Articles on 5 February 2026

by Vajiram & Ravi - 5 February 2026

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 5 February 2026, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

Attingal Revolt, Background, Outcome, Key Details

February 5, 2026
Attingal Revolt

The Attingal Revolt is considered as one of the earliest uprisings among the common people against British rule in India, which took place in present day Kerala, near the Anjengo fort. The revolt showed the anger of farmers, traders, and local chiefs against foreign control. 

Attingal Revolt Background

  • The English East India Company entered the Attingal principality in the late 17th century to trade mainly in pepper.
  • In 1684, Rani Umayamma (Aswathi Tirunal) allowed the English to set up a trading settlement at Anjengo (Anchuthengu), which was later turned into a fort by 1699.
  • Over time, the English began to control and monopolise the pepper trade, paying very low prices to local cultivators, which caused widespread anger and hardship.
  • English officials, especially Gifford, used unfair trade practices, such as false accounts, fake weights, and private trading, which further hurt local traders.
  • The English also showed disrespect to local merchants, especially Muslim traders, leading to social tension and hostility.
  • Powerful local chiefs like the Ettuveettil Pillamar and Madampimar opposed English interference and feared loss of traditional authority.
  • The people were upset that local wealth was being taken away by foreigners, while farmers were becoming poorer.
  • These economic exploitations, political interferences and social insults together created the background for the Attingal Revolt of 1721, one of the earliest popular resistances against the British in Kerala.

The Attingal Revolt

  • In 1721, the English officer William Gifford decided to take annual gifts directly from Anjengo Fort to the Rani of Attingal with a group of about 140 English soldiers, ignoring the demands of local chiefs known as the Ettuveettil Pillamar.
  • This show of military strength angered the local people. While the English party was travelling back by boat through the Vamanapuram River near Attingal, they were attacked by Nair soldiers and Muslim traders and most of the English soldiers were killed.
  • After the attack, the local people surrounded and laid siege to Anjengo Fort for nearly six months. The fort was defended by Gunner Samuel Ince until British reinforcements arrived from Tellicherry, after which the revolt was suppressed.
  • Following the revolt, an agreement was made between the East India Company and the Rani of Attingal. The company received compensation for its losses, secured a monopoly over the pepper trade, and gained the right to establish factories in places of its choice.

Attingal Revolt Outcome

  • After the Attingal Revolt, the English East India Company suppressed the rebellion by sending reinforcements and regained control of Anjengo Fort.
  • The company then made an agreement with the Rani of Attingal, under which it received compensation for its losses.
  • The English were granted a monopoly over the pepper trade and permission to set up more trading centers, which increased their influence in the region.

The revolt showed early local resistance to British exploitation, even though the British finally strengthened their control.

Attingal Revolt FAQs

Q1: What is an Attingal revolt?

Ans: Attingal revolt is considered as one of the earliest uprising against the British rule that took place in 1721 in present day Kerala.

Q2: What was the main cause of the revolt?

Ans: Unfair trade practices and monopoly over pepper trade by the English caused the revolt

Q3: Who all participated in the revolt?

Ans: Local Nair soldiers and Muslim traders mainly took part in the revolt.

Q4: What was the outcome of the Attingal revolt?

Ans: The revolt was suppressed and the Britishers gained monopoly over pepper trade and more trading rights.

Q5: Which main British officer was involved in the Revolt?

Ans: William Gifford was the chief English officer involved in the incident.

Cayman Islands, History, Location, Geography, Economy, Climate

February 5, 2026
Cayman Islands

Cayman Islands are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea, the overseas territory of the United Kingdom. It comprises the islands of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman and Cayman Brac.

Cayman Islands Overview

Cayman Islands are a group of Islands with distinct geographical, climatic, economic and cultural features. The features are discussed in details below:

History 

  • These Islands were first sighted by Christopher Columbus in 1503 and came under British control after the Treaty of Madrid (1670); permanent settlement began on Grand Cayman, with British settlers and African slaves forming a stable society after emancipation in 1835..
  • Politically, the islands were linked to Jamaica until 1959, returned to direct British rule in 1962 and gained internal self-government through the 1972 constitution, later strengthened by constitutional reforms in 2009 and the creation of a Parliament in 2020.
  • The modern economy grew around tourism and offshore banking, reducing dependence on Britain.

Location and Islands

  • The Cayman Islands consist of three islands: Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman.
  • They lie south of Cuba and northwest of Jamaica.
  • The capital of Cayman Island is George Town.

Language

  • English is the official and most spoken language in the Islands, while Spanish is the second most spoken language.

Geography

  • The Cayman Islands are three low-lying limestone islands in the western Caribbean Sea-Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman; Grand Cayman is the largest and most populated.
  • The coasts are mainly ironshore with sandy beaches and the islands are surrounded by coral reefs that support marine life and tourism.
  • Due to the porous limestone surface, there are no rivers; mangroves cover a significant part of the land and protect the coastline.
  • The islands have a tropical climate with warm temperatures year-round.

Climate

  • The Islands have a tropical climate, which means the weather is warm throughout the year.
  • The average temperature remains around 27°C, with no extreme heat or cold.
  • There are two main seasons:
    • Rainy season from May to October
    • Dry season from November to April
  • Rainfall is moderate to heavy, especially during the rainy season.
  • The pleasant climate supports tourism, which is important for the economy.

Economy and Currency

  • The currency of the Cayman Islands is the Cayman Islands Dollar (KYD).
  • The economy is service-based, mainly dependent on tourism and offshore banking, which has resulted in the highest per capita income in the Caribbean.
  • Tourism is supported by a favourable climate, natural beauty, air and sea connectivity.
  • The Cayman Islands are a leading international financial centre due to absence of direct taxes and liberal banking laws, with banking revenues forming a major part of the government income.
  • While financial confidentiality is protected, the islands follow international rules through tax-information exchange agreements, helping maintain global credibility.

Environment challenges

  • Being low-lying islands, the Islands are highly vulnerable to climate change, especially sea-level rise, hurricanes and coastal erosion.
  • Coral reefs and mangroves, which protect the coastline and support marine life, are under threat from pollution, warming seas and tourism pressure.

Rapid growth of tourism and construction has increased waste generation, water scarcity and habitat loss, putting stress on the natural environment.

Cayman Islands FAQs

Q1: Where are the Cayman Islands located?

Ans: Cayman Islands are located in the Caribbean Sea.

Q2: How many islands make up the Cayman Islands?

Ans: The Cayman Islands consists of three islands: Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman.

Q3: What is the Climate of the Cayman Island?

Ans: They have a tropical climate with warm temperatures year-round.

Q4: Why are the Cayman Islands known as a tax haven?

Ans: They have no direct taxes, liberal financial laws, and a British-based legal system, which attracts global businesses.

Q5: What is the currency used in the Cayman Islands?

Ans: The official currency is the Cayman Islands Dollar (KYD).

Amagarh Fort, History, Controversy, Significance

February 5, 2026
Amagarh Fort

Amagarh Fort is a historical fort located near Jaipur, Rajasthan. The Fort is at the centre of a conflict between the tribal Meena community and local Hindu groups.

Amagarh Fort History

The origin of Amagarh Fort is debated. Members of the Meena community, an ancient tribal group recognised as a Scheduled Tribe in Rajasthan, claim that the Amagarh Fort was built by a Meena ruler from the Nadla gotra, now known as Badgoti Meenas, well before the rise of Rajput powers in the region.

While some historians believe that the present form of the Amagarh Fort was given in the 18th century by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, founder of Jaipur city. 

Amagarh Fort Recent Controversy 

In the year 2021, Amagarh Fort became the centre of controversy when a saffron flag was hoisted at the site. Members of the Meena community protested, stating that their tribal religious symbols and cultural identity were being ignored. The situation led to clashes, police intervention, filing of FIRs, and restrictions on public access to the fort.

Amagarh Fort Cultural Significance

For the Meena community, Amagarh Fort is not just a military or architectural site, but a holy place where ancestral deities like Amba Mata, Bhairu ji, and Shiv Parivar are worshipped

About Meena Community

  • The Meena community is one of the oldest tribal communities of India, mainly found in Rajasthan.
  • Meenas are recognised as a Scheduled Tribe (ST) under the Indian Constitution.
  • The word ‘Meena’ is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Mina’, meaning fish, which was their ancient symbol. The fish symbol of the Meenas is still visible in the emblem of Jaipur state.
  • Historically, Meenas were early rulers of eastern Rajasthan, especially the Dhundhar region (present-day Jaipur and surroundings). The Meena community predated the Kachwaha Rajputs in the Jaipur–Amer region.
  • The community followed a clan system (gotras), with strong kinship ties.
  • Meenas worship nature, ancestors, and tribal deities, showing elements of animism. Important deities worshipped by Meenas include Amba Mata, Bhairav Ji, Shiva, and local tribal gods.
  • During medieval times, Meena power declined due to the expansion of Rajput kingdoms, especially the Kachwahas.

About Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II

  • Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II was a ruler of Amber (Amer) in Rajasthan. 
  • He belonged to the Kachwaha Rajput dynasty.
  • He became ruler of Amber at the age of 11 after his father Maharaja Bishan Singh died on 31 December 1699.
  • The title “Sawai” means one and a quarter. The title was bestowed by Emperor Aurangzeb on 11-year-old Jai Singh II due to his wit and intelligence.
  • He was a vassal ruler under the Mughal Empire, especially during the reigns of Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, and Muhammad Shah. Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah bestowed upon him the title of Saramad-i-Rajaha-i-Hind, Raj Rajeshvar, Shri Rajadhiraj and Maharaja Sawai.
  • He founded the city of Jaipur in 1727. Recently, it has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Jai Singh II shifted his capital from Amber to Jaipur due to water scarcity and growing population.
  • He was a great patron of science, mathematics, and astronomy. He translated several astronomical works into Sanskrit. He built Jantar Mantar observatories at five locations:Jaipur, Delhi, Ujjain, Mathura, Varanasi.
  • Jai Singh II constructed the Samrat Yantra, the world’s largest stone sundial.
  • He wrote the astronomical text “Zij-i Muhammad Shahi”.
  • Jai Singh II followed a policy of religious tolerance. He abolished certain taxes like Jaziya in his kingdom.

Amagarh Fort FAQs

Q1: Where is Amagarh Fort located?

Ans: Amagarh Fort is located near Jaipur in Rajasthan.

Q2: Who is believed to have originally built Amagarh Fort?

Ans: The Meena community claims it was built by a Meena ruler before the rise of the Rajputs.

Q3: Which ruler is credited with the present structure of the fort?

Ans: Many historians attribute the present form of the fort to Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II in the 18th century.

Q4: Why is Amagarh Fort culturally important to the Meena community?

Ans: It is a sacred site where they worship ancestral deities like Amba Mata, Bhairu ji, and Shiv Parivar.

Q5: Who founded the City of Jaipur.

Ans: Sawai Jai Singh II founded the city of Jaipur in 1727.

Kamala Sohonie, Early Life and Education, Contribution

February 5, 2026
Kamala Sohonie

Kamala Sohonie was an Indian biochemist and a pioneer in Indian science. She became the first Indian woman to earn a PhD in a scientific subject at a time when women were largely kept out of research.

Kamala Sohonie Early Life and Education

  • Kamala Sohonie was born on 18 June 1911 in Indore, in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
  • She graduated in 1933 with a BSc degree in Chemistry and Physics from Bombay University, securing the top rank in the merit list.
  • Despite her excellent academic record, Kamala Sohonie’s application to the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) was first rejected because C.V. Raman, head of IISc,  believed that women were not suited for scientific research. She protested peacefully, and Raman eventually agreed to admit her under strict conditions. Her outstanding work later changed his attitude, and IISc was opened to women researchers.
  • She secured admission to Cambridge University, England, in 1936. At Cambridge, she finished her PhD in merely 14 months, and her thesis was just 40 pages.
  • In 1939, she came back to India to serve her country.

Also Read: Annie Besant

Kamala Sohonie Contribution

  • As the first woman admitted to the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), she challenged gender bias, leading C.V. Raman to allow her and other women to join the institute.
  • During her time in Cambridge University, Kamala Sohonie worked on potatoes and discovered the enzyme ‘Cytochrome C’, a type of protein in the mitochondria which plays an important role in cellular respiration. 
  • Kamala Sohonie’s most impactful contribution was her research on Neera, a natural palm extract. She demonstrated that Neera is rich in vitamins, minerals, and nutrients and could fight malnutrition among children from tribal communities in India. For this socially transformative work, she was awarded the Rashtrapati Award.
  • She became the first female director of the Institute of Science, Mumbai.
  • She was also a founding member of the Consumer Guidance Society of India, advocating for consumer rights.
  • She served as head of the Department of Biochemistry at Lady Hardinge College, New Delhi. 
  • She also served as Assistant Director of the Nutrition Research Lab, Coonoor.

Kamala Sohonie FAQs

Q1: Who was Kamala Sohonie?

Ans: Kamala Sohonie was an Indian biochemist and the first Indian woman to earn a PhD in a scientific discipline.

Q2: Why is Kamala Sohonie famous?

Ans: She is famous for breaking gender barriers in Indian science and for her research on nutrition and malnutrition.

Q3: What was Kamala Sohonie’s major scientific contribution?

Ans: She identified the role of Cytochrome C in cellular respiration and worked on nutrient-rich Neera.

Q4: What is Neera and why is it important?

Ans: Neera is a nutrient-rich palm extract that helps fight child malnutrition, especially in tribal areas.

Q5: Kamala Sohonie received the Rashtrapati Award for what?

Ans: Kamala Sohonie received the Rashtrapati Award for her research on Neera.

UPSC Daily Quiz 5 February 2026

February 5, 2026
UPSC Daily Quiz

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UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Pithora Painting, History, Features, Making, Motifs, Significance

February 5, 2026
Pithora Painting

Pithora Paintings are a traditional tribal art form, practiced mainly among the Bhil and the Rathwa tribes. It is usually painted on the walls of the houses to show gratitude to their gods and ask for happiness, prosperity and protection. The pithora paintings usually have motifs inspired from daily lives.

Pithora Painting History and Origin

  • Pithora Painting is a traditional tribal wall art that has originated in the tribal regions of Gujarat, mainly in Panchmahal and Chhota Udaipur.
  • It is done by tribes such as the Rathwa, Bhil and Bhilala, who holds a strong belief in nature, spirits, and divine powers.
  • It is named after Pithora De, who is their tribal god and is associated with marriage, prosperity, and well-being of the tribe.
  • These paintings are made as a sacred offering to show gratitude toward the gods or to ask for blessings like good crops, health, and family happiness.
  • It holds a long history and its existence dates back to around the 13th century.
  • Usually, the paintings are made on the inner walls of houses and temples during special rituals or after a wish was fulfilled.
  • Natural materials such as cow dung, lime, mud, and natural colours are used to prepare the walls and paints.
  • The pithora paintings show tribal and Hindu deities, horses, animals, and scenes from daily life like farming, hunting, and dancing.
  • It  plays a crucial role in preserving tribal stories, beliefs, and customs and helps to teach younger generations about their culture.
  • In modern times, factors like urbanisation, deforestation and declining traditional practices have threatened the art form.
  • However, renewed interest from artists, researchers, and cultural institutions has helped in the revival and recognition of Pithora paintings as a valuable part of India’s tribal heritage.

Pithora Painting

Read about: Mural Paintings

Pithora Painting Features

  • Pithora ainting is a sacred tribal wall art of Gujarat it is named after Pithora Baba, the main tribal god and is painted to seek blessings and prosperity.
  • It is traditionally painted by trained tribal artists called Lakharas, usually in the verandah or inner walls of houses during auspicious rituals.
  • Before painting, the walls are prepared with mud and cow dung and unmarried girls often take part in this preparation as a ritual practice.
  • The painting is done within a rectangular frame using bright natural colours like white, red, yellow, blue, green and orange.
  • A key feature is the depiction of seven horses, believed to represent the seven hills of the Gujarat-Madhya Pradesh border region.
  • The painting is divided into sections showing the world of gods, human life and nature, including gods, animals, farming, marriage scenes, and village life.
  • Each Pithora painting is unique, as artists add personal symbols and finger dots at the end to mark completion and creativity.

Pithora Painting Process of Making

  • Preparation of Background

    • Pithora painting is made on the central inner wall of the house, which is considered sacred.
    • Women prepare the wall by applying a mixture of mud, cow dung, red clay and yellow clay.
    • This coating makes the wall smooth, strong and long-lasting.
    • The wall is left to dry properly before starting the painting.
  • Drawing the Border and Threshold
    • Before painting, measurements are taken to maintain proper shape and balance.
    • A rectangular border is drawn using white or red clay with the help of threads.
    • At the bottom, a door or threshold is drawn to represent the Pithora house entrance.
    • The threshold is decorated with simple designs like triangles, leaves, flowers, and water patterns.
  • Painting of Main Figures
    • The painting begins with the invocation of Lord Ganesh, often shown smoking a hookah.
    • Important figures like the Kathiya horse and Kathiya Kunwar are painted next.
    • These figures are believed to invite gods and goddesses to the Pithora ceremony.
  • Use of Colours and Tools
    • Natural colours made from stones, plants, soil and lime are traditionally used.
    • Brushes made from twigs, leaves and fingers are commonly used for painting.
    • Bright colours such as white, red, yellow, blue, green and orange are preferred.
  • Ritual and Community Process
    • The painting is done by trained artists called Lakharas.
    • It is a ritual activity involving the family and community.
    • The painting takes several days or weeks to complete.
    • Every Pithora painting is unique, based on beliefs and wishes of the family.

Read about: Warli Painting

Pithora Paintings Motifs

  • Pithora painting shows Pithora Baapji, the main tribal god, through two white horses facing each other, which symbolise prosperity and protection.
  • Sun, Moon, and stars are drawn near the top of the painting to represent cosmic power and the link between gods and nature.
  • Figures like Rani Kajal represent motherhood and fertility, while forest gods reflect the tribal belief in nature as a protector.
  • Mythical figures and special horses are used to show rain, fertility and supernatural power, which are important for farming life.
  • Animals such as horses, elephants, lions, oxen, monkeys, birds and insects are commonly shown, highlighting harmony between humans and nature.
  • Elephants symbolise wealth and prosperity, while lions show strength and courage.
  • Scenes of village life like farming, hunting, women carrying water and cattle rearing are included to show daily life of tribal communities.
  • Trees and natural elements are painted to show the importance of forests and natural resources.
  • Overall, Pithora painting uses symbols and storytelling to express tribal beliefs, nature worship and social life, making it an important part of India’s tribal art tradition.

Pithora Paintings Significance 

  • Pithora paintings are an important form of tribal art, known for their unique style, natural colours, and symbolic images.
  • They have deep cultural and social value, as they reflect the beliefs, traditions and daily life of the Rathwa tribe.
  • These paintings act as a bridge between the human and spiritual world, created to honour gods and ancestors.
  • They are made during auspicious events like marriages, births, or good harvests to seek health, peace and prosperity.
  • The art is ritual-based and community-oriented, accompanied by ceremonies such as Pithora ni Puja, led by priests and family elders.

It help preserve tribal heritage, pass traditions to the next generation, and promote harmony with nature and society.

Pithora Paintings FAQs

Q1: What is Pithora Painting?

Ans: Pithora Painting is a traditional tribal wall art, practiced majorly by Rathwa, Bhil, and Bhilala tribes of Gujarat.

Q2: Where did the Pithora Painting originated?

Ans: Pithora Paintings originated in the tribal regions of Gujarat especially the Panchmahal and Chhota Udaipur districts.

Q3: What motifs and themes are commonly shown in Pithora Painting?

Ans: The Painting mainly shows the tribal gods, Sun, Moon, animals, daily life activities and special occasions like marriage, birth, hunting scenes.

Q4: Who paints the Pithora Painting and where are they painted?

Ans: Pithora paintings are apinted by trained tribal artists called Lakharas and they are usually painted on the inner wall or Verandah of the houses.

Q5: On which occasion are the Pithora Paintings are painted?

Ans: Pithora paintings are painted on special occasions like marriage, child births, good harvest or fulfillment of a wish.

Mrugavani National Park, Fauna, Flora

February 5, 2026
Mrugavani National Park

Mrugavani National Park is an ecologically significant protected area in India known for its rich floral and fauna diversity. 

About Mrugavani National Park 

  • Mrugavani National Park is a national park located in Hyderabad, Telangana State, India.
  • It was declared as a National Park in 1994.
  • It covers an area of 3.6 square kilometres or 1211 acres.
  • It is managed by the Telangana Forest Department. 

Mrugavani National Park Fauna

The animals found here include Cheetal, Sambar, Wild boar, Jungle Cat, Civet Cat, Mongoose Monitor Lizard, Python, Russell Viper, Indian Hare. The Park is also home to around 350 spotted deers.

Mrugavani National Park Flora

Mrugavani National Park is a home to 600 different types of plant life. Most of the vegetation can be classified as southern tropical dry deciduous forests. 

The plant species include bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Herbs, Shrubs, Climbers and Trees. 

Important tree species include Teak, Bamboo, Sandalwood, Picus, Palas, Rela.

Apart from the varied flora and fauna the Mrugavani National Park is also known for its avian diversity. It has more than 100 species of birds including warblers, peacocks, lapwings, and flower peckers.

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Mrugavani National Park FAQs

Q1: Where is Mrugavani National Park located?

Ans: Mrugavani National Park is located in Hyderabad, Telangana.

Q2: When was Mrugavani National Park declared a National Park?

Ans: It was declared a National Park in 1994.

Q3: What is the area and forest type of Mrugavani National Park?

Ans: The park covers 3.6 sq km (1211 acres) and is dominated by Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests.

Q4: What are the major animals found in Mrugavani National Park?

Ans: Key fauna include Spotted Deer (Cheetal), Sambar, Wild Boar, Jungle Cat, Civet Cat, Mongoose, along with reptiles like Python and Russell’s Viper.

Q5: What are the major flora found in Mrugavani National Park?

Ans: The plant species include bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Herbs, Shrubs, Climbers and Trees. Important tree species include Teak, Bamboo, Sandalwood, Picus, Palas, Rela.

Pacific Ring of Fire, Geographical Extent, Formation, Geological Features

February 5, 2026
Pacific Ring of Fire

The Pacific Ring of Fire, also called the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a 40,000 km long ring-shaped zone around the Pacific Ocean. It is the most seismically and volcanically active region on Earth, accounting for about 75% of the world’s active volcanoes and nearly 90% of global earthquakes. 

Pacific Ring Of Fire Geographical Extent

The Pacific Ring of Fire encircles the Pacific Ocean, stretching from New Zealand, along Indonesia, Japan, Philippines, and then along the Rockies and Andes.

Antarctica, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, the United States, Canada, Russia, Japan, Philippines, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, New Zealand, and are among the major regions situated along the Ring of Fire.

Pacific Ring of Fire Formation

The Pacific Ring of Fire was formed mainly due to convergent plate boundaries where the denser oceanic plate subducts the lighter continental plate. 

  • Major Oceanic Plates involved are Pacific Plate (main plate), Nazca Plate, Cocos Plate, Philippine Sea Plate, Juan de Fuca Plate. 
  • Major Continental Plates involved are North American Plate, South American Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, Antarctic Plate.
  • The Oceanic Pacific plate is subducting beneath the Indo-Australian, Eurasian, North and South American, and Antarctic plates. As the oceanic plate goes deeper, it melts due to heat, significantly increasing the amount of magma. The increased magma pressure leads to violent volcanic eruptions as magma finds its way through the weakest parts of the mountain, typically the top. 
  • The zone of subduction is known as the Benioff zone, which forms trenches (ocean deeps) – the deepest points on Earth.
  • Continuous plate movement causes friction and stress accumulation along plate boundaries. When the accumulated stress exceeds the strength of rocks, it is released abruptly in the form of seismic waves, producing frequent and powerful earthquakes.

Pacific Ring of Fire Geological Features

Major geological features of Pacific Ring of Fire are: 

  • Fold Mountains / Continental Volcanic Arcs: Formed parallel to oceanic trenches due to compression and Volcanism. 
    • Examples: Andes (South America), Rockies (North America).
  • Deep-sea trenches: Formed at subduction zones where oceanic plates bend downwards. 
    • Example: Mariana Trench - deepest point on Earth. 
  • Frequent and violent volcanic eruptions.
  • Earthquakes due to plate collision, subduction, and magma movement.
  • Tsunamis, when strong earthquakes occur under the ocean.

Pacific Ring of Fire Major Volcanoes

Subduction of oceanic plates below the continental increases the magma pressure which leads to violent volcanic eruptions. Major volcanoes located in the region are: 

  • Mount Fuji (Japan)
  • Mount Krakatoa (Indonesia)
  • Mount Mayon (Philippines)
  • Mount Shasta (USA)
  • Mount Ruapehu / Cook region (New Zealand)

Pacific Ring of Fire Major Trenches

  • Mariana Trench, the deepest in the world, located in western Pacific Ocean near Philippines
  • Peru–Chile (Atacama) Trench located off the west coast of South America
  • Aleutian Trench located south of Alaska
  • Kuril–Kamchatka Trench located off eastern Russia
  • Japan Trench located east of Japan
  • Philippine Trench located east of the Philippines 
  • Java (Sunda) Trench located south of Indonesia
  • Tonga–Kermadec Trench located north of New Zealand

Pacific Ring of Fire FAQs

Q1: What is the Pacific Ring of Fire?

Ans: Pacific Ring of Fire is a 40,000 km long ring-shaped zone around the Pacific Ocean. It is the most seismically and volcanically active region on Earth.

Q2: Why is it called the Ring of Fire?

Ans: This region accounts for about 75% of the world’s active volcanoes and nearly 90% of global earthquakes, creating a ring-like belt of volcanic fire around the Pacific.

Q3: Explain the formation of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Ans: The Pacific Ring of Fire was formed mainly due to convergent plate boundaries where the denser oceanic plate subducts the lighter continental plate.

Q4: Pacific Ring of Fire is also known as?

Ans: The Pacific Ring of Fire is also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt.

Q5: Name major volcanoes present in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Ans: Major volcanoes in the pacific ring of fire are Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount Krakatoa (Indonesia), Mount Mayon (Philippines), Mount Shasta (USA),Mount Ruapehu / Cook region (New Zealand)

Phalgu River, Origin, History

February 5, 2026
Phalgu River

The Phalgu River, also called Falgu, is an important river in Bihar. It is a sacred river for Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains. 

About Phalgu River

  • Phalgu river is formed by the confluence of the Lilajan and Mohana rivers near Gaya and eventually joins the Punpun River which is a tributary of the Ganga.
  • Phalgu river is often referred to as the 'hidden Ganga' (Gupta Ganga) because it flows below a wide, sandy bed, appearing dry on the surface for most of the year.
  • It is historically known as the Niranjana river where Buddha attained enlightenment.
  • Sujata stupa lies across the Phalgu river. The stupa is dedicated to Sujata, a milkmaid, who offered milk and rice to Gautama Buddha after he had spent many years in deep meditation and severe ascetic practices. This meal helped him regain strength before he attained enlightenment.
  • It is also a major site for Hindu pilgrimage, especially for Pind Daan (ancestral rituals), performed on the banks of the river near the Vishnupad Temple at Gaya. In this ritual, people visit the river to remember their ancestors. They offer prayers, flowers, and food, and pray for the peace and salvation of their forefathers.
  • According to legend, a demon named Gayasur received a boon that anyone who saw him would attain salvation. As even sinful people began getting moksha, the natural order was disturbed. To restore balance, Lord Vishnu pushed Gayasur into the netherworld by placing his foot on his head, leaving his footprint on a rock at Gaya. Before leaving, Gayasur asked for food, and Vishnu blessed him that anyone who offered food to him would gain salvation. This belief led to the tradition of performing Pind Daan at Gaya.
Also Check Other River System
Godavari River System Tapti River System
Kaveri River System Mahanadi River System
Ganga River System Narmada River System
Yamuna River System Krishna River System
Indus River System
 Brahmaputra River System

Phalgu River FAQs

Q1: Where is the Phalgu river located?

Ans: Phalgu River flows in Bihar, mainly around the city of Gaya.

Q2: How is the Phalgu River formed?

Ans: It is formed by the confluence of the Lilajan and Mohana rivers near Gaya and later joins the Punpun River, a tributary of the Ganga.

Q3: Why is the Phalgu River called the “Hidden Ganga”?

Ans: Because it flows beneath a wide sandy bed and appears dry on the surface for most of the year.

Q4: What is the religious significance of the Phalgu River?

Ans: It is sacred to Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains and is associated with Pind Daan rituals and Buddha’s enlightenment.

Q5: What is the historical importance of the Phalgu River?

Ans: It is known as the ancient Niranjana River, where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment.

Kanaklata Barua, Early Life, Role in Quit India Movement, Legacy

February 5, 2026
Kanaklata Barua

Kanaklata Barua was a young freedom fighter who took part in the Quit India Movement. She is remembered as a brave martyr. At the age of 17, she was shot by British police while leading a procession with the national flag.

Kanaklata Barua Early Life 

Kanaklata Barua was born in 1924 in Borangabari village of the undivided Darrang district of Assam. She belonged to a humble farming family. She lost her mother, Korneshwari Barua, at the age of five and her father, Krishna Kanta Barua, at thirteen. After becoming an orphan, she had to take care of her younger siblings, and because of these responsibilities, she left school after the third grade.

Kanaklata Barua Role in Quit India Movement 

  • Kanaklata Barua developed a strong sense of nationalism influenced by the Gandhian movement and local freedom fighters. From a young age, she became actively involved in Congress-led activities and village-level nationalist mobilisation.
  • During the Quit India Movement Barua joined the Mrityu Bahini, a death squad comprising groups of youth from the Gohpur sub-division of Assam.
  • At age 17, Kanaklata Barua led a procession of freedom fighters to unfurl the Tricolour at Gohpur police station on September 20, 1942. Despite police warnings, she refused to stop and was shot while holding the flag, becoming one of the youngest martyrs.

Kanaklata Barua Legacy

Kanaklata Barua is known as "Birbala" and was nicknamed the "golden girl" of India's freedom struggle.

Kanaklata Barua continues to be revered as a national heroine, especially in Assam. She is remembered annually during Martyrs’ Day commemorations in Assam. The Indian Coast Guard vessel, ICGS Kanaklata Barua, was named after her to commemorate her courage.

Kanaklata Barua FAQs

Q1: Who was Kanaklata Barua?

Ans: She was a young freedom fighter from Assam who became a martyr during the Quit India Movement in 1942.

Q2: Where was Kanaklata Barua born?

Ans: She was born in Borangabari village, Darrang district (Assam) in 1924.

Q3: In which movement did Kanaklata Barua participate?

Ans: She participated in the Quit India Movement (1942).

Q4: By what name was she popularly known?

Ans: She was popularly known as “Birbala” (brave girl).

Q5: What was the “Mrityu Bahini”?

Ans: It was a youth volunteer group formed during the Quit India Movement to carry out nationalist activities.

Tarapore Committee on Capital Account Convertibility

February 5, 2026
Tarapore Committee

The Tarapore Committee was constituted by the Reserve Bank of India in 1997 under the chairmanship of S.S. Tarapore, a former Deputy Governor of the RBI to examine the feasibility of introducing Capital Account Convertibility (CAC) in India. 

Capital Account Convertibility Meaning

Capital account convertibility means the freedom to convert rupee into any foreign currency and foreign currency back into rupee for capital account transactions. 

It enables residents and non-residents to move capital freely across borders for investment, borrowing, and lending purposes.

While it enhances capital inflows and financial integration, it also exposes the economy to volatility and sudden capital reversals.

Tarapore Committee Recommendations 

The Tarapore Committee recommended a three-phase roadmap for achieving full Capital Account Convertibility by the year 1999-2000 and it had listed several preconditions such as fiscal consolidation, inflation control, low level of non-performing assets, low current account deficit and strengthening of financial markets for achieving capital account liberalisation.

Preconditions for Capital Account Convertibility

  • The Tarapore Committee emphasised that strong fiscal discipline is essential before adopting full Capital Account Convertibility. It recommended reducing the gross fiscal deficit of the Centre to around 3.5 percent of GDP and completely eliminating the revenue deficit to ensure macroeconomic stability.
  • The committee recommended maintaining a low and stable inflation rate in the range of 3 to 5 percent, as high inflation erodes investor confidence.
  • Capital Account Convertibility should be preceded by banking sector reforms, including reduction of Non-Performing Assets to international standards, improvement in capital adequacy, and enhancement of risk-management practices.
  • The committee recommended strengthening prudential norms, regulatory oversight, and supervisory mechanisms to ensure that financial institutions can withstand volatile capital flows and prevent systemic risks.
  • The committee highlighted the need for a stable and market-determined exchange rate system. Excessive exchange rate volatility under free capital flows could encourage speculative attacks and weaken monetary policy effectiveness.
  • Restrictions on short-term external borrowings, as they are highly volatile and can quickly reverse during periods of global financial stress, posing serious balance of payments risks.
  • Need to maintain adequate foreign exchange reserves as a buffer against sudden capital outflows and external shocks.

Despite its detailed roadmap, the recommendations of the First Tarapore Committee were not implemented. The Asian Financial Crisis of 1997–98 exposed the dangers of premature capital account liberalisation, particularly for emerging economies with fragile financial systems. Additionally, India’s high fiscal deficit, weak banking sector, and regulatory limitations made full CAC risky.

Second Tarapore Committee (2006)

In 2006, the Reserve Bank of India re-examined the issue of Capital Account Convertibility in a changed economic environment marked by high foreign exchange reserves, robust growth, and improved financial institutions. A second committee, again chaired by S.S. Tarapore was constituted to reassess the feasibility of CAC. 

The Second Tarapore Committee (2006) largely reiterated the philosophy of the 1997 Committee, while making certain modifications in line with the changed economic and global context. 

  • Unlike the 1997 committee, which proposed a time-bound roadmap, the 2006 committee rejected fixed deadlines and argued that Capital Account Convertibility should depend on evolving domestic and global conditions.
  • For the first time, the committee clearly acknowledged the risks of sudden capital reversals, speculative attacks, and contagion effects, drawing lessons from the Asian Financial Crisis (1997) and other emerging market crises.
  • While the earlier committee aimed at full CAC, the second committee accepted that partial capital account convertibility could be a long-term equilibrium for India, rather than merely a transitional phase.
  • The committee stressed that capital account liberalisation should be reversible, allowing the government and RBI to reintroduce controls if financial stability is threatened.

Capital Account Convertibility in India 

In India, the rupee is partially convertible to capital account. RBI does not allow full conversion of Rupee into foreign currencies and foreign currencies into Rupee for transactions falling under the capital account of BoP. RBI has placed restrictions on the value of transactions that anybody can do under a capital account. 

Rupee will move to full capital account convertibility once the macroeconomic parameters like current account deficit, fiscal deficit, external debt, inflation become stable at low range and there is resilience to absorb shocks related to capital outflows.

UPSC CSE Prelims PYQs

  1. Convertibility of rupee implies [2015]
  1. being able to convert rupee notes into gold
  2. allowing the value of rupee to be fixed by market forces
  3. freely permitting the conversion of rupee to other currencies and vice versa
  4. developing an international market for currencies in India.

Answer: (c) freely permitting the conversion of rupee to other currencies and vice versa

Tarapore Committee FAQs

Q1: What was the Tarapore Committee?

Ans: A committee set up by the RBI in 1997, chaired by S.S. Tarapore, to examine the feasibility of Capital Account Convertibility (CAC) in India.

Q2: What is Capital Account Convertibility (CAC)?

Ans: Freedom to convert rupee into foreign currency and vice versa for capital account transactions like investment, borrowing, and lending.

Q3: Why is Capital Account Convertibility important?

Ans: It promotes capital inflows, financial integration, and investment, but increases vulnerability to volatility and sudden capital outflows.

Q4: What was the main recommendation of the First Tarapore Committee (1997)?

Ans: A three-phase roadmap to achieve full CAC, subject to strict macroeconomic preconditions.

Q5: What is India’s current status on CAC?

Ans: India follows partial capital account convertibility with RBI-imposed limits on capital account transactions.

NIDAAN Portal, Background, Objectives, Features, Significance

February 5, 2026
NIDAAN Portal

NIDAAN Portal is India’s first national level digital database dedicated exclusively to arrested narco offenders, marking a major shift towards technology driven drug law enforcement. Developed by the Narcotics Control Bureau, the portal centralises nationwide data on individuals arrested under narcotics and psychotropic substance cases. It strengthens investigation quality by enabling agencies to trace criminal histories, link networks and monitor habitual offenders across states. By integrating multiple criminal justice data sources, NIDAAN enhances coordination, reduces information gaps and supports faster, evidence based action against organised drug trafficking threatening national security.

NIDAAN Portal

The National Integrated Database on Arrested Narco Offenders, known as NIDAAN, is a specialised portal created to serve as a one stop repository of narcotics offenders’ data. It operates within the broader Narcotics Coordination Mechanism framework launched in July 2022 during the national conference on drug trafficking and national security. The portal captures arrest, custody and case related details of persons involved directly or indirectly in narcotics crimes. Its core purpose is to help agencies connect scattered information and identify inter state and organised drug networks efficiently.

NIDAAN Portal Background

The NIDAAN Portal emerged from the need to address fragmented narcotics related data spread across states and agencies. The background of the development and need for the portal has been highlighted below:

  • Integration under NCORD: The portal was developed as a key component of the Narcotics Coordination Mechanism, launched in July 2022 during the national conference on “Drug Trafficking and National Security,” to strengthen inter agency cooperation.
  • Institutional Development: It was conceptualised and built by the Narcotics Control Bureau to modernise drug law enforcement through technology driven data integration and intelligence led policing.
  • Digital Justice Linkage: NIDAAN draws data from the Inter operable Criminal Justice System, an initiative of the Supreme Court e-Committee, ensuring alignment between courts, police, prisons and forensic systems.
  • Use of e-Prisons Platform: The portal sources jail and custody related information from the cloud based e-Prisons application, enabling accurate tracking of incarceration status and movements of offenders.
  • Planned System Expansion: NIDAAN is designed for future integration with the Crime and Criminal Tracking Network System to further widen police station level connectivity and criminal analytics.

NIDAAN Portal Objectives

The list of major objectives of the NIDAAN Portal has been mentioned below:

  • The primary objective of NIDAAN is to create a single, reliable national database of arrested narco offenders to improve investigation depth and operational coordination. 
  • It supports faster identification of repeat offenders, handlers and interlinked cases across jurisdictions, strengthening preventive and punitive action against drug trafficking networks.
  • Centralised Offender Database: NIDAAN consolidates nationwide data on arrested narcotics offenders, eliminating duplication and ensuring uniform, verified records accessible to authorised drug law enforcement agencies.
  • Improved Investigative Linkages: The portal enables agencies to connect past cases, co-accused details and indirect involvements, helping investigators uncover organised syndicates rather than isolated offences.
  • Integration of Justice Systems: By sourcing data from ICJS and e-Prisons, NIDAAN bridges courts, police, prisons and forensic systems into one coordinated digital investigation environment.
  • Monitoring Habitual Offenders: NIDAAN assists in tracking repeat offenders, bail status, parole movement and ongoing cases, reducing the risk of offenders re-entering drug networks unnoticed.
  • Support for Financial and Preventive Action: The portal aids financial investigations and preparation of detention proposals under the PITNDPS Act, 1988, strengthening preventive detention and asset tracking efforts.
  • Nationwide Search Capability: Any authorised agency can search offender history, fingerprints, case status and appeals from any part of the country, enabling swift inter state coordination.

NIDAAN Portal Features

The features of the NIDAAN Portal includes several aspects as  given here:

  • Centralised Narcotics Database: NIDAAN functions as a single national repository containing verified data of arrested and jailed narcotics offenders across India, eliminating fragmented records.
  • ICJS Data Integration: It sources real-time information from the Inter-operable Criminal Justice System, enabling seamless linkage between courts, police, prisons and forensic institutions.
  • e-Prisons Connectivity: The portal integrates jail and custody data through the cloud-based e-Prisons platform for accurate tracking of offender incarceration status.
  • Nationwide Search Capability: Authorised agencies can instantly access criminal history, fingerprints, linked cases, court proceedings and appeals of narcotics offenders from any state.

NIDAAN Portal Significance

NIDAAN holds strategic significance as a force multiplier in India’s anti narcotics framework by converting scattered data into actionable intelligence. It enhances both operational efficiency and long term policy planning against drug trafficking threats.

  • One Stop Intelligence Platform: NIDAAN functions as a comprehensive repository for narcotics offenders’ data, allowing agencies to access crime history, personal details and case progress instantly.
  • Strengthening Inter Agency Coordination: The portal enables seamless data sharing among central and state drug law enforcement agencies, reducing jurisdictional barriers during investigations.
  • Faster and Evidence Based Investigations: Real time access to verified data shortens investigation timelines and improves evidence quality for prosecution and network dismantling.
  • Technology Driven Policing: By leveraging ICJS and e-Prisons integration, NIDAAN represents a shift from manual records to digital, analytics supported drug law enforcement.
  • Monitoring Organised Drug Networks: The portal helps identify handlers, linkages and modus operandi across cases, supporting systematic disruption of organised narcotics supply chains.
  • Policy and Strategic Value: Aggregated data from NIDAAN supports trend analysis, helping authorities identify emerging drug routes, repeat patterns and enforcement gaps.
  • Exclusive and Secure Usage: Designed solely for drug law enforcement agencies, NIDAAN ensures controlled access to sensitive biometric and legal data, maintaining operational security.
  • Foundation for Future Integration: Planned linkage with CCTNS will further enhance coverage, enabling comprehensive crime tracking from police stations to courts and prisons nationwide.

NIDAAN Portal FAQs

Q1: What is the NIDAAN Portal?

Ans: NIDAAN is the National Integrated Database on Arrested Narco Offenders developed by the Narcotics Control Bureau to centralise narcotics offenders’ data.

Q2: Which authority developed the NIDAAN Portal?

Ans: The Narcotics Control Bureau developed NIDAAN as part of the Narcotics Coordination Mechanism to strengthen drug law enforcement.

Q3: What is the source of data for the NIDAAN Portal?

Ans: NIDAAN sources data from the Inter operable Criminal Justice System and the cloud based e-Prisons platform, with future integration planned with CCTNS.

Q4: Who can access the NIDAAN Portal?

Ans: The portal is exclusively accessible to authorised Drug Law Enforcement Agencies for investigation, monitoring and coordination purposes.

Q5: What is the need of the NIDAAN Portal?

Ans: NIDAAN helps agencies connect case linkages, track habitual offenders, monitor bail and parole status and dismantle organised narcotics networks efficiently.

Gorkha Regiment, About, History, Structure and Contribution

February 5, 2026
Gorkha Regiment

The Gorkha Regiment is one of the oldest and most prominent regiment of Indian Army. It is famous for its discipline, bravery and fierce nature of warfare. The regiment usually consist of soldiers of Gurkha (Nepali) origin, which uses its traditional weapon Khukri.

Who are Gorkhas?

  • Gorkhas (or Gurkhas) are people of Nepali origin, who are named after Guru Gorakhnath, a revered warrior-saint and the historic hill region of Gorkha in Nepal.
  • In India, the term is used to distinguish Indian Gorkhas (Indian citizens) from Nepali nationals who live or work in India.
  • Indian Gorkhas trace their roots to families that settled in India during British rule, especially when Gorkha soldiers were recruited into the colonial army.
  • After the British annexation of Assam in 1826, many Nepali-speaking soldiers moved into eastern and northeastern India, leading to permanent settlements.
  • Over time, Gorkhas became an integral part of Indian society, known for their military service, discipline, loyalty and hard work in both defence and civilian life.

Gorkha Regiment History

The history of Gorkha Regiment can be traced back to the Anglo-Nepal war (1814-1816) and their continued contribution in the Indian Army post Independence.

Pre-Independence

  • After the Anglo-Nepal war (1814-1816) which is also known as the Gorkha War, the Britishers were so impressed by the fighting style and bravery of Gorkha soldiers that they started recruiting them in their army after signing the Tretay of Sugauli (1816).
  • Being then part of the British army, the Gorkah regiment created a strong reputation by participating in 1857 revolt, both Word wars and other colonial expeditions, fighting across Asia, Africa and South-east Asia.
  • In the colonial army, the Gorkha regiment was recognized as one the most effective and reliable infantry .

Post-Independence

  • After Independenc, the Tripartite Agreement was signed in 1947 between India, Nepal and the Britain, under which out of 10 Gurkha regiments, six regiments were transferred to Indian Army, while the four regimentts went to the British Army.
  • The 11th Gorkha Rifles was raised in 1948. At present, the Indian army has seven Gorkha regiments.
  • The Gorkha regiment played a crucial role in many major battles like the Kashmir war (1947-48), Indo-China war (1962), Indo-Pak war (1965, 1971) and the Kargil war (1999).
  • The regiment has contributed immensely in various operations like the counter-insurgency operations, border security, UN Peacekeeping missions and disaster relief.

Structure of the Gorkha Regiment

  • The Gorkha Regiment is part of the Infantry arm of the Indian Army, which forms an integral part of ground combat forces.
  • It consists of several Gorkha regiments, such as 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th, and 11th Gorkha Rifles, each of them having its own history and identity.
  • Each Gorkha regiment is divided into battalions, which are the basic fighting units of the Army.
  • A battalion usually have around 800-900 soldiers and is commanded by a Colonel.
  • Battalions are further divided into companies, platoons and sections to make sure effective command and control during operations.
  • The soldiers are mostly recruited from Gorkha communities, including Indian Gorkhas and Nepalese Gorkhas, according to government rules.
  • Officers in the Gorkha Regiment are trained at Indian Military Academy (IMA) and other defence training institutions as like the officers of other regiments.
  • The regiment follows the standard Indian Army command structure, while keeping their unique traditions such as the Khukri, regimental dress and customs.

Gorkha Regiment Characteristics

  • The Gorkha Regiment is famous for its bravery, discipline and loyalty, with a long record of fearless service in peacekeeping missions, wars and counter-insurgency operations.
  • Gorkha soldiers are respected for their physical strength, mental toughness, and ability to fight in difficult geography, especially in high-altitude areas and mountain
  • The regiment has a strong warrior tradition, as symbolised by the Khukri, which reflects courage, honour and readiness to defend the nation.
  • A deep sense of unity, regimental pride and teamwork helps them to maintain high morale and effectiveness on the battlefield.
  • The motto “Kayar Hunu Bhanda Marnu Ramro” highlights the regiment’s value system, fighting spirit and commitment to duty.
  • Overall, the Gorkha Regiment stands for professional excellence, rich cultural identity and an important link in India-Nepal military relations.

Gorkha’s Kukri/Khukri 

  • Symbol & identity: The Kukri is the traditional curved knife of the Gorkhas and represents their bravery, honour and martial tradition.
  • Design & effectiveness: Its inward-curved, forward-heavy blade makes it highly effective for powerful cuts, especially in close combat.
  • Military role: Closely linked with the Gorkha Regiments of the Indian Army, the Kukri is both a combat weapon and a source of psychological fear for enemies.
  • Dual purpose: Besides warfare, it is also used as a daily utility tool, showing its practical importance in Gorkha life.
  • Cultural significance: The kukri is hand-forged and used in ceremonies and traditional dress, reflecting Gorkha culture and heritage.

Other missions of Gorkhas

  • Internal security & border duties: Gorkhas are deployed in counter-insurgency, counter-terrorism and border protection, especially in difficult terrain.
  • International contribution: They have served significantly in United Nations peacekeeping missions thus, strengthening India’s global standing.
  • Disaster relief & civil support: Gorkha troops even assist in disaster rescue operations and provide aid to civil authorities during emergencies and to keep law-and-order situations stable.
  • Training & nation-building: They have even contributed by training soldiers and created unity in diversity within the Indian Army

Why is the Gorkha regiment the most feared?

  • Fearless fighting spirit and discipline: Gorkha soldiers are known for their exceptional courage, strong discipline and loyalty to duty. They continue fighting even in extreme conditions and never retreat easily, which makes them highly respected and feared.
  • Expertise in close combat and use of Kukri: They are highly skilled in hand-to-hand combat, especially using the Kukri, which is both a weapon and a symbol of their warrior tradition. This gives them a strong advantage in close-range battles.
  • Ability to operate in difficult terrain: Gorkhas are naturally suited for mountains, forests and high-altitude areas. Their physical endurance and adaptability allow them to fight effectively where many forces struggle.
  • Strong psychological impact and proven record: Their long history of success in wars, counter-insurgency and peacekeeping missions has created a powerful psychological fear among enemies and earned them a legendary reputation.

Gorkha Regiment FAQs

Q1: Who are Gorkhas?

Ans: Gorkhas are people of Nepali origin, which is named after Guru Gorkahnath and the Gorkha region of Nepal.

Q2: What is Gorkha Regiment?

Ans: Gorkha Regment is one of the oldest infantry regiment of Indian Army, which is known for its bravery, discipline and fierce fighting techniques.

Q3: When did the Gorkha regiment originated?

Ans: The origin of Gorkha regiment can be traced back to the Ango-Nepal war (1814-16) and Treaty of Sugauli (1816). Their fighting style impressed the britishers and they started recruiting them in their army.

Q4: What changed after Independence?

Ans: After Independence, Tripartite agreement was in 1947 betwen India, Nepal and the Britain, under which out of 10 Gurkha regiments, six regiments were transferred to Indian Army, while the four regimentts went to the British Army.

Q5: What is Kukri?

Ans: It is a traditional, inward-curved knife, used in combat and daily life tasks.

Harshavardhana, Early Life, Administration, Society, Economy

February 5, 2026
Harshavardhana

Harshavardhana was one of the most powerful rulers of early medieval India and the last great emperor of North India. After the fall of the Gupta Empire, King Harshavardhana was able to bring much of northern India under his control. 

Harshavardhana Sources 

  • Harshacharita by Banabhatta, the court poet of Harsha, provides detailed information about Harsha’s lineage, early life, military campaigns, court life, and administration.
  • Si-Yu-Ki by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) gives an account of Harsha’s reign, administration, religious policy, and social conditions.
  • Sanskrit plays written by Harsha namely Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyadarshika, also provide useful information. 
  • Copper plate inscriptions issued during Harsha’s reign provide information about land grants and administrative practices. 
  • The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription are helpful in knowing the chronology of Harsha.
  • Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha

Harshavardhana Early Life 

  • Harshavardhana, popularly known as Harsha, belonged to the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty.
  • Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas. They called themselves Vardhanas. After the Hun invasions they assumed independence. 
  • The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi. He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka.
  • Harshavardhana was the son of Prabhakaravardhana, the Pushyabuti king of Thanesvar. Harsha’s mother was Yasomati. Harsha’s elder brother Rajyavardhana ruled over Thaneswar while Harsha’s sister Rajyasri was given in marriage to Grihavarman of Kannauj.
  • Following the murder of Grihavarman of Kannauj and Rajyasri’s confinement, Rajyavardhan attacked Kannauj and defeated the Malava ruler Devagupta but was killed by Sasanka, the ruler of Gauda through treachery. In these circumstances, Harsa ascended the throne at Kannauj in 606 AD and adopted the title of Rajaputra instead of maharaja and took another name Shiladitya.
  • Harshvardhana ruled large parts of North India from his capital at Thanesar initially and later Kannauj.
  • He maintained diplomatic relations with China. In 641 AD, he sent an envoy to Tai-Tsung, the Tang emperor of China. Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese pilgrim visited India during Harsha’s reign. 

Harshavardhana Military Conquests

After the fall of the Gupta Empire, King Harshavardhana was able to bring much of northern India under his control. His rule spread over the present states of Punjab, Bengal, and Orissa and covered the entire Indo-Gangetic plain, with the Narmada River marking the southern boundary.

  • In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. This made him the most powerful ruler of north India. 
  • Harsha fought against Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi and defeated him. Dhuruvasena II became a vassal.
  • The most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. Harsha with an ambition to extend his kingdom south of the Narmada river marched against the Chalukya ruler. But the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara.
  • Harsha led another campaign against the ruler of Sindh, which was an independent kingdom. But, it is doubtful whether his Sind campaign was a successful one. 
  • Nepal had accepted Harsha’s overlordship. Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes to him.
  • He also maintained cordial relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. 
  • Harsha’s last military campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.

Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of north India. The regions of modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control. But his sphere of influence was much more extensive. The peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi and Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty.

Harshavardhana map

Harshavardhana Administration

  • The administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines as the Guptas did.
  • The king was the supreme head of government. He ruled according to the ideals laid down in the Dharmashastras. He also kept in close touch with the common man through tours of inspection in which he travelled incognito.
  • He appointed the ministers and important officers of the state and led the armies in battle. 
  • The council of ministers played an important role in the selection of the king as well as framing the foreign policy of the empire. The prime minister was of the most important position. 
  • Some of the key officials of Harshvardhana administration were as follows: 
Key Official  Work 

Avanti 

Minister for Foreign Relations and War 

Simhananda

Commander in Chief 

Kuntala 

Chief Cavalry Officer 

Skandagupta

Chief Commandant of Elephant Forces

Dirghadhvajas 

Royal Messengers 

Banu

Keeper of Records

Mahaprathihara

Chief of the Palace Guard 

Sarvagata

Secret Service Department 

Provincial Administration

  • The empire was divided into several provinces. 
  • Each province was divided into Bhuktis and each Bhukti was divided into several Vishayas (districts). Each vishaya was further divided into Pathakas. Each such area was divided into several villages for the sake of administration convenience.

Revenue Administration

  • Land revenue was the main source of income, generally around one-sixth of produce.
  • The crown land was divided into four parts: 
    • Part I for carrying out affairs of the state
    • Part II for paying the ministers and officers of the crown 
    • Part III for rewarding men of letters
    • Part IV for charity to religious institutions
  • Bhaga: Land tax paid in kind. 
  • Hiranya: Tax paid by farmers and merchants in cash.

Judicial Administration

  • Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice. 
  • Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were the usual punishments.  
  • Trial by ordeals was in practice 
  • Life imprisonment for violations of laws and for plotting against the king.

Military Administration

  • Harsha paid great attention to discipline and strength of the Army. The Army consisted of elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Horses were imported 
  • Ordinary soldiers were known as Chatas and Bhatas. Cavalry officers were called Brihadisvaras. Infantry officers were known as Baladhikritas.

Society under Harshavardhana 

Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times of Harsha. 

  • The fourfold division of the society – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra – was prevalent. 
  • The Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings.
  • The Kshatriyas were the ruling class and the Vysyas were mainly traders. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced agriculture. 
  • There existed many sub castes.
  • The position of women was not satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband) had declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the higher castes. The system of dowry had also become common. The practice of sati was also prevalent.
  • Hiuen Tsang mentions three ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water, burial and exposure in the woods.

Economy under Harshavardhana 

  • The economy became increasingly more feudal and self-sufficient.
  • Trade and commerce had declined during Harsha’s period. This is evident from the decline of trade centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds. 
  • The decline of trade in turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture.
  • Since there was no large-scale demand for goods, the farmers began to produce only in a limited way. This led to the rise of a self-sufficient village economy. 

Cultural Progress under Harshvardhana 

  • The art and architecture of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Gupta style. 
  • Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at Nalanda. He also speaks of a copper statue of Buddha with eight feet in height.
  • The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.
  • Harsha was a great patron of learning. His biographer Banabhatta adorned his royal court. Besides Harshacharita, he wrote Kadambari. 
  • Other literary figures in Harsha’s court were Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari, who was a poet, philosopher and grammarian. Harsha himself authored three plays - Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda.
  • Nalanda University flourished during Harsha’s reign, attracting students from China, Korea, and Southeast Asia. Hiuen Tsang visited the Nalanda University and remained as a student for some time
  • Sanskrit was the primary language of learning, alongside Pali and Prakrit.

Religion under Harshvardhana 

  • Harsha was initially a Shaivite, but later became a follower of Mahayana Buddhism. Despite this shift, he continued to respect and patronise Brahmanical traditions.
  • He followed a policy of religious tolerance, supporting Buddhist, monasteries, Brahmanas and Jain institutions. Once in five years he convened a gathering of representatives of all religions and honoured them with gifts and costly presents.
  • He erected thousands of stupas and established travellers’ rests all over his kingdom. He also erected monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists.
  • He prohibited animal slaughter on certain occasions, reflecting Buddhist influence.
  • During his reign, the famous religious festival called ‘Makamokshaparishad’ was organised every 5 years at Prayag, lasting for 4 days. On the first 3 days, Ganesh, Shiva, and Buddha were worshipped and the 4th day was reserved for charitable purposes.
  • Harsha organised grand religious assemblies at Kannauj and Prayaga. At the Prayaga Assembly, held every five years, he distributed accumulated wealth in charity, often ending as a pauper.

Decline of Harshavardhana empire

Aihole Inscription mentioned the defeat of Harshavardhana by the Chalukya king Pulakesin II in 637AD. He did not have any heirs; his empire collapsed and disintegrated rapidly into small states.

Harshavardhana FAQs

Q1: Harshavardhana belonged to which dynasty?

Ans: Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty.

Q2: What were the capitals of Harsha?

Ans: Thanesar (initial capital) and later Kannauj.

Q3: Which Chinese pilgrim visited Harsha’s court?

Ans: Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) visited Harsha’s court.

Q4: Which ruler defeated Harsha in the south?

Ans: Pulakesin II of the Chalukya dynasty at the Narmada River.

Q5: Which literary works are associated with Harsha?

Ans: Sanskrit plays such as Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyadarshika are associated with Harsha.

Brown Revolution 2.0, Features, Need, Benefits, Way Forward

February 5, 2026
Brown Revolution 2.0

Brown Revolution 2.0 focuses on restoring soil health and improving agricultural waste management in India through a cooperative-led, circular economy model. It aims to turn agricultural waste into organic inputs like compost and biochar, addressing soil degradation, reducing pollution from crop burning, and boosting rural income. 

Brown Revolution 2.0

While the first Brown Revolution, initiated by Hiralal Chaudhary, was for promoting leather and coffee in tribal areas of Visakhapatnam, Brown Revolution 2.0 seeks to restore soil health of India. 

The key aspects of Brown revolution 2.0 are: 

    • Soil Health Restoration: Enhancing soil organic carbon and nutrient retention.
    • Waste-to-Wealth: Converting crop residues (rice, wheat, cotton) and organic waste into fertilizer.
    • Cooperative Model: Utilizing a decentralized framework, similar to the Amul model, to manage waste locally.
    • Sustainability & Climate Goals: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and supporting India's net-zero commitments.
  • Technology and Innovation: The integration of modern composting techniques, biochar units, and AI-based monitoring systems.

Read about: Purple Revolution

Brown Revolution 2.0 Need

India produces approximately 350-990 million tonnes of crop residues and agro-waste every year. However, less than 20% of this biomass is currently recycled in a scientific and productive manner, while the majority is openly burned, dumped, or left unmanaged, leading to severe air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, loss of soil organic carbon, and public health risks.

Water bodies suffer from eutrophication when run-off from waste dumps leads to excessive nutrient loads.

At the same time, Indian agriculture faces a steady decline in soil fertility, largely due to intensive farming practices, monocropping, and excessive use of chemical fertilisers. 

Brown Revolution 2.0 is proposed as a national movement to address this crisis.

Read about: White Revolution

Strategic Benefits of Brown Revolution 2.0

Brown Revolution 2.0 offers multiple long-term benefits. 

  • Agriculturally, it restores soil fertility, improves resilience to droughts and floods, and stabilises crop yields.
  • Economically, it creates rural employment, strengthens cooperative incomes, and reduces farmers’ input costs.
  • Environmentally, it curbs pollution, enhances biodiversity, and supports climate mitigation.
  • Socially, it promotes inclusive growth, with opportunities for women, youth, and self-help groups.

Way Forward

While the strategic benefits of Brown Revolution 2.0 are significant in terms of soil health, rural livelihoods, and environmental sustainability, achieving these outcomes requires a focused and coordinated policy push.

  • Set up local cooperatives for collection and recycling of agricultural waste in every district.
  • Give financial incentives to farmers for supplying crop residues instead of burning them.
  • Promote decentralised composting and biochar units with government support.
  • Strictly enforce a ban on crop burning while providing practical alternatives to farmers.
  • Link agro-waste recycling with the Soil Health Card scheme to improve soil quality.
  • Use technology and AI to monitor soil health and waste recycling.
  • Create a national soil organic carbon credit framework to reward farmers and cooperatives for carbon sequestration.

Brown Revolution 2.0 FAQs

Q1: What is the Brown Revolution?

Ans: Brown Revolution 2.0 aims to turn agricultural waste into organic inputs like compost and biochar, addressing soil degradation, reducing pollution from crop burning, and boosting rural income.

Q2: How is Brown Revolution 2.0 different from Brown Revolution?

Ans: While the first Brown Revolution, initiated by Hiralal Chaudhary, was for promoting leather and coffee in tribal areas of Visakhapatnam, Brown Revolution 2.0 seeks to restore soil health of India.

Q3: Why is the Brown Revolution 2.0 needed in India?

Ans: Brown Revolution 2.0 is needed to address declining soil fertility, crop residue burning, air pollution while creating rural income.

Q4: How does Brown Revolution 2.0 help climate goals?

Ans: It reduces greenhouse gas emissions from crop burning and increases carbon sequestration in soils, supporting India’s net-zero commitments.

Q5: What role do cooperatives play in Brown Revolution 2.0?

Ans: Cooperatives enable decentralised collection, processing, and distribution of organic inputs, ensuring farmer participation and scalability.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port, JNPA, History, Features, Significance

February 5, 2026
Jawaharlal Nehru Port

Jawaharlal Nehru Port, also known as Nhava Sheva Port, is India’s largest container port and a critical pillar of the country’s maritime trade system. It is located on the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea in Navi Mumbai in the Raigad district of Maharashtra. It was commissioned on 26 May 1989 and is owned by the Government of India. The port handles a major share of India’s containerized cargo and supports nearly 95% of India’s trade volume carried through sea routes which makes it strategically vital for national logistics and economic growth.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port

Jawaharlal Nehru Port is operated by the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA) formerly known as Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT). The port functions as the main container gateway for western and northern India. It connects global shipping routes with India’s vast hinterland. The port operates five container terminals and serves as the terminal point of the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor. In 2024, it handled a record 7.05 million TEUs, working at over 90% capacity with 11% annual growth.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port Historical Background

Jawaharlal Nehru Port rapidly evolved into India’s premier container hub in the below mentioned gradual steps: 

  • Establishment: The port was inaugurated on 26 May 1989 to handle container traffic separately from Mumbai Port, ensuring faster turnaround and modern cargo handling using mechanized systems.
  • Early Growth Phase: During the 1990s, the port expanded basic infrastructure and gradually shifted India’s container trade base towards Nhava Sheva, leveraging deeper drafts and planned layouts.
  • Private Sector Entry: In July 2000, the commissioning of Nhava Sheva International Container Terminal marked India’s first privately operated container terminal, transforming port efficiency and operational benchmarks.
  • Digital and Logistics Reforms: In 2006, the port implemented logistics data tagging of containers, a pioneering step in improving transparency, tracking and ease of doing business.
  • Capacity Expansion Era: Between 2016 and 2021, the port consistently handled more than 4 million TEUs annually, establishing itself as India’s second largest container port after Mundra Port.
  • Connectivity Strengthening: Over time, JNPT developed a full fledged customs house, 30 container freight stations and connectivity with 52 inland container depots across India.
  • Modern Upgrade Phase: From 2023 onwards, terminals underwent major upgrades supported by a 131 million dollar Asian Development Bank loan to enhance berth capacity and energy efficient operations

Jawaharlal Nehru Port Features

The major highlighting features and specialities of the Jawaharlal Nehru Port has been listed below: 

  • Port Model: It is India’s first major port fully operating on the Landlord Model, where the port authority manages land while private operators run terminals.
  • Container Terminals: The port operates five terminals including NSFT, NSICT, NSIGT, Gateway Terminals India and Bharat Mumbai Container Terminal, managed by global operators like DP World, APM Terminals and PSA International.
  • Terminal Capacities: Bharat Mumbai Container Terminal alone has a planned capacity of 4.8 million TEUs annually with a quay length of 2,000 meters after full phase completion.
  • High Throughput Handling: In 2023-24, the port handled 78.05 million tonnes of container cargo and 7.07 million tonnes of bulk cargo.
  • Dedicated Freight Corridor Linkage: As the terminal of the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor, the port will increase rail handling capacity from 27 to nearly 100 trains per day.
  • Hinterland Reach: Cargo movement covers Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and large parts of North India through road and rail networks.
  • Logistics Ecosystem: The port hosts major logistics parks and operators such as Allcargo, Maharashtra State Warehousing Corporation, Continental Warehousing and Gateway District Park.
  • Direct Port Delivery: JNPT pioneered the direct port delivery system to reduce dwell time, lower logistics costs and speed up cargo evacuation.
  • Energy Efficient Upgrades: Terminal modernization includes energy efficient cranes, upgraded yards and digital systems to support sustainable port operations.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port Significance

Jawaharlal Nehru Port plays a great role in India’s trade, logistics efficiency and integration with global maritime networks. The importance of this port is highlighted below:

  • Largest Container Gateway: It is India’s largest container port and is projected to become the first Indian port to achieve a global ranking by handling 10 million TEUs annually by 2027.
  • Trade Contribution: India’s maritime sector handles about 95% of trade by volume and 70% by value, with JNPT contributing a major share of containerized trade.
  • Economic Impact: The port supports exports such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, carpets and engineering goods, while facilitating imports of machinery, plastics, oils and metals.
  • Regional Development: Its location near Mumbai, Navi Mumbai and Pune provides proximity to industrial clusters, airports, financial centers and consumption markets.
  • Capacity Utilization: Operating at over 90% capacity in 2024, the port reflects strong demand and efficient asset utilization in India’s logistics sector.
  • Future Expansion Plans: Planned satellite development at Vadhavan Port and dry ports at Jalna and Wardha aim to ease congestion and enhance trade efficiency.
  • Global Integration: With modern terminals and deep drafts, the port attracts large container vessels, improving India’s connectivity with international shipping routes.
  • Strategic Logistics Hub: As a key node on the western coast, the port strengthens supply chain resilience and supports India’s long term port led development strategy.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port FAQs

Q1: Where is Jawaharlal Nehru Port located?

Ans: Jawaharlal Nehru Port is located in Navi Mumbai, Raigad district of Maharashtra, on the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea.

Q2: When was Jawaharlal Nehru Port commissioned?

Ans: The port was commissioned on 26 May 1989 to decongest Mumbai Port and handle containerized cargo efficiently.

Q3: Why is Jawaharlal Nehru Port important for India’s trade?

Ans: It is India’s largest container port and handles a major share of container traffic supporting maritime trade by volume and value.

Q4: How many container terminals operate at Jawaharlal Nehru Port?

Ans: The port operates five container terminals managed by leading global terminal operators under the landlord port model.

Q5: What is the future capacity target of Jawaharlal Nehru Port?

Ans: Jawaharlal Nehru Port aims to handle 10 million TEUs annually by 2027, becoming India’s first globally ranked port.

Operation Falcon, Objectives, Organizations, Significance, Outcomes

February 5, 2026
Operation Falcon

Operation Falcon is a high intensity anti poaching campaign launched in 2024 in Assam to protect the greater One-Horned Rhinoceros from organized wildlife crime. Assam hosts more than 70% of the global Rhino population. Most of the rhinos are found largely within Kaziranga National Park which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Despite long standing conservation measures, rising international demand for rhino horn exposed gaps in surveillance and rapid response. Triggered by incidents like the killing of two rhinos, the operation adopted intelligence led enforcement, modern technology and inter agency coordination to prevent poaching before it occurs and to dismantle trafficking networks.

Operation Falcon Objectives

The Operation Falcon aims to prevent poaching through intelligence, coordination and technology driven enforcement. The major objectives of the operation are:

  • The primary objective was to achieve zero rhino killings by proactive surveillance, pre-emptive strikes and continuous monitoring of vulnerable forest corridors and park fringes across Assam, especially Kaziranga and adjoining landscapes.
  • Operation Falcon focused on identifying, tracking and breaking organized poaching and trafficking groups linked to trans border illegal wildlife markets through intelligence mapping and targeted arrests.
  • Another objective was ensuring strong legal follow up by collecting actionable evidence, enabling successful prosecution of offenders and creating deterrence against future wildlife crimes.

Operation Falcon Organizations

Multiple state agencies collaborated to ensure operational depth and field level effectiveness of the Operation Falcon. The major organizations involved in the operation are:

  • Assam Police: The police led intelligence gathering, surveillance, arrests and interrogation, including tracking suspected links to international trafficking networks and coordinating rapid response units during active threat alerts.
  • Assam Forest Department: Forest officials handled habitat monitoring, foot patrols, protection of rhino zones and real time field intelligence, using their ecological knowledge to identify high risk poaching locations.
  • Inter Agency Coordination: Seamless coordination between police and forest units enabled quick information sharing, joint operations and synchronized deployments across districts vulnerable to wildlife crime.

Operation Falcon Features

The Operation Falcon combined modern tools with traditional conservation enforcement methods.

  • Integrated Intelligence Operations: Digital intelligence tools were deployed alongside ground patrols, enabling real time tracking, threat assessment and early interception of poachers before weapons or traps reached rhino habitats.
  • Rapid Response Mechanism: High speed teams were mobilized across multiple districts, allowing authorities to foil nine poaching attempts through swift, coordinated action based on credible intelligence inputs.
  • Technology Driven Shift: The campaign marked a shift toward modern surveillance in conservation, blending data analysis with field operations to enhance accuracy and response time.

Operation Falcon Significance

Operation Falcon demonstrates a strategic shift in India’s wildlife protection approach. The importance of the operation is highlighted below:

  • Biodiversity Protection: By safeguarding the greater one-horned rhinoceros, the operation directly contributes to preserving an endangered species central to Assam’s ecological identity.
  • National Security Linkage: The campaign reflects recognition that environmental governance and biodiversity protection are integral to national security due to links with organized crime networks.
  • Global Conservation Image: Successful outcomes strengthen India’s credibility in international wildlife conservation efforts and compliance with global anti-trafficking commitments.

Operation Falcon Outcomes

The results of the Operation Falcon highlight measurable conservation and enforcement success as given below:

  • Arrests and Network Disruption: By August 2025, authorities arrested 42 individuals, including suspected members of international trafficking networks and dismantled six major poaching gangs operating in Assam.
  • Poaching Prevention Record: Nine poaching attempts were successfully foiled, preventing animal deaths and demonstrating effective pre-emptive enforcement across high risk zones.

Zero Rhino Killings in 2025: The most significant outcome was zero rhino deaths in 2025, confirming Operation Falcon’s effectiveness and reinforcing Assam’s improved conservation record.

Also Check
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Operation Ganga Operation Olivia
Operation Devi Shakti Operation Safe Homecoming
Operation Cactus Operation Keller
Operation Kaveri Operation Rising Lion
Operation Karuna Operation Airlift
Operation Megh Chakra Operation Maitri
Operation Rahat Operation Nader
Operation Dost Operation Baam
Operation Samudra Setu Operation Mahadev
Operation Iron Swords Operation Shiv Shakti
Operation Sagar Bandhu Operation Smiling Buddha

Operation Falcon FAQs

Q1: What is Operation Falcon?

Ans: Operation Falcon is a joint anti-poaching drive launched in 2024 by Assam Police and the Assam Forest Department to prevent rhino poaching and dismantle illegal wildlife trafficking networks.

Q2: Why was Operation Falcon launched in Assam?

Ans: The operation was launched because Assam holds over 70% of the world’s one-horned rhinos and faced rising poaching threats driven by international demand for rhino horn.

Q3: Which agencies are involved in Operation Falcon?

Ans: Assam Police handle intelligence, arrests and law enforcement, while the Assam Forest Department manages habitat protection, patrols and wildlife monitoring through coordinated field operations.

Q4: What are the key achievements of Operation Falcon?

Ans: As of August 2025, the operation led to 42 arrests, dismantling of six poaching gangs, prevention of nine poaching attempts and zero rhino killings in 2025.

Q5: Why is Operation Falcon significant for conservation in India?

Ans: It shows how intelligence led policing, technology and inter-agency coordination can effectively protect endangered species and strengthen India’s wildlife conservation framework.

Block Mountain, Types, Formation, Examples in India and World

February 5, 2026
Block Mountain

Mountains are large natural elevations of the Earth’s surface formed due to internal geological forces. They mainly originate through folding, faulting, volcanic activity or erosion. Based on origin, mountains are classified as fold mountains, Block Mountains, volcanic mountains and residual mountains. Block Mountains form specifically due to faulting caused by tensional forces in the Earth’s crust. When the crust stretches, it breaks into large blocks, some of which rise while others sink. These uplifted blocks are called Block Mountains, making them structurally different from folded ranges.

Block Mountain

Block Mountains, also known as Fault Block Mountains, develop when large sections of the Earth’s crust move vertically along faults under tensional tectonic forces. These movements do not bend rock layers but fracture them, producing massive blocks with steep sides and relatively flat tops. The raised blocks are called horsts, while the lowered blocks are known as grabens. These Mountains are commonly associated with rift zones and earthquake prone regions, as fault movement releases stored tectonic energy during crustal adjustment processes.

Block Mountain Types

Block Mountains are mainly classified based on the nature of fault movement and the tilting of crustal blocks during tectonic activity.

  1. Lifted Block Mountains: These form when a central crustal block rises between two parallel normal faults, creating steep fault scarps on both sides with a flat or gently undulating summit.
  2. Tilted Block Mountains: These develop when one side of the block is lifted along a fault while the other side slopes gradually, producing asymmetrical mountain profiles common in extensional landscapes.

Block Mountain Features

Block Mountains possess distinct physical and geological features that reflect their tectonic origin and fault controlled structure.

  • Fault Controlled Structure: They are formed entirely by normal faulting, not folding, with clearly visible fault scarps marking zones of vertical crustal displacement.
  • Steep Slopes and Flat Tops: Most Block Mountains show steep, straight slopes along fault lines and comparatively flat or gently tilted summits.
  • Horst and Graben Association: Block Mountains exist alongside grabens, forming alternating uplifted and down dropped crustal blocks across rifted landscapes.
  • Uniform Rock Composition: Each block usually consists of similar rock types, indicating uplift of intact crustal sections rather than deformed strata.
  • Seismic Activity Zones: These mountains commonly occur in earthquake prone regions because fault movement releases tectonic stress accumulated within the crust.

Read about: Types of Mountains

Block Mountain Formation

Block Mountains form due to large scale faulting triggered by tensional forces that stretch the Earth’s crust beyond its elastic limit. The process of formation of the Block Mountains has been listed below:

  • Horizontal stretching of the lithosphere creates stress zones that fracture rigid crustal rocks along parallel fault planes.
  • Under tension, normal faults form where one block moves downward relative to the other, allowing vertical displacement.
  • When a block between two faults moves upward or remains stationary while adjacent blocks sink, it forms an elevated horst.
  • Down dropped blocks between horsts create grabens, often evolving into rift valleys, basins, or elongated depressions.
  • Uneven fault movement can tilt blocks, producing one steep fault scarp and one gentle slope, shaping tilted Block Mountains.

Block Mountain Examples

Block Mountains in India and the world occur especially in tectonically active or rift related regions. Major Examples of Block Mountains Globally has been mentioned here:

  • Vindhya Range (India): A major Block Mountain system formed by faulting in central India, rising as a horst north of the Narmada graben.
  • Satpura Range (India): Located south of the Narmada Valley, this range represents an uplifted block bounded by faults and associated with rift tectonics.
  • Narmada Valley (India): A classic graben between the Vindhya and Satpura horsts, illustrating large scale block faulting in the Indian shield region.
  • Black Forest (Germany): An uplifted horst formed during Rhine Rift Valley development, characterized by steep western escarpments and fault controlled relief.
  • Vosges Mountains (France): A parallel horst to the Black Forest, uplifted during rifting, with sharp fault scarps facing the Rhine graben.
  • Sierra Nevada (USA): A tilted Block Mountain created by normal faulting along the North American Plate, featuring a steep eastern escarpment.
  • Harz Mountains (Germany): An ancient Block Mountain uplifted by faulting, displaying steep slopes and clear tectonic boundaries.
  • East African Rift Region: Extensive fault block systems where horsts and grabens form large rift valleys, highlighting active continental extension processes.

Block Mountain FAQs

Q1: What is a Block Mountain?

Ans: A block mountain is formed when large crustal blocks rise due to faulting under tensional forces in the Earth’s crust.

Q2: What are Horsts and Grabens?

Ans: Horsts are uplifted crustal blocks forming block mountains, while grabens are down dropped blocks forming valleys or basins.

Q3: How are Block Mountain formed?

Ans: Block mountains are formed mainly by tensional tectonic forces that stretch and fracture the Earth’s crust.

Q4: What are the Block Mountains found in India?

Ans: The Vindhya Range and the Satpura Range are classic examples of block mountains in India.

Q5: How are Block Mountains different from Fold Mountains?

Ans: Block mountains form by faulting, whereas fold mountains form by compression and folding of the rock layers.

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case 1980, Background, Judgement

February 5, 2026
Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case

The Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case is one of the most decisive constitutional judgments in India’s legal history. Delivered on 31 July 1980 by a Constitution Bench headed by Chief Justice Y.V. Chandrachud, the case clarified the limits of Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution under Article 368. The Supreme Court firmly ruled that Parliament’s amending power is not absolute and is constrained by the Constitution itself. By striking down key provisions of the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act 1976, the judgment reinforced constitutional supremacy, judicial review and the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy, forming a lasting safeguard against concentration of power.

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case Background

The Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case arose from the nationalisation of a private textile company and a constitutional challenge to expansive amendment powers.

  • In 1971, Minerva Mills Ltd., a textile undertaking in Karnataka, was taken over by the Central Government.
  • Nationalisation occurred under laws addressing sick textile undertakings.
  • The company and its shareholders filed a writ petition challenging the takeover.
  • The petition questioned the constitutional validity of Articles 31B and 31C.
  • Sections 4 and 55 of the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 were specifically challenged.
  • These provisions aimed to give Parliament unlimited power to amend the Constitution.
  • The case questioned the removal of judicial review over constitutional amendments.

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case Issues Involved

The Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case focused on whether constitutional amendments could override foundational constitutional principles. Major issues highlighted in this  case were:

  • Whether Parliament has unlimited power to amend the Constitution under Article 368.
  • Whether the 42nd Amendment violated the basic structure doctrine.
  • Whether judicial review of constitutional amendments could be excluded.
  • Whether amended Article 31C disturbed the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.
  • Whether nationalisation laws were protected from challenge under Article 31B.

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case Judgment

The Supreme Court decisively limited Parliament’s amending power and restored constitutional balance in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case.

  • Limited Amending Power Affirmed: The Court ruled that Parliament’s power under Article 368 is limited and cannot be exercised to destroy or alter the Constitution’s basic framework.
  • Invalidation of Article 368(4) and 368(5): Clauses excluding judicial review and declaring unlimited amending power were struck down as unconstitutional and violative of basic structure principles.
  • Judicial Review as Basic Feature: The judgment held that judicial review is an essential constitutional mechanism to prevent excesses by constitutional authorities and cannot be removed through amendments.
  • Basic Structure Doctrine Reaffirmed: The Court reaffirmed the doctrine evolved earlier, stating that Parliament cannot abrogate or repeal the Constitution under the guise of constitutional amendments.
  • Balance Between Parts III and IV: The Court emphasized that Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles are complementary and giving absolute primacy to either would destroy constitutional harmony.
  • Section 4 of 42nd Amendment Struck Down: The amendment extending Article 31C to all Directive Principles was invalidated for abrogating Articles 14 and 19 completely.
  • Original Article 31C Upheld: The Court upheld Article 31C in its original form, limiting protection only to laws implementing Articles 39(b) and 39(c).
  • Constitutional Supremacy Established: The judgment reinforced that the Constitution is supreme and Parliament’s constituent power remains subject to constitutional limitations.
  • Protection of Democratic Framework: The ruling ensured preservation of democracy by preventing concentration of unchecked power in Parliament through unlimited amendment authority

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case Legal Aspects Involved

The judgment for the  Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case clarified core constitutional principles governing amendments and governance.

  • Article 368 (Amending Power of Parliament)
  • Doctrine of Basic Structure
  • Judicial Review
  • Article 31C (Directive Principles Protection)
  • Article 31B (Ninth Schedule Protection)
  • Articles 14, 19 and 21 (Golden Triangle)
  • Harmony Between Parts III and IV (Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles)
  • Article 13 (Limitation on State Action)
  • Constitutional Supremacy
  • 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act 1976 (Mini Constitution)

What is the Doctrine of Basic Structure?

The Doctrine of Basic Structure is a judicial principle developed by the Supreme Court to limit Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution. It was formally shaped in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) to prevent amendments that damage core constitutional features. The doctrine holds that while Article 368 allows amendments, it does not permit destruction of essentials like constitutional supremacy, separation of powers, judicial review, federalism and the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles. This doctrine preserves democratic governance and prevents concentration of unchecked power.

42nd Constitutional Amendment Act 1976

The 42nd Amendment attempted to expand Parliament’s amending power by removing judicial review and giving Directive Principles absolute primacy over Fundamental Rights. It inserted clauses (4) and (5) in Article 368 and expanded Article 31C, actions later invalidated for violating the Constitution’s basic structure.

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case Dissent

Justice P.N. Bhagwati partly dissented while agreeing on limits to amending power.

  • Partial Agreement on Article 368: Justice P.N. Bhagwati agreed that clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 were unconstitutional as they destroyed the basic structure.
  • Validity of Amended Article 31C: He dissented on Section 4, holding that giving primacy to Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights did not violate the Constitution’s basic structure.
  • Emphasis on Social Justice: The dissent viewed Directive Principles as instruments to achieve socio-economic justice and believed their expansion aligned with constitutional goals.
  • Flexible Interpretation of Balance: Justice Bhagwati argued that the balance between Parts III and IV need not be rigid and could evolve through constitutional amendments.
  • Limited Impact on Fundamental Rights: He maintained that not every infringement of Articles 14 or 19 necessarily damages the Constitution’s basic structure.
  • Deference to Legislative Wisdom: The dissent stressed judicial restraint, arguing that Parliament should be allowed wider discretion in pursuing socio-economic reforms.

Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case FAQs

Q1: What was the Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case?

Ans: The case examined whether Parliament has unlimited power to amend the Constitution and whether the 42nd Constitutional Amendment violated the Constitution’s basic structure.

Q2: When was the judgment for Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case delivered?

Ans: The Supreme Court delivered the judgment on 31 July 1980 through a Constitution Bench headed by Chief Justice Y.V. Chandrachud.

Q3: Which provisions of the 42nd Amendment were struck down in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case?

Ans: The Court struck down Sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd Amendment, which amended Article 31C and inserted clauses (4) and (5) in Article 368.

Q4: Who were the judges on the Constitution Bench in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case?

Ans: The Constitution Bench included Chief Justice Y.V. Chandrachud and Justices A.C. Gupta, N.L. Untwalia, P.N. Bhagwati and P.S. Kailasam.

Q5: What impact did the judgment of Minerva Mills v. Union of India Case have on constitutional amendments?

Ans: The judgment established that constitutional amendments are subject to judicial review and cannot remove limitations on Parliament’s amending power under Article 368.

El Chichon Volcano

February 5, 2026
El Chichon Volcano

El Chichon Volcano Latest News

Unusual changes inside the crater of Chichón volcano in southern Mexico have raised fresh concerns among volcanologists.

About El Chichon Volcano

  • El Chichón, also known as Chichonal, is a stratovolcano situated in the forested terrain of north-central Chiapas, Mexico.
  • It is the youngest volcano in the northwestern part of the 150-km-long Chiapanecan volcanic arc.
  • This volcano is made up of several lava domes and a tuff ring. A tuff ring is a low, wide ring of volcanic ash and rock. 
  • El Chichón sits between two larger volcanic areas: the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Central America Volcanic Arc.
  • It is one of the most active volcanoes located in Mexico. 
  • It has produced at least 12 major volcanic eruptions during the past 8000 years. 
  • El Chichón became very well known for its eruption in 1982. 
    • The 1982 eruption  was the biggest disaster in modern Mexican history. 
    • The powerful 1982 explosive eruptions of high-sulfur, anhydrite-bearing magma were accompanied by devastating pyroclastic flows and surges and destroyed the summit lava dome.
    • The eruptions created a new 1-kilometer-wide crater that now contains an acidic crater lake.

Source: IDR

El Chichon Volcano FAQs

Q1: Where is El Chichón Volcano located?

Ans: El Chichón Volcano is located in the forested terrain of north-central Chiapas, Mexico.

Q2: What type of volcano is El Chichón?

Ans: El Chichón is a stratovolcano.

Q3: Between which two major volcanic regions is El Chichón located?

Ans: It lies between the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Central America Volcanic Arc.

Q4: Which eruption brought global attention to El Chichón Volcano?

Ans: The 1982 eruption brought worldwide attention to the volcano.

ASPIRE Scheme, Objectives, Features, Eligibility, Key Details

February 5, 2026
ASPIRE Scheme

The ASPIRE Scheme (A Scheme for Promotion of Innovation, Rural Industries and Entrepreneurship) was launched by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) in 2015 to promote entrepreneurship and innovation in rural and agro-based industries. The scheme focuses on creating a strong incubation ecosystem by supporting start-ups, micro-enterprises, and innovators, especially in rural and underserved regions.

The article below highlights the objectives, features and eligibility of the ASPIRE Scheme.

ASPIRE Scheme Objectives

The ASPIRE Scheme aims to boost rural entrepreneurship and promote innovation by encouraging the establishment of incubation centers and providing technical and financial support to start-ups. The major objectives of the scheme include:

  • To promote innovation and entrepreneurship by establishing Livelihood Business Incubators (LBIs) in rural and underserved areas.
  • To generate employment opportunities through the development of formal and scalable micro-enterprises in the agro-rural sector.
  • To provide skill development, up-skilling, and re-skilling opportunities in modern agro-rural technologies.
  • To strengthen MSME competitiveness by supplying skilled manpower to industrial clusters.
  • To encourage rural industrialization and improve economic opportunities in backward and remote areas.
  • To support start-ups and innovators by providing incubation, mentoring, and technical assistance.

Also Read: DISHA Scheme

ASPIRE Scheme Features

The ASPIRE Scheme provides financial, technical, and mentoring support to entrepreneurs through incubation centres and cluster-based development. The key features of the scheme are:

  • It promotes rural entrepreneurship and innovation through incubation support.
  • It focuses on establishing Livelihood Business Incubators (LBIs) in rural and underserved areas.
  • It encourages the development of agro-based and rural enterprises with high employment potential.
  • It supports Technology Business Incubators (TBIs) to promote innovation and technology-driven start-ups.
  • It provides financial assistance for setting up incubators through capital grants.
  • It offers grant support up to ₹1 crore for Government and PSU incubators.
  • It provides grant support up to ₹75 lakh for private or PPP incubators.
  • It provides one-time financial support up to ₹1 crore for operational expenses of incubators.
  • It offers seed capital and risk funding support for early-stage innovators and start-ups.
  • It strengthens enterprise clusters to improve productivity and market access.
  • It provides mentoring, hand-holding, and capacity-building support to entrepreneurs.
  • It promotes skill development, up-skilling, and re-skilling in agro-rural technologies.

ASPIRE Scheme Eligibility

The ASPIRE Scheme supports institutions, MSMEs, and individual entrepreneurs engaged in innovation, rural industries, and enterprise development.

  • It is open to Government institutions, Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), and private or PPP organizations for establishing incubators.
  • It is available to MSMEs with valid Entrepreneurs Memorandum (EM) registration.
  • It supports individual innovators and entrepreneurs through incubation and mentoring services.
  • It gives priority to start-ups working in agro-based, rural, and technology-driven sectors.
  • It requires institutions to have adequate infrastructure and technical capability for incubation activities.
  • It provides support to entrepreneurs with scalable and innovative business ideas.

ASPIRE Scheme FAQs

Q1: What is the ASPIRE Scheme?

Ans: The ASPIRE Scheme is a government initiative launched in 2015 to promote innovation, rural industries, and entrepreneurship through incubation and financial support.

Q2: Which ministry launched the ASPIRE Scheme?

Ans: The scheme was launched by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME).

Q3: What is the main aim of the ASPIRE Scheme?

Ans: The main aim is to promote rural entrepreneurship, generate employment, and strengthen MSMEs through innovation and incubation support.

Q4: What are Livelihood Business Incubators (LBIs)?

Ans: LBIs are incubation centres that provide skill development, training, and business support to promote entrepreneurship in rural and agro-based sectors.

Q5: Who can benefit from the ASPIRE Scheme?

Ans: MSMEs, individual entrepreneurs, innovators, and start-ups working in rural, agro-based, and technology-driven sectors can benefit from the scheme.

Project Vault

February 5, 2026
Project Vault

Project Vault Latest News

The US government recently rolled out Project Vault, a $12 billion scheme to stockpile rare earths and critical minerals, aiming to shield American companies from global supply disruptions.

About Project Vault

  • It is a $12 billion scheme launched by the United States to stockpile rare earths and critical minerals, aiming to shield American companies from global supply disruptions.
  • It is a public-private partnership that will buy and store critical minerals and rare earth elements. 
    • These minerals are used in products such as smartphones, batteries, jet engines, and electric vehicles. 
  • The project is similar to the US Strategic Petroleum Reserve, which stores emergency oil supplies. However, instead of crude oil, Project Vault will focus on minerals.
  • It will combine $1.67 billion in private seed funding with another $10 billion from the US government’s Export-Import Bank.
  • How will the stockpiling system work?
    • Companies will make an initial commitment to buy materials later at a fixed inventory price. They will also pay some upfront fees. 
    • Based on these commitments, companies can give Project Vault a list of the materials they need. The project will then purchase and store those materials.
    • Manufacturers will pay a carrying cost that covers loan interest and storage expenses.
  • When can companies access the stored minerals?
    • Companies will be allowed to use their stored materials as long as they replace what they take out. 
    • In case of a major supply disruption, firms will be able to access their entire stockpile.
    • A key feature of the plan is that companies must agree to repurchase the same amount of materials in the future at the same price.

Source: BS

Project Vault FAQs

Q1: What is Project Vault?

Ans: It is a $12 billion United States initiative to stockpile rare earths and critical minerals.

Q2: What is the main objective of Project Vault?

Ans: The main objective is to shield U.S. companies from supply chain disruptions of critical minerals and rare earth elements.

Q3: What kind of partnership model does Project Vault follow?

Ans: It follows a public–private partnership model.

Q4: What costs do manufacturers bear while using Project Vault?

Ans: Manufacturers pay a carrying cost, covering loan interest and storage expenses.

BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies

February 5, 2026
BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies

BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies Latest News

Recently, India joined the BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies (BCIC) at Vanijya Bhavan, New Delhi.

About BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies

  • It was launched in partnership with the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
  • Objective: It serves as a one-stop centre providing integrated support services to manufacturing companies and Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) across BRICS countries.
  • It is a network-driven initiative under UNIDO, supporting SMEs, industrial modernization, and digital transformation in BRICS.
  • It focuses on strengthening Industry 4.0 competencies.
  • Implementation: The National Productivity Council (NPC) has been designated as the India Centre for BRICS Industrial Competencies. 

Key Facts about BRICS

  • It is a group of major emerging economies that work together for economic cooperation, development, and global governance reforms.
  • The acronym ‘BRIC’ was coined by Jim O’Neill (Goldman Sachs economist) in 2001 to denote four emerging economies – Brazil, Russia, India, and China.
  • BRIC held its first meeting in 2006 during the G8 Outreach Summit and its first standalone summit in Russia in 2009.
  • With the inclusion of South Africa in 2010, BRIC became BRICS.
  • Aim: To strengthen South-South cooperation and increase the voice of developing countries at the global level.
  • Member Countries: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Indonesia.

Source: PIB

BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies FAQs

Q1: What is the BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies?

Ans: A one-stop centre for manufacturing companies and MSMEs.

Q2: What is the objective of the BRICS Centre for Industrial Competencies?

Ans: To support capacity building and manufacturing-related initiatives

AI Stack

February 5, 2026
AI Stack

AI Stack Latest News

India is anchored in the vision of AI for Humanity and building a robust AI stack is both a technological priority and a social commitment for India.

About AI Stack

  • An AI stack is the complete set of tools and systems that work together to build and run AI applications. 
  • It makes artificial intelligence work in the real world, from the apps people use every day to the data, computing power, networks etc.
  • It is made up of five layers
    • Application Layer
      • It represents the user-facing component of the AI stack.
      • It includes AI-powered apps and services such as health diagnostic tools, farming advisory platforms, chatbots, and language translation applications.
      • This layer turns complex AI processes into simple, user-friendly services that people can easily use.
    • AI model layer
      • It acts as the brain of AI systems. AI models are trained on data to recognize patterns, make predictions, and take decisions.
      • It is the core intelligence that determines how effectively applications can understand, predict, and respond to real-world needs. 
      • Example: They help detect diseases from X-rays, predict crop yields, translate languages, or answer questions through chatbots.
    • Compute layer
      • It provides the computing power required to train and run AI models. During training, computers process vast amounts of data so the model can learn and improve. 
      • It is the critical enabler that determines the scale, speed, and sophistication of AI innovation.
    • Data Centres and Network Infrastructure Layer
      • Data centres are where AI systems are stored and operated, while networks like the internet, broadband, and 5G move data between users, computers, and AI models.
      • The data centres and network infrastructure layer provides the foundational backbone that enables AI systems to operate at scale and in real time. 
    • Energy Layer: It keeps the entire AI stack running. AI data centres consume large amounts of electricity because powerful computers are needed to train and operate AI systems.

Source: PIB

AI Stack FAQs

Q1: What is the primary goal of Artificial Intelligence?

Ans: To create machines that can think and act like humans

Q2: Which technology enables AI systems to learn from data?

Ans: Machine Learning

Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary

February 5, 2026
Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary

Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Latest News

Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary has recorded over five lakh birds across 200 species in its latest census, a sharp 21% jump from 4.12 lakh in 2024, largely due to the absence of boating, reduced tourist movement, and minimal noise pollution over the past two years.

About Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary

  • It is located approximately 64 km west of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
  • Nal Sarovar literally translates to ‘Tap Lake’. 
  • It is a natural lake with shallow waters and muddy lagoons, dotted by 36 islets.
  • Spread over an area of 120.82 sq.km., this sanctuary is a paradise for bird watchers and nature enthusiasts. 
  • The history of Nalsarovar dates back to the 15th century, when the lake was created as a result of the construction of a check dam across the Sabarmati River. 
  • The lake was initially used for irrigation and as a source of drinking water for nearby villages.
  • Over time, the lake became an important habitat for a variety of bird species, and local communities recognized its ecological significance. 
  • In the early 20th century, the British colonial administration recognized the importance of Nalsarovar as a wetland ecosystem and established it as a protected area.
  • In 1969, the Gujarat government declared Nalsarovar a bird sanctuary to primarily protect its bird population.
  • It was declared as a Ramsar site on 24 September 2012. 
  • Flora: 
    • The sanctuary area has 48 species of algae and 72 species of flowering plants. 
    • The common aquatic plants are Cyperus sp., Scirpus sp., Typha ungustata, Eleocharis palustris, Ruppia, Potamogeton, Vallisnaria, Naias, Chara, etc.
    • It also includes locally famous ‘pilu’ trees which harbor a red berry type edible fruit.
  • Fauna: 
    • It’s home to over 250 species of birds, including beautiful migratory birds that travel from places as far away as Europe and Siberia. 
    • Apart from these, typical species like pelicans, ducks, herons, and storks can be found easily.
    • Other animals: On southern or southwestern fringes, small herds of wild ass can be seen. Mongoose, jungle cat, Indian fox, jackal, wolf, and hyena are also there.

Source: TOI

Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary FAQs

Q1: Where is Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary located?

Ans: It is located about 64 km west of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.

Q2: What type of water body is Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary?

Ans: It is a natural lake with shallow waters and muddy lagoons, dotted with 36 islets.

Q3: When was Nalsarovar designated as a Ramsar site?

Ans: It was designated as a Ramsar site on 24 September 2012.

NDMA’s First-Ever SOP on Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)

February 5, 2026
Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) Latest News

  • A series of major disasters struck India in 2025, exposing serious gaps in the identification and management of disaster victims.
  • In response to this, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has released India’s first comprehensive Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for handling Mass Fatality Incidents (MFIs).
  • The guidelines, titled “National Disaster Management Guidelines on Comprehensive Disaster Victim Identification and Management”, were released on Republic Day by the Ministry of Home Affairs, marking 25 years since the 2001 Gujarat earthquake.

Need for these Guidelines

  • India witnessed at least five major mass fatality events in 2025, including -
    • Air India crash, Ahmedabad (June)
    • Chemical factory explosion, Sangareddy, Telangana (June)
    • Gambhira bridge collapse, Vadodara (July)
    • Flash floods, Dharali, Uttarakhand (August)
    • Delhi car bomb blast (November)
  • Several victims in such incidents remained unidentified or were identified after significant delays, causing prolonged distress to families and administrative challenges.

Key Objectives of the Guidelines

  • Ensure: Scientific, coordinated and humane identification of disaster victims.
  • Enable: Dignified handling and handover of human remains.
  • Address: Institutional, logistical and forensic gaps.
  • Standardise: Roles of multiple stakeholders across local, State and Central levels.

Salient Features of the SOP

  • Four-stage victim identification process: The guidelines lay down a globally accepted, structured approach -
    • Systematic recovery of human remains
    • Collection of post-mortem data (physical, dental, forensic details)
    • Collection of ante-mortem data from families (medical records, dental records, personal identifiers)
    • Reconciliation and identification, followed by release of remains to families
  • National Dental Data Registry:
    • One of the most notable and innovative recommendations.
    • As teeth and jaws often survive fire, explosions and decomposition, dental records can serve as reliable identifiers.
    • Aligns with Interpol Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) standards.
  • Use of advanced forensic disciplines:
    • For example,
      • Forensic odontology: Dental identification.
      • Forensic archaeology: Identification of remains months or years after disasters, especially in landslides or buried sites.
    • Brings together multiple forensic branches under one coordinated framework.
  • Humanitarian forensics approach: Recognises that mass autopsies may not always be feasible, emphasising -
    • Sensitivity to community customs and religious practices
    • Emotional support and counselling for families
    • Focus on dignity, not merely procedural compliance

Institutional and Operational Framework

  • The expansive document details the role of all stakeholders in the aftermath of a disaster.
  • For example,
    • Composition of identification teams.
    • Coordination among police, medical, forensic, administrative and disaster response agencies.
  • It acknowledges the reality of multi-agency presence and overlapping jurisdictions at disaster sites.

Challenges Highlighted in the Document

  • Operational challenges:
    • Fragmentation and commingling of remains.
    • Rapid decomposition in hot and humid climates.
    • Charring in fires and displacement during floods.
  • Logistical gaps:
    • Inadequate mortuary capacity.
    • Lack of cold chain transport and storage.
    • Absence of reliable manifests or records in many disaster scenarios.
  • Institutional lacunae:
    • Shortage of trained forensic manpower.
    • Weak inter-agency coordination.
    • Leadership and command challenges during large-scale disasters.

Way Forward Suggested by NDMA

  • Creating: Organisational structures for Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) across India.
  • Training: Experts from all relevant forensic fields.
  • Forming: Specialised DVI teams, ideally in each State.
  • Fast-tracking: Implementation on a “war footing”.
  • Adaptation: Interpol best practices, contextualised for Indian conditions.
  • Others:
    • Strengthen Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and post-disaster governance.
    • Integrate science, technology and humanitarian values.
    • Reinforce India’s compliance with international forensic standards.

Conclusion

  • The NDMA’s first-ever SOP on Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) marks a critical shift from ad hoc responses to an institutionalised, humane and scientific framework for managing mass fatalities. 
  • By combining global best practices with indigenous realities, and by placing dignity of victims and emotional well-being of families at the centre, the guidelines represent a mature evolution of India’s disaster management architecture. 
  • Effective implementation and sustained capacity-building will determine whether this landmark initiative translates into real relief on the ground during future disasters.

Source: IE

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) FAQs

Q1: Why did the NDMA introduce the first-ever National SOP on Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)?

Ans: To address persistent gaps in identification, coordination and dignified handling of victims in mass fatality incidents.

Q2: How does the proposed National Dental Data Registry enhance disaster victim identification in India?

Ans: Dental records, being resilient to fire and decomposition, provide a reliable scientific tool for victim identification.

Q3: What are the four stages of DVI prescribed by the NDMA guidelines?

Ans: Systematic recovery of remains, collection of post-mortem data, collection of ante-mortem data, and reconciliation for identification and handover.

Q4: What is meant by ‘humanitarian forensics’ in the context of NDMA’s mass fatality guidelines?

Ans: It refers to a victim-centric forensic process that balances scientific identification with cultural sensitivity, dignity, etc.

Q5: What are the key operational and institutional challenges highlighted by NDMA in managing mass fatality incidents?

Ans: Fragmented remains, climatic decomposition, logistical shortages, lack of trained manpower, and weak inter-agency coordination.

Yuva Sahakar Scheme

February 5, 2026
Yuva Sahakar Scheme

Yuva Sahakar Scheme Latest News

Recently, the Ministry of Cooperation provided details of financial assistance released to cooperatives along with beneficiaries for financial year 2022- to 2025 under Yuva Sahakar Scheme.

About Yuva Sahakar Scheme

  • Yuva Sahakar – Cooperative Enterprise Support and Innovation Scheme” aims to encourage newly formed cooperative societies with new and/or innovative ideas.
  • It encourages young entrepreneur Cooperative Societies which are in operation for a minimum of 3 months.
  • Loan Facility: The loan provided under the scheme is a long-term loan (up to 5 years) and as an incentive, NCDC provides 2% interest subvention on its applicable rate of interest on term loan for the project activities.
  • Implementation: It is being implemented by National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) across the country.

Features of Yuva Sahakar Scheme

  • NCDC has produced a dedicated fund with liberal traits entitling youth to avail the scheme.
  • It is linked with Rs.1000 crores of the Cooperative Start-up and Innovation Fund that has been authorised by the NCDC.
  • It provides more incentives to the cooperatives working in the North-Eastern region and the aspirational districts.
  • Exclusive benefits are provided for women, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe candidates.
  • Yuva Sahakar Scheme is a part of Sahakar 22, a Mission for Doubling Farmers’ Income by 2022.

Source: PIB

Yuva Sahakar Scheme FAQs

Q1: What is the objective of Yuva Sahakar Scheme?

Ans: Encourage young entrepreneur cooperative societies

Q2: Who implements Yuva Sahakar Scheme?

Ans: National Cooperative Development Corporation

Bharat Taxi

February 5, 2026
Bharat Taxi

Bharat Taxi Latest News

The Union Cooperation Minister will launch India’s first cooperative-based ride-hailing platform, “Bharat Taxi,” at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi. 

About Bharat Taxi

  • Bharat Taxi is India’s first cooperative-led ride-hailing platform registered under the Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002.
  • It is a government-supported initiative developed under the Union Ministry of Cooperation and the National e-Governance Division (NeGD).
  • It is India’s first cooperative taxi network, allowing drivers to become shareholders and co-owners.
  • Promoted: It is being jointly promoted by leading cooperative and financial institutions including NCDC, IFFCO, AMUL, KRIBHCO, NAFED, NABARD, NDD Band NCEL.

Key Features of Bharat Taxi Initiative

  • Driver-Owned Fleet: Drivers can purchase shares and become cooperative members, giving them transparency and decision-making power.
  • Zero Commission: Unlike private cab aggregators that take a large cut, Bharat Taxi transfers the full fare to the driver.
  • Transparent, No-Surge Pricing: Fares will remain predictable, with no surge charges.
  • Platform Integration & Technical Architecture: Integration of the Bharat Taxi platform with national digital platforms such as DigiLocker, UMANG, and API Setu.
  • Security, Compliance & Infrastructure: Ensuring adherence to Government of India’s data protection norms and cybersecurity standards and advising on robust technical infrastructure.

Source: PIB

Bharat Taxi FAQs

Q1: What is Bharat Taxi?

Ans: India's first national-level cooperative ride-hailing platform

Q2: What is unique about Bharat Taxi's business model?

Ans: It follows a zero-commission model

Denotified Tribes in India – Demand for Constitutional Recognition

February 5, 2026
Denotified Tribes

Denotified Tribes Latest News

  • Denotified, nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes have demanded constitutional recognition and a separate column in the 2027 Census to address long-standing political and administrative marginalisation. 

Denotified Tribes in India: Background and Evolution

  • Denotified Tribes (DNTs) are communities that were historically labelled as “criminal tribes” under colonial rule. 
  • The Criminal Tribes Act, 1871, empowered the British administration to notify entire communities as criminal by birth, subjecting them to surveillance, restrictions on movement, and social stigma. 
  • This law was later amended in 1924, further institutionalising discrimination.
  • Following Independence, the Criminal Tribes Act was repealed in 1952, and the affected communities were officially “denotified”. 
  • Since then, these groups have been known as Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs). 
  • However, repeal of the law did not automatically translate into social acceptance or legal empowerment. 
  • The stigma of criminality continued through policing practices and social exclusion.

Socio-Economic Status of Denotified Tribes

  • Denotified Tribes remain among the most marginalised communities in India, facing severe deficits in education, health, housing, and livelihood security. 
  • Many DNT communities follow nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyles, limiting access to land ownership, ration cards, caste certificates, and welfare schemes.
  • Studies and official committees have repeatedly highlighted that literacy levels among several DNT groups are extremely low, with some communities reporting negligible school completion rates. 
  • Economic survival often depends on informal labour, traditional occupations, or seasonal migration, making them vulnerable to exploitation.

Administrative Classification and Policy Gaps

  • Unlike Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), Denotified Tribes do not have a dedicated constitutional Schedule. 
  • Over time, many DNT communities were subsumed under SC, ST or OBC categories, while others were left completely unclassified.
  • The Idate Commission (2017) identified around 1,200 denotified, nomadic and semi-nomadic communities, of which about 267 communities were not included in any constitutional category. 
  • Even those included within SC, ST or OBC lists often fail to access benefits due to intense competition with relatively better-off groups.
  • This administrative misclassification has resulted in policy invisibility, as there is no reliable population data on DNTs at the national level.

Government Initiatives for Denotified Tribes

  • The Union government has introduced welfare measures, including the Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs (SEED), covering education, health insurance, housing and livelihood support. 
  • However, utilisation remains low due to the absence of proper DNT certificates issued by States and Union Territories.
  • Between 2020 and 2025, actual spending under SEED remained significantly below allocated amounts, reflecting implementation challenges rather than a lack of need.

News Summary

  • In the run-up to the 2027 caste-based Census, Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes across northern India have renewed demands for a separate Census column and code. 
  • They argue that without explicit enumeration, they will once again be statistically erased.
  • The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has recommended their inclusion to the Office of the Registrar General of India, which has agreed in principle to include them in the caste enumeration exercise. 
  • However, community leaders stress that mere inclusion is insufficient without a distinct category.
  • Additionally, there is a growing demand for constitutional recognition through a separate Schedule, similar to SCs and STs. 
  • Leaders also seek sub-classification within DNTs to recognise “graded backwardness” between settled and nomadic groups, drawing support from recent Supreme Court judgments allowing sub-classification within reserved categories.

Significance of the Demand

  • A separate Census entry would provide credible population data, strengthening the basis for targeted welfare schemes, budgetary allocation, and political representation. 
  • Constitutional recognition would acknowledge historical injustice and provide legal backing for affirmative action.
  • Without these reforms, DNTs risk remaining trapped between categories, unable to compete within SC, ST or OBC lists, yet lacking an identity of their own.

Source: TH

Denotified Tribes FAQs

Q1: Who are Denotified Tribes in India?

Ans: Denotified Tribes are communities earlier labelled as “criminal tribes” under colonial law and denotified after 1952.

Q2: Why do Denotified Tribes seek a separate Census entry?

Ans: To ensure accurate population data and avoid being statistically invisible within SC, ST or OBC categories.

Q3: Are Denotified Tribes constitutionally recognised?

Ans: No, they currently lack a separate constitutional Schedule.

Q4: What is graded backwardness among Denotified Tribes?

Ans: It refers to varying levels of deprivation between settled and nomadic DNT communities.

Q5: What is the SEED scheme for DNTs?

Ans: A central welfare scheme providing support for education, health, housing and livelihoods of Denotified Tribes.

Meta–WhatsApp Data Case: Supreme Court Questions Consent Model

February 5, 2026
Meta WhatsApp Data

Meta WhatsApp Data Latest News

  • In a significant hearing, the Supreme Court of India sharply questioned the data practices of Meta, the parent company of WhatsApp, suggesting that the extraction of user data may resemble “theft” rather than voluntary exchange.
  • A three-judge Bench observed that in markets dominated by a few digital platforms, user consent may be illusory, as individuals have little real choice but to accept data-sharing terms. 
  • The court indicated that market dominance can convert consent into coercion, raising concerns that go beyond privacy to challenge the very economic foundations of data-driven business models.
  • The observations signal a possible judicial rethink on how consent, competition, and data ownership are understood in India’s rapidly expanding digital ecosystem, with far-reaching implications for Big Tech regulation in the world’s largest internet market.

Meta–WhatsApp Regulatory Friction

  • The dispute began in 2021, when WhatsApp introduced a “take-it-or-leave-it” privacy policy update.
  • The revised policy enabled greater data sharing between WhatsApp and its parent company, Meta.
  • Although WhatsApp maintained that end-to-end encryption continued to protect message content, regulators flagged concerns over the use of metadata for advertising and business profiling.

Competition Commission of India’s Intervention

  • The Competition Commission of India (CCI) viewed the update as an abuse of dominant market position.
  • Key observations included:
    • For most Indian users, opting out of WhatsApp is not a realistic choice
    • WhatsApp functions as India’s “digital town square”, making consent effectively coerced
  • Penalty imposed: ₹213.14 crore (≈ $25 million) on Meta
  • While financially modest for a trillion-dollar firm, it marked a strong regulatory signal.
  • Meta challenged the CCI order before the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT).

NCLAT’s Nuanced Verdict

  • The NCLAT delivered a split decision:
    • Upheld the CCI’s finding that Meta had abused its dominant position
    • Retained the monetary penalty
    • Set aside a critical CCI directive that would have barred Meta from sharing WhatsApp user data with its other entities for five years for advertising purposes
  • The NCLAT’s reasoning rested on:
    • A traditional view of corporate integration, treating data-sharing between parent and subsidiary as a common digital-age practice
    • Concern that a five-year moratorium would be a disproportionate “structural remedy”, potentially disrupting Meta’s platform synergies
    • Preference to let privacy-specific legislation, rather than competition law, govern data flows
  • With the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 on the horizon, the tribunal appeared inclined to defer finer questions of consent and data use to the emerging data protection regime.

Why Meta Took the Dispute to the Supreme Court

  • Dissatisfied with both the financial penalty and the reasoning adopted by the NCLAT, Meta appealed to the Supreme Court of India.
  • Meta sought relief from what it viewed as excessive regulatory interference in its data-sharing practices and business model.

Supreme Court’s Hard Line on Market Dominance

  • The apex court showed little inclination to dilute scrutiny.
  • Chief Justice remarked that opting out of WhatsApp in India is akin to “opting out of the country”, underlining the network effects that lock users into dominant digital platforms.
  • This observation reinforced the idea that user consent in monopolistic markets may be illusory.

Shift from Privacy to Economic Value of Data

  • A more far-reaching argument came from Justice Joymalya Bagchi, who reframed the debate beyond privacy to the economic value of personal data.
  • India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 primarily safeguards informational privacy
  • However, the law is largely silent on “rent-sharing”—who benefits economically when platforms monetise user data
  • Justice Bagchi questioned: if behavioural data of Indian users fuels targeted advertising, who owns the profits generated from that data?

Towards a ‘Data-as-Property’ Approach

  • The court’s reasoning hinted at a data-as-property framework, aligning India closer to the Digital Services Act of the European Union, rather than the more laissez-faire approach associated with the United States.
  • By impleading the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), the court compelled the government to reflect on a deeper policy question:
    • Is privacy protection alone sufficient, or
    • Does the economic value of citizens’ digital footprints warrant a new form of sovereign and regulatory protection?

What Happens Next

  • Court’s Growing Discomfort with the ‘Free Internet’ Model - The remark that users are “not only consumers, but also products” captures the court’s unease with digital business models built on harvesting personal data. Targeted ads following private conversations are seen as intrusions, not innovation.
  • Transparency vs Real Understanding - The court signalled that formal consent does not equal informed consent in a country with uneven digital literacy.
  • Ultimatum to Meta - The court has issued a clear warning: Meta must give an undertaking to stop sharing personal data, or risk dismissal of its case and the imposition of “very strict conditions”.
  • Message from the Judiciary - The judiciary’s stance is unmistakable—Indian users are no longer passive data sources. The long-tolerated model of invisible data extraction may be nearing its end.

Source: TH

Meta WhatsApp Data FAQs

Q1: Why is the Meta WhatsApp data case in the news?

Ans: The Meta WhatsApp data case is in focus after the Supreme Court questioned whether user consent is meaningful when dominant platforms extract personal data for profit.

Q2: What concerns did the Supreme Court raise on Meta WhatsApp data?

Ans: The court suggested Meta WhatsApp data practices may resemble coercion, as users lack real alternatives, turning consent into a formality rather than a free choice.

Q3: How did the Competition Commission view Meta WhatsApp data sharing?

Ans: The CCI held that Meta abused dominance by forcing data sharing, fined the company ₹213 crore, and flagged WhatsApp as India’s unavoidable digital platform.

Q4: Why did Meta approach the Supreme Court?

Ans: Meta challenged the CCI and NCLAT findings, arguing that restrictions on Meta WhatsApp data sharing would disrupt its integrated business model and exceed competition law’s scope.

Q5: What could change after the Meta WhatsApp data hearing?

Ans: The court may redefine consent, data ownership and economic rights over Meta WhatsApp data, signalling stricter regulation of Big Tech in India’s digital economy.

Carbon Capture in India: Why CCUS Is Critical for Net Zero

February 5, 2026
Carbon Capture in India

Carbon Capture in India Latest News

  • The Union Budget’s allocation of ₹20,000 crore over five years for carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) signals a major push towards cutting emissions from hard-to-abate sectors. 
  • By backing CCUS technologies, the government aims to lower industrial carbon footprints and support India’s long-term goal of achieving net-zero emissions.

About Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) Solutions

  • Capturing carbon emissions - CCUS refers to a set of technologies that capture carbon dioxide (CO₂) released during industrial activities before it enters the atmosphere. CO₂ is the main driver of global warming and climate change.
  • Storage or reuse of captured CO₂ - Once captured, CO₂ can either be stored safely underground in geological formations for long periods or utilised by converting it into useful products such as chemicals, fuels, or construction materials.
  • Not a single technology - CCUS is not one technology, but a range of methods and processes aimed at preventing CO₂ emissions. Different industries use different capture, transport, storage, or utilisation techniques.
  • Limited deployment so far - Although CCUS technologies have existed for decades, their use has been limited due to high costs, safety concerns, and scaling challenges. Deployment has picked up only recently.
  • Global status of CCUS - Most active CCUS projects are currently in the US, Europe, and China. Even so, only about 50 million tonnes of CO₂ are captured annually—less than 0.5% of global emissions.
  • Crucial for net-zero goals - With global emissions remaining high, CCUS is increasingly seen as essential. There is no credible pathway to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 or controlling global warming without large-scale adoption of CCUS technologies.

Budget Push for Carbon Capture in India

  • With emissions expected to rise in the near and medium term due to rapid industrialisation and infrastructure expansion, CCUS is crucial for India to meet its long-term net-zero by 2070 commitment.

India’s CCUS journey so far

  • Since announcing its net-zero goal at the 2021 Glasgow climate summit, India has accelerated efforts to develop indigenous CCUS technologies tailored to domestic conditions.
  • Pilot and demonstration CCUS projects are already running in steel, cement and chemical sectors. 
  • Potential large-scale capture and storage sites have been mapped, and Centres of Excellence—such as at IIT Bombay and JNCASR Bengaluru—are driving research.
  • While CCUS science is well understood, major engineering, process and material innovations are needed across capture, transport, storage and utilisation to improve efficiency, safety and affordability.

Policy and R&D roadmap

  • In December, the Department of Science and Technology released a CCUS R&D roadmap for 2030, identifying key technology, finance and policy bottlenecks slowing adoption.

Role of the ₹20,000 crore budget outlay

  • The five-year budget allocation aims to bridge the critical funding gap for field testing and scale-up. 
  • Many CCUS solutions have proven laboratory success but require real-world deployment to reach commercial readiness.
  • The funding seeks to raise technology readiness levels so systems can capture or store 100–500 tonnes of CO₂ per day.
  • Experts expect several CCUS technologies to reach commercial deployment in India within five years.

Economic Benefits of CCUS

  • Hard-to-abate industries - CCUS is crucial for sectors like steel and cement, where carbon dioxide emissions arise not just from fuel use but are an inherent part of the production process. Switching to renewable power alone cannot eliminate these emissions.
  • Only viable decarbonisation route - In cement and steel, most CO₂ emissions come from chemical processes rather than energy consumption. CCUS is therefore the only practical solution to significantly reduce their carbon footprint.
  • Budget focus on major emitters - The ₹20,000 crore budget allocation is aimed at end-use CCUS applications in power, steel, cement, refineries and chemicals—industries that together account for the bulk of India’s CO₂ emissions.
  • Boosting export competitiveness - Indian exporters in these sectors face carbon-related trade barriers such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). CCUS adoption can help lower embedded emissions, making Indian products more competitive in global markets.

Source: IE

Carbon Capture in India FAQs

Q1: Why is carbon capture in India in the news?

Ans: Carbon capture in India gained focus after the Union Budget allocated ₹20,000 crore over five years to develop CCUS technologies for reducing emissions in hard-to-abate industries.

Q2: What is carbon capture in India meant to achieve?

Ans: Carbon capture in India aims to trap CO₂ emissions from industrial processes and either store or utilise them, supporting India’s long-term net-zero emissions target.

Q3: Why is carbon capture in India important for industry?

Ans: Carbon capture in India is vital for sectors like steel and cement, where most emissions come from production chemistry and cannot be eliminated by renewable energy alone.

Q4: What role does the Budget play in carbon capture in India?

Ans: The Budget funding supports field trials and scale-up of carbon capture in India, helping technologies move from laboratory success to commercial deployment.

Q5: How does carbon capture in India help exports?

Ans: Carbon capture in India can lower embedded emissions, helping exporters face carbon tariffs like the EU’s CBAM and remain competitive in global markets.

Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)

February 5, 2026
Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)

Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) Latest News

Denotified tribes, nomadic tribes, and semi-nomadic tribes across the country are coming together to push for a “separate column” for themselves in the 2027 Census.

About Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)

  • Denotified Tribes (DNTs) are those communities which were once notified under the Criminal Tribes Acts, enforced by the British Raj between l871 and I947. 
    • Once a tribe becomes “Notified” as criminal, all its members were required to register with the local magistrates, failing which they would be charged with a ‘crime’ under the Indian Penal Code. 
  • After Independence, this Act was repealed in 1952, and the communities were “denotified”, hence the name. 
  • A few of these communities which were listed as denotified were also nomadic.
    • Nomadic tribes are the communities who usually do not have land and move from one place to another for livelihood.
  • The DNTs are among the most neglected, marginalised, and economically deprived communities, with most living a life of destitution.
  • Historically, these communities never had access to private land or home ownership and used forests and grazing lands for their livelihood and residential use. 

Status of DNTs in India

  • In India, roughly 10 percent of the population are DNTs.
  • In 2014, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment constituted a National Commission for De-notified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (NCDNT) under the chairmanship of Bhiku Ramji Idate for a period of three years- 
    • to prepare a state-wise list of castes belonging to  DNTs  
    • to suggest appropriate measures in respect of Denotified and Nomadic Tribes that may be undertaken by the Central Government or the State Government. 
  • NCDNT submitted its report on 08.01.2018.  
  • As per the report, a total of 1235 communities have been identified as DNTs across the country.
  • Based on the Commission’s recommendations, the ministry constituted the Development and Welfare Board for Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Communities (DWBDNCs) in 2019. 
  • The Board has been mandated to formulate and implement welfare and development programmes for these communities. 
  • The Renke Commission (2008) was earlier commissioned to identify and list the DNT communities.

Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs (SEED)

  • It was launched by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment for the welfare of DNT communities. 
  • It is being implemented by DWBDNCs.
  • It has been formulated for families having income from all sources of Rs 2.50 lakh or less per annum and not availing any such benefits from a similar scheme of the Centre or state government.
  • Aim: To provide free competitive exam coaching, health insurance, housing assistance, and livelihood initiatives at the community level, and financial assistance for construction of houses will be provided to the members of DNTs Communities.
  • An amount of 200 crore has been allocated for this scheme — to be spent over five years from FY2021-22 to FY2025-26.

Source: TH

Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) FAQs

Q1: Who are Denotified Tribes (DNTs)?

Ans: Denotified Tribes are communities that were once notified as “criminal tribes” under the Criminal Tribes Acts during British rule.

Q2: During which period were the Criminal Tribes Acts enforced in India?

Ans: They were enforced between 1871 and 1947.

Q3: When were the Criminal Tribes Acts repealed in independent India?

Ans: The Acts were repealed in 1952.

Q4: Who are Nomadic Tribes?

Ans: Nomadic tribes are communities that generally do not own land and move from place to place for livelihood.

Hakki Pikki Tribe

February 5, 2026
Hakki Pikki Tribe

Hakki Pikki Tribe Latest News

Eight members of Karnataka’s Hakki Pikki tribal community, who had travelled to Central Africa for the sale of herbal products, are now facing a serious crisis after their visas expired.

About Hakki Pikki Tribe

  • ‘Hakki-Pikki’ is one of the major tribal communities in Karnataka.
  • According to the 2011 census, the Hakki Pikki population in Karnataka is 11,892.
  • In Kannada, the word ‘Hakki’ stands for ‘bird' and ‘Pikki’ stands for the verb ‘to catch’. 
  • Therefore, the community is known as the ‘bird catcher,’ which is their traditional occupation.
  • They  believe their original ancestor was the legendary Ranapratap Singh and that they are from a Kshatriya or warrior background. 
  • They believe their ancestors migrated to southern India after being defeated by the Moghuls. 
  • They are recognized as a Scheduled Tribe in India.
  • Language:
    • Despite being surrounded by Dravidian languages and living in southern India, the community speaks an Indo-Aryan language. 
    • Their mother tongue was designated 'Vaagri' by scholars.
    • They communicate in 'Vaagri' at home but speak in Kannada when conducting daily business.
    • UNESCO has listed ‘Vaagri’ as one of the endangered languages.
  • Occupation:
    • After the implementation of stricter wildlife laws, the tribe changed its occupation from hunting to selling spices, flowers, Ayurveda formulations, and herbal oils.
    • They began doing odd jobs like working in fields and sharpening knives and sickles by riding around towns.
    • They are renowned for their indigenous medicines. The community resided in the dense jungles for a long time and created its own plant- and herb-based medicine systems.
    • They now travel globally to sell these products, especially in the African continent, where there is a demand for cheaper alternatives to Western medicine.
  • Rituals and Customs:
    • The tribe follows Hindu traditions and celebrates Hindu festivals.
    • They follow a clan-based social structure and practice endogamy within their clan.
    • The tribe prefers cross-cousin marriages.
    • The society is matriarchal, where the groom gives dowry to the bride’s family.

Source: HANS

Hakki Pikki Tribe FAQs

Q1: Who are the Hakki Pikki tribe?

Ans: The Hakki Pikki are a major tribal community of Karnataka, recognized as a Scheduled Tribe in India.

Q2: What does the term ‘Hakki-Pikki’ mean?

Ans: In Kannada, ‘Hakki’ means bird and ‘Pikki’ means to catch, so the term refers to ‘bird catchers’.

Q3: What is the mother tongue of the Hakki Pikki tribe?

Ans: Their mother tongue is known as ‘Vaagri’.

Q4: What are the current occupations of the Hakki Pikki tribe?

Ans: They sell spices, flowers, Ayurvedic formulations, herbal oils, and also work as farm labourers and tool sharpeners.

Q5: What is the Hakki Pikki tribe particularly renowned for?

Ans: They are renowned for their indigenous plant- and herb-based medicine systems.

Daily Editorial Analysis 5 February 2026

February 5, 2026
Daily Editorial Analysis

The Budget and the Imperative of Fiscal Consolidation

Context

  • The Union Budget 2026–27 is framed as a critical step in India’s journey towards Viksit Bharat by 2047.
  • It prioritises advanced technology sectors such as artificial intelligence, biopharma, semiconductors and critical minerals, reflecting long-term development ambitions.
  • While the strategic direction is appropriate, the success of these initiatives depends on effective implementation, adequate fiscal space and the pace at which outcomes can be delivered in a resource-constrained environment.

Key Highlights of Union Budget 2026-27

  • Restructuring of Expenditure and Changing Fiscal Priorities

    • A key feature of recent fiscal policy has been the restructuring of government expenditure to accommodate new priorities.
    • The share of revenue expenditure in total expenditure has declined from 88 per cent in 2014–15 to about 77 per cent in 2026–27 (BE).
    • This reduction has been driven largely by a decline in central subsidies, allowing a corresponding increase in capital
    • This shift signals a move away from consumption-oriented spending towards asset creation and long-term growth.

  • Capital Expenditure: Role in Growth and Emerging Concerns

    • Public capital investment has played a crucial role in supporting economic recovery in the post-pandemic period.
    • Capital expenditure as a share of GDP has remained elevated, supporting infrastructure creation and demand.
    • However, the momentum of this spending has weakened. Capital expenditure growth declined sharply from 28.3 per cent in 2023–24 to 4.2 per cent in 2025–26 (RE).
    • Although growth is budgeted at 11.5 per cent in 2026–27 (BE), it is only marginally higher than nominal GDP growth, leaving capital expenditure nearly stagnant at around 3.1 per cent of GDP.
    • Repeated shortfalls between budgeted and actual spending raise concerns about execution capacity.

  • Revenue Prospects and Tax Buoyancy Challenges

    • On the revenue side, tax projections appear cautious and achievable. However, the low buoyancy of gross tax revenues remains a constraint.
    • Overall tax buoyancy is estimated at 0.8, below the benchmark of one. While direct taxes show relatively strong responsiveness, indirect taxes lag behind. In particular, GST collections are not expected to keep pace with GDP growth.
    • With rising developmental and welfare commitments, strengthening indirect tax responsiveness becomes essential for maintaining fiscal balance.

Finance Commission Transfers and Centre–State Fiscal Relations

  • The recommendations of the Sixteenth Finance Commission retain the share of States in the divisible pool of central taxes at 41 per cent.
  • However, the discontinuation of revenue deficit grants and the absence of sector- or State-specific grants have reduced overall transfers.
  • Finance Commission grants are projected to decline from 0.43 per cent of GDP in 2025–26 to 0.33 per cent in 2026–27.
  • This reduction may constrain subnational governments at a time when their role in delivering public services and development programmes is expanding.

Challenges and the Way Forward

  • Fiscal Consolidation and the Debt–Deficit Strategy

    • The pace of fiscal consolidation has slowed considerably in recent years.
    • While the fiscal deficit to GDP ratio continues to decline, the annual reduction has narrowed to just 0.1 percentage point in 2026–27 (BE).
    • The shift in focus from deficit targeting to debt-GDP targeting does not significantly improve transparency, as both indicators are closely linked to nominal GDP growth.
    • A clear medium-term glide path outlining targets and assumptions would strengthen fiscal credibility.

  • Rising Debt and Interest Payment Pressures

    • High public debt levels have increased interest payment pressures.
    • The effective interest rate on central government debt is projected to rise to 7.12 per cent in 2026–27, with interest payments absorbing nearly 40 per cent of revenue receipts.
    • This limits fiscal space for essential primary expenditure. Persistent high public borrowing also risks crowding out private investment, which could weaken medium-term growth prospects.

Conclusion

  • The Budget presents a coherent roadmap for long-term development, with emphasis on technology-led growth and public investment.
  • However, achieving these objectives requires careful balancing of ambition with fiscal prudence.
  • Strengthening tax buoyancy, ensuring credible capital expenditure outcomes, maintaining adequate transfers to States and restoring momentum in fiscal consolidation are essential.
  • Sustained economic expansion ultimately depends on macroeconomic stability and sustainability, both of which require disciplined and transparent fiscal management.

The Budget and the Imperative of Fiscal Consolidation FAQs

Q1. What is the central objective of the Union Budget 2026–27?
Ans. The central objective of the Union Budget 2026–27 is to support India’s transition towards becoming a developed nation by 2047 through growth-oriented public spending.

Q2. Why has the share of capital expenditure increased in recent years?
Ans. The share of capital expenditure has increased due to a deliberate reduction in revenue expenditure, particularly central subsidies, to prioritise long-term growth.

Q3. What concern arises from the recent trend in capital expenditure growth?
Ans. The slowdown in capital expenditure growth raises concerns about the government’s capacity to sustain public investment momentum.

Q4. Why is low tax buoyancy a fiscal challenge?
Ans. Low tax buoyancy limits the government’s ability to finance rising developmental and welfare expenditures without increasing fiscal stress.

Q5. How do rising interest payments affect fiscal space?
Ans. Rising interest payments reduce fiscal space by absorbing a large share of revenue receipts, thereby constraining productive public spending.

Source: The Hindu

The U.S. Trade Deal, Gains from Economic Diplomacy

Context

  • India’s recent trade agreement with the United States represents a defining moment in the country’s evolving global trade strategy.
  • Positioned within a broader architecture of strategic trade partnerships, the agreement reflects India’s shift toward predictable, rules-based, and large-scale trade engagement.
  • More than a reduction in tariffs, the deal signals India’s growing confidence as a global economic actor and underscores the deepening strategic alignment between the world’s two largest democracies.

The Road to Agreement on India-US Deal and India’s Expanding Network of Trade Partnerships

  • The Road to Agreement: Negotiation, Diplomacy and Policy Certainty

    • The India-U.S. trade deal emerged from nearly a year of sustained dialogue, technical negotiations, and quiet diplomacy.
    • The complexity of the process highlights the sensitivity of bilateral trade relations and the significance of the outcome.
    • The agreement to reduce S. tariffs on Indian goods to 18% marks a critical departure from previously elevated tariff levels that had reached up to 50%.
    • This shift restores competitiveness for Indian exporters, enhances policy predictability, and reflects the effectiveness and resilience of India’s negotiating approach.

  • India’s Expanding Network of Trade Partnerships

    • The agreement with the United States must be viewed as part of India’s broader strategy of forging comprehensive trade partnerships across regions.
    • Trade agreements with the European Union, the United Kingdom, and the European Free Trade Association provide India with preferential access to European markets, while agreements with Australia and New Zealand strengthen its engagement with the Pacific region.
    • Similarly, trade arrangements with the United Arab Emirates and Oman enhance access to West Asia.
    • Within this expanding network, the United States holds particular importance as the world’s largest import market and India’s single largest export destination, accounting for nearly one-fifth of India’s total exports.

Immediate Gains from US-India Trade Deal

  • Sectoral Impact: Boosting Employment-Intensive Exports

    • The most immediate gains from the tariff reduction are expected in employment-intensive export sectors.
    • Apparel, a major contributor to industrial employment, stands to benefit significantly as Indian products now face lower tariffs than those of key competitors such as Vietnam and Bangladesh in the U.S. market.
    • Other sectors, including gems and jewellery, marine products, processed foods, footwear, and leather, also gain from improved price competitiveness.
    • Even modest tariff reductions in these industries translate into meaningful cost advantages, encouraging capacity expansion and deeper integration into global supply chains.

  • Enhancing Global Competitiveness and Manufacturing Ambitions

    • By lowering U.S. tariffs on Indian goods, the agreement strengthens India’s competitive position relative to major exporting economies such as China, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Brazil, South Africa, Pakistan, and ASEAN countries.
    • This enhanced competitiveness directly supports India’s long-term objective of becoming a global manufacturing hub.
    • Improved market access, combined with greater policy certainty, creates conditions conducive to investment, scale, and productivity growth across export-oriented industries.

  • Beyond Trade: Strategic and Institutional Implications

    • The agreement’s significance extends beyond immediate economic benefits.
    • Reduced trade frictions create momentum for advancing negotiations under the proposed India-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement, opening avenues for deeper cooperation in regulatory alignment, market access, and supply-chain resilience.
    • The deal also encourages joint ventures, technology partnerships, and investment in high-value sectors, creating innovation, skill development, and employment generation.
    • These outcomes reinforce mutual interests in strengthening trusted supply chains and advancing innovation-led growth.

Trade, Trust and Strategic Alignment

  • From a strategic perspective, the trade deal contributes to a broader reset in India-U.S. relations grounded in trust and shared priorities.
  • Stronger economic ties complement cooperation in strategic forums such as the Quad, where supply-chain resilience and reliable partnerships are key objectives.
  • By aligning economic engagement with strategic cooperation, the agreement reinforces a stable and forward-looking bilateral relationship.

Conclusion

  • The India-U.S. trade agreement is not merely a technical adjustment of tariff rates; it represents a strategic consolidation of economic and diplomatic ties.
  • By enhancing export competitiveness, supporting employment-intensive sectors, and reinforcing India’s global trade integration, the deal lays the foundation for sustained bilateral growth.
  • As policy momentum now shifts toward implementation, the focus turns to industry to leverage these opportunities through investment, innovation, and scale.
  • Ultimately, the agreement marks a renewed, balanced, and strategic partnership poised to shape India-U.S. cooperation in the decades ahead.

The U.S. Trade Deal, Gains from Economic Diplomacy FAQs

Q1. What is the main objective of the India–U.S. trade agreement?
Ans. The main objective is to enhance trade predictability, improve market access, and strengthen long-term economic and strategic cooperation.

Q2. How does the tariff reduction benefit Indian exporters?
Ans. The tariff reduction improves price competitiveness and restores Indian exporters’ access to the U.S. market.

Q3. Which sectors gain the most from the agreement?
Ans. Employment-intensive sectors such as apparel, gems and jewellery, and leather benefit the most.

Q4. How does the deal support India’s manufacturing ambitions?
Ans. The deal supports manufacturing by improving competitiveness and integrating Indian firms into global supply chains.

Q5. Why is the agreement strategically significant beyond trade?
Ans. It strengthens trust, reinforces strategic alignment, and complements cooperation in forums like the Quad.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 5 February 2026 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

SAMRIDH Programme

February 5, 2026
SAMRIDH Programme

SAMRIDH Programme Latest News

Recently, the union Minister of State for Electronics and Information Technology informed the Lok Sabha about the SAMRIDH Programme.

About SAMRIDH Programme

  • The Startup Accelerator of MeitY for Product Innovation, Development, and Growth (SAMRIDH) is a flagship programme of the Ministry of Electronics & IT (MeitY).
  • Aim: It aims to support existing and upcoming Accelerators to select and accelerate potential IT-based startups to scale. 
  • Among others, the program focuses on accelerating the startups by providing customer connect, investors connect and connect to international markets.
  • Support: The program supports 300 tech Start-Ups in 3-year duration with cohort size of 5-10 StartUps.
    • In the first round of cohort, 22 Accelerators spread across 12 states are supporting 175 startups, selected through a multilevel screening process.
  • Financial Support: It provides financial support of ₹2 lakh per startup to selected accelerators, along with matching funding to startups up to a maximum of ₹40 lakh.
  • Implementation: It is being implemented by MeitY Start-up Hub (MSH), Digital India Corporation (DIC).

Source: PIB

SAMRIDH Programme FAQs

Q1: Who implements the SAMRIDH Programme?

Ans: MeitY Start-up Hub (MSH)

Q2: What is the maximum funding provided to startups under the SAMRIDH Programme?

Ans: ₹40 lakh

Enquire Now