbon emission by 1 Bn tonnes by 2030,
- Reduce the carbon intensity of the nation’s economy by less than 45% by the end of the decade, and
- Achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.
Proposed solar cities and parks:
- The government approved solar city per state and the setting up of 57 solar parks of 39.28 GW capacity across the nation.
- The government is also giving a push to Floating PV Projects.
National Green Hydrogen Mission: The government launched the mission with an aim to produce 5 million metric tonne (MMT) green hydrogen per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity of about 125 GW by 2030.
Off-shore Wind Energy: The medium and long-term targets for off-shore wind power capacity additions are 5 GW by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030.
Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: In 2018, national policy was announced to promote an extensive grid-connected wind-solar PV hybrid system for efficiently utilising transmission infrastructure and land.
AatmaNirbhar Bharat: The PLI scheme in Solar PV manufacturing was introduced under AatmaNirbhar Bharat.
Promoting FDI: Up to 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route for renewable energy generation and distribution projects subject to provisions of the Electricity Act 2003.
Union Budget 2024 Highlights:
- The Centrally Sponsored Scheme for Solar Power (Grid) has been allocated INR 10,000 Cr.
- PM-Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana has been allocated INR 6,250 Cr. Under this scheme, the government provides funds and helps in installation of solar rooftops in every household.
- Exemption of Basic Customs Duty (BCD) on imports of 25 critical minerals important for the renewable energy sectors has also been announced.

About the RE-INVEST 2024:

Organised by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India, RE-Invest is a global platform bringing together key players in the renewable energy sector.
The conference will delve into the future of energy, exploring trends, technologies, and policies shaping the global renewable energy landscape and help in achieving UN SDGs 7 and 13.
This unique platform will foster collaboration, knowledge sharing, and investment opportunities to advance India's renewable energy goals.

Government Initiatives/ Achievements in the Green Energy Sector Highlighted by the PM at the RE-INVEST 2024:

A new Bio E3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment) policy has been approved for promoting high performance bio manufacturing.
For offshore wind energy projects, a viability gap funding scheme has been approved with an outlay of ₹Rs 7000 crore.
The Union government has set aside a ₹1 trillion research fund for taking several initiatives for electric mobility and high-performance bio manufacturing.
India is the first G-20 country to meet climate commitments made in Paris nine years before the deadline.

Q.1. What are Floating PV Projects?

Floating solar involves installing solar panels on floating structures situated on water bodies such as lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. This not only utilizes otherwise unused water surfaces but also enhances the efficiency of the solar panels due to the cooling effect of water.

Q.2. What are UN SDGs 7 and 13?

The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7 and 13 are - SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy, SDG 13: Climate Action. These two goals are closely related and complementary.

Integrating the AA Framework with the DPDP Act

November 19, 2025

What’s in Today’s Article?

India’s Consent Based Data Governance Latest News
The AA Framework - Consent-Driven Financial Data Sharing
The DPDP Act, 2023 - Broadening Consent Management
Draft DPDP Rules, 2025 - Key Provisions and Recommendations
Towards a Unified Data Ecosystem - The Way Forward
Conclusion
India’s Consent Based Data Governance FAQs

India’s Consent Based Data Governance Latest News

India’s evolving data governance landscape is transitioning towards a consent-based data-sharing model that prioritizes user empowerment, transparency, and interoperability.
The Account Aggregator (AA) framework and the recently enacted Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023 both reflect this transformative shift.

The AA Framework - Consent-Driven Financial Data Sharing

Key features:
- A multi-regulatory initiative led by RBI, SEBI, Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI), Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA), and Ministry of Finance.
- Operationalised under RBI’s NBFC-AA Master Directions, 2016, it enables secure, real-time, and machine-readable sharing of financial data (banking, loans, tax, investment, pensions).
- It empowers users to give, manage, and withdraw data sharing consents, and currently functions at population scale, promoting efficiency, productivity, and customer-centric services.
Significance of the framework:
- It promotes digital economy, financial inclusion, data protection, and e-Governance.
- It demonstrates inter-agency coordination and the move towards a data fiduciary model.

The DPDP Act, 2023 - Broadening Consent Management

Core provisions:
- Introduces Consent Managers (CMs) to enable individuals (Data Principals) to control their personal data across sectors.
- Aligns with AA’s core principles - explicit, informed, and revocable consent.
- Applicable across sectors: Health, education, employment, digital commerce, etc.
Techno-legal architecture:
- Emphasizes user-centric data flow.
- Operates through intermediaries registered with the Data Protection Board (DPB).

Draft DPDP Rules, 2025 - Key Provisions and Recommendations

Highlights of the draft rules:
- Mandatory DPB registration: Ensures accountability and standardization across all CMs.
- Sector-specific consent managers:
  - Supports domain-specific frameworks like the Financial Health Records (FHR) under National Health Authority (NHA).
  - Encourages innovation through interoperable APIs.
- Commercial arrangements with data fiduciaries:
  - Allows sustainable business models for CMs.
  - Emphasizes that fiduciary duties toward Data Principals must not be compromised.
Critical recommendations:
- Avoid regulatory overlap with AA.
- Ensure alignment between sectoral frameworks and the broader DPDP architecture.
- Build a future-ready, unified consent infrastructure.

Towards a Unified Data Ecosystem - The Way Forward

Synergy, not redundancy:
- Leverage the maturity of the AA ecosystem to inform the rollout of the CM framework under the DPDP Act.
- Promote interoperability and avoid parallel regulatory setups.
Significance: This will reflect India’s approach to data sovereignty, digital empowerment, and governance reform.

Conclusion

India stands at a crucial juncture in shaping a robust, user-centric data governance framework.
By integrating lessons from the AA model and ensuring coherence in implementing the DPDP Act, the country can pioneer a scalable, secure, and inclusive consent-based data-sharing infrastructure.
This will be crucial for both digital inclusion and data protection in the 21st century.

India’s Consent Based Data Governance FAQs

Q1. What is the Account Aggregator (AA) framework and how does it empower data principals in the financial sector?

Ans. The AA framework, a multi-regulatory initiative operationalised by RBI in 2016, empowers individuals to securely give, manage, and withdraw consent for sharing their financial data in real-time with regulated entities.

Q2. How does the DPDP Act, 2023 build upon the principles of the AA ecosystem?

Ans. The DPDP Act institutionalizes a consent-manager-led regime across sectors, reinforcing explicit and informed consent mechanisms originally established by the AA framework.

Q3. Why is interoperability important in India’s consent manager ecosystem?

Ans. Interoperability ensures seamless, secure, and scalable data sharing across sectors and platforms, enabling innovation while safeguarding user consent and data rights.

Q4. What are the key recommendations proposed for the Draft DPDP Rules, 2025 to align them with the existing AA framework?

Ans. Key recommendations include mandatory DPB registration, sector-specific consent managers, and allowing commercial arrangements with data fiduciaries without compromising user trust.

Q5. What is the significance of integrating AA and CM frameworks for India's data governance future?

Ans. A unified framework avoids regulatory overlap, strengthens user control over data, and lays the foundation for a robust, consent-based digital economy.

Source: TH

India Inclusion in JP Morgan EM Bond Index

November 19, 2025

What’s in today’s article?

Why in News?
Indian Bond Market - Challenges and Solutions
What is the JP Morgan Emerging Market Index?
What was JP Morgan’s Announcement?
Impact of IGBs Inclusion
Will Higher Inflows be a Concern for RBI?

Why in News?

India officially became part of JP Morgan's Government Bond Index-Emerging Markets (GBI-EM).
The inclusion is likely to bring nearly $20-25 billion into the country (over the next 10 months) and will help India manage its external finances and boost foreign exchange reserves and the rupee.

Indian Bond Market - Challenges and Solutions:

Importance of bond markets:
- They are a boon for corporate bodies and government entities, providing a flexible and efficient way to raise capital.
- One of the critical advantages for companies is the avoidance of equity dilution.
- Moreover, the cost of capital is reduced as the interest expenses on debt instruments are tax-deductible, making it a more attractive option than other forms of financing.
India's bond market:
- India's bond market is pivotal in the country's economic structure.
- As of September 2023, the government bond market size stands impressively at $1.3 trillion, with corporate bonds at $0.6 trillion.
Challenges in Indian bond markets:
- Narrow investment base,
- Insufficient participation by foreign investors,
- Virtually absent secondary market and
- Private placement (a sale of stock shares or bonds to pre-selected investors and institutions rather than publicly on the open market).
Panacea:
- Inclusion in the Global Indices
- Presence of market makers on both buy and sell-side
- No credit default swaps
- Bonds bhi ‘Sahi Hain’: A marketing campaign which can catch the eyeballs of all the age groups of the society.
- Credit enhancement frameworks
- Incentivising the issuer

What is the JP Morgan Emerging Market Index?

Created in the early 1990s, it is the most widely referenced index for emerging market bonds and has become benchmarks for local market and corporate EM bonds.
It began with the issuance of the first Brady bond - denominated in U.S. dollars and issued by developing countries and backed by the U.S. Treasury bonds.
It has since expanded to include the GBI-EM (in 2005) and the Corporate Emerging Markets Bond Index (CEMBI).

What was JP Morgan’s Announcement?

JP Morgan has announced that it would include Indian Government Bonds (IGBs) to its emerging markets bond index (starting June 28, 2024).
There are 23 IGBs that meet the index eligibility criteria, with a combined notional value of approximately Rs 27 lakh crore or $330 billion.
Only IGBs designated under the Fully Accessible Route (FAR was introduced by the RBI in 2020 to enable non-residents to invest in specified Government of India dated securities) are index-eligible.

Impact of IGBs Inclusion:

India is expected to reach the maximum weight of 10% in the GBI-EM Global Diversified Index (GBI-EM GD).
A higher weightage will prompt global investors to allocate more funds (~ $ 2-3 billion flows to India every month) for investment in Indian debt.
It will not only result in lower risk premia, but will also help India to finance its fiscal and current account deficit (CAD).
It will also help India to enhance the liquidity and ownership base of government securities (G-secs; debt instruments issued by the central government to meet its fiscal needs).
The inclusion of certain Indian sovereign bonds will support a diversification of the investor base for Indian government securities.
It could help lower funding costs slightly, and support further development of domestic capital markets.

Will Higher Inflows be a Concern for RBI?

When the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) removes dollars from the market, it must release an equal amount in rupees.

● This means, while higher inflows will boost the rupee, the RBI will have to use the instruments in its armoury to check the resultant inflationary pressures

Q.1. What is fiscal and current account deficit (CAD)?

While both CAD and fiscal deficit relate to a country's financial health, they operate in different spheres. CAD focuses on the trade balance between a country and the rest of the world, while fiscal deficit pertains to the government's budgetary situation.

Q.2. What do you mean by the credit default swap?

A credit default swap (CDS) is a contract between two parties in which one party purchases protection from another party against losses from the default of a borrower for a defined period of time.

Source: Indian govt bonds now part of JP Morgan's bond index. Here's what it means | IE

Can India Escape the Middle-Income Trap?

November 19, 2025

What’s in today’s article?

Introduction
What is the Middle-Income Trap?
Lessons from Other Economies
Challenges for India
Strategies for India’s Transition
Conclusion

Introduction

The World Development Report 2024, published by the World Bank, highlights the challenge of the middle-income trap, where countries experience a slowdown in growth as they reach higher income levels.
The report identifies the 3i approach—investment, infusion, and innovation—as essential strategies for countries aiming to transition from middle-income to high-income status.
This approach requires dynamic state policies, particularly relevant to India's ambitions for sustainable economic growth.

What is the Middle-Income Trap?

The middle-income trap refers to the stagnation of per capita income growth when economies reach around 11% of the U.S. per capita income.
This phenomenon hinders further progress toward high-income status.
Global Scenario: Over the last 34 years, only 34 middle-income economies have successfully transitioned to high-income levels, emphasizing the difficulty of escaping this trap.

Lessons from Other Economies

South Korea:
- State-Driven Growth: South Korea's escape from the middle-income trap was characterized by a strong state intervention model. The government actively directed private sector activities, focusing on export-driven growth.
- Supportive Policies: Successful companies were rewarded with access to new technologies, while underperforming firms were allowed to fail. This approach ensured that state resources were efficiently allocated.
- Role of Chaebols: South Korean business conglomerates, or chaebols, became global leaders in innovation due to their emphasis on investment and technology adoption.
Chile:
- Natural Resource Focus: Chile’s growth was facilitated through targeted state support for natural resource sectors, such as the salmon industry.
- Export Strategy: The Chilean government ensured the success of specific export sectors through intervention and support, helping the country to climb up the income ladder.
European Union’s Role:
- Most European countries that escaped the middle-income trap benefited from EU membership, which facilitated free movement of capital and labor—advantages that are not available to non-European nations.

Challenges for India

Global Economic Headwinds:
- The global economic environment has changed significantly since the time of South Korea’s rapid growth. Today, world export growth has slowed, and protectionism is on the rise, making it difficult for countries like India to access foreign markets.
- India also faces the challenge of premature deindustrialization, where the contribution of manufacturing to GDP declines at lower levels of income than seen historically.
Stagnation in the Manufacturing Sector:
- Despite India's push for industrial growth, the manufacturing sector has struggled to become a robust engine of economic expansion.
- This has been exacerbated by increased reliance on agricultural employment following the pandemic, reversing earlier progress in structural transformation.
Income Disparity and Low Wage Growth:
- While India’s GDP growth has been estimated at around 7% recently, this growth is not reflected in real wage increases.
- Data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) shows that nominal wage growth has been around 5-7%, barely keeping up with inflation.
- Low wage growth means that consumption demand remains weak, which could hinder India’s ability to escape the middle-income trap.
Challenges of Democracy:
- Unlike South Korea and Chile, whose export-driven growth models were facilitated by authoritarian regimes, India operates within a democratic framework.
- This makes it crucial to balance state intervention with democratic principles, such as labor rights and freedom of expression.

Strategies for India’s Transition

Leveraging Investment and Innovation:
- India needs to focus on enhancing domestic investment and fostering an environment conducive to innovation.
- This includes supporting startups, tech companies, and research and development.
Encouraging Responsible Business Practices:
- For India to follow a path similar to South Korea’s, it is vital to ensure that state support is based on merit and performance rather than political connections.
- This will ensure efficient allocation of resources and avoid crony capitalism.
Strengthening the Service Sector:
- With manufacturing facing challenges, India’s service sector has the potential to be a key driver of growth.
- It is essential to enhance the productivity and global competitiveness of IT services, healthcare, education, and financial services.
Inclusive Economic Growth:
- Addressing income inequality and ensuring that workers share in economic growth is critical.
- Policies aimed at improving social safety nets and educational opportunities can empower more people to participate in India’s growth story.

Conclusion

India’s journey towards escaping the middle-income trap is fraught with challenges, from global economic shifts to domestic structural issues.
However, by adopting a balanced approach that combines state intervention, investment in innovation, and adherence to democratic values, India can chart a path towards sustainable high-income status.
Examples of countries like South Korea and Chile offer valuable lessons, but India must tailor these lessons to suit its unique economic and political context.

Q1. When was the World Bank established?

The World Bank was established in 1944 to help rebuild Europe and Japan after World War II. Its official name was the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). When it first began operations in 1946, it had 38 members. Today, most of the countries in the world are members.

Q2. What is the meaning of a Developing Country?

According to the UN, a developing country is a country with a relatively low standard of living, undeveloped industrial base, and moderate to low Human Development Index (HDI). This index is a comparative measure of poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors for countries worldwide.

Source: Can India escape middle-income trap?