Current Affairs of 25 February 2026

by Vajiram & Ravi - 25 February 2026

Vajiram and Ravi provide Current Affairs of 25 February 2026 for UPSC aspirants. We cover all relevant news and important events crucial for the exam, helping you stay updated and well prepared.

Right to Speedy Trial, Need, Status, Causes of Delay, Solutions

February 25, 2026
Right to Speedy Trial

The Right to Speedy Trial ensures that anyone accused of a crime gets their case heard and decided without unnecessary delay. It is part of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21. This right protects people from prolonged detention, stress, and unfair treatment, ensuring that justice is fair and timely.

Right to Speedy Trial Need

  • Protecting Fundamental Rights: As highlighted in Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, justice must be fair, reasonable, and just, which is not possible when trials are delayed.
  • Preventing Denial of Justice: Long delays weaken cases as evidence may fade and witnesses forget important details. Justice delayed often becomes justice denied.
  • Welfare of Undertrials: Many accused, especially from poor or marginalized backgrounds, remain in jail for long periods. Speedy trials prevent them from being detained longer than necessary.
  • Reducing Mental Stress: Quick trials reduce anxiety, fear and social stigma for the accused and their families.
  • Improving Judicial Efficiency: Speedy trials help reduce case backlogs and make the legal system more effective.

Right to Speedy Trial Status

The Right to Speedy Trial in India is a fundamental right under Article 21 of Indian Constitution, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty. Although not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has recognized it through judicial decisions as part of the right to a fair and just legal process. This right applies to all offences, and unjustified delays or prolonged detention violate it.

  • Kartar Singh v. State of Punjab (1961): Declared that the right to a speedy trial is an essential part of the fundamental right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.
  • Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979): Highlighted the plight of undertrial prisoners and emphasized the need for speedy justice.
  • Abdul Rahman Antulay v. R.S. Nayak (1992): Provided guidelines to prevent unnecessary delays in trials.

Causes of Delay in Trials

Delays in the Indian legal system happen due to several reasons:

  • Systemic and Infrastructure Issues: There are too few judges for the large population, and many courts have outdated facilities, which slows down the process.
  • Procedural and Administrative Delays: Complicated legal procedures, slow case management, and lack of digital tracking make trials longer.
  • Frequent Adjournments: Lawyers and parties often request postponements unnecessarily, causing repeated delays.
  • Investigation and Prosecution Lags: Police investigations, filing charges, forensic reports, and witness availability are often slow, which delays trials.
  • High Case Pendency: Courts have huge backlogs of cases, making it difficult to finish trials quickly.

Alternative Solutions for Speedy Trial in India

To reduce delays in courts, several measures have been recommended and implemented:

  • Plea Bargaining: Suggested by the Law Commission and the Malimath Committee, this allows a person accused of a minor criminal offence to plead guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for a lighter punishment. This speeds up trials and reduces the burden on courts.
  • Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Methods:
    • Lok Adalats: Help resolve cases quickly, especially at the lower levels, reducing backlog.
    • Mediation and Conciliation: Settles disputes outside court; the Mediation Act, 2023 promotes pre-trial mediation for commercial disputes.
    • Nyaya Panchayats: Handle small and petty cases locally, ensuring faster justice.
    • Compounding of Offences: Under Section 320 of the CrPC, minor criminal cases can be settled with the court’s permission without a full trial.

These solutions aim to make justice faster and reduce pressure on the judiciary, especially for minor offences and civil disputes.

Right to Speedy Trial FAQs

Q1: What is the Right to Speedy Trial in India?

Ans: The Right to Speedy Trial ensures that every accused gets their case heard and decided without undue delay.

Q2: What is the fundamental right to speedy trial?

Ans: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty.This right also includes the Right to a Speedy Trial.

Q3: What are the main causes of delay in criminal trials in India?

Ans: Delays are caused by a shortage of judges, inadequate infrastructure, complex procedures, frequent adjournments, slow investigations, and high case backlogs.

Q4: What is plea bargaining, and how does it help in speeding up trials?

Ans: Plea bargaining allows an accused of minor offences to plead guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for a lighter punishment, reducing trial duration and easing court workload.

Q5: Does the Right to Speedy Trial apply to all types of offences?

Ans: It applies to all offences; unjustified delays or prolonged detention violate this right unless legally justified.

Adolescent Mental Health Crisis in India, A Growing Public Health Concern

February 25, 2026
Adolescent Mental Health Crisis in India

Adolescent Mental Health Crisis in India is emerging as a major public health concern. Recent incidents involving adolescent deaths, including a tragic case in Ghaziabad, have once again drawn public attention to the fragile mental health of young people in India. They reflect a deeper and largely neglected crisis in child and adolescent mental health.

Adolescent Mental Health Crisis in India

Mental Health Crisis in India is no longer limited to adults. Doctors and psychologists are increasingly observing anxiety, depression, attention disorders and behavioural problems even among younger children. Even India's Economic Survey 2025-26 acknowledged rising mental health concerns among young people. Studies such as the National Mental Health Survey suggest that:

  • Around 7-10% of Indian adolescents have diagnosable mental health conditions.
  • Nearly 5-7% of school-aged children may have Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
  • Studies suggest that nearly one in ten adolescents in India may be living with a diagnosable mental health condition.

Key Drivers of the Adolescents Mental Health Crisis in India

The adolescent mental health crisis in India is driven by multiple social, educational and technological factors. Key drivers are as follows: 

  • Early childhood vulnerability: Experiences such as family conflict, neglect, economic insecurity or lack of emotional warmth affect a child’s psychological development. However, early warning signs such as social withdrawal, irritability, poor concentration or sudden behavioural changes are often ignored or dismissed as “normal teenage behaviour.” As a result, many children do not receive timely support.
  • Excessive digital exposure: The rapid expansion of smartphones and internet access has deeply influenced adolescent behaviour. Social media comparison, cyberbullying, online validation and constant connectivity have increased anxiety and reduced self-esteem among many young people. Excessive screen time also affects sleep, concentration and physical activity, indirectly worsening emotional health.
  • Academic pressure and performance-oriented culture: The Indian education system largely revolves around marks, rankings and competitive examinations. Adolescents face continuous pressure to perform, often linking their self-worth to academic success. Fear of failure, parental expectations and peer competition contribute to stress, anxiety and depressive tendencies.
  • Weak institutional support in schools: Schools focus primarily on academic outcomes while structured emotional support remains limited. Many institutions lack trained counsellors or mental health awareness programmes. Teachers are rarely trained to identify early warning signs, leading to delayed intervention.
  • Shortage of mental health professionals: India faces a serious shortage of child and adolescent mental health specialists. India has fewer than 10,000 psychiatrists for a population exceeding 1.4 billion, and only a small fraction specialise in child and adolescent mental health. Access to affordable and quality care remains uneven, especially in rural and low-income settings. This treatment gap prevents early diagnosis and timely care.
  • Stigma and lack of open conversation: Mental health issues continue to be surrounded by social stigma. Families often hesitate to seek help due to fear of judgement or labelling. Adolescents themselves may suppress their struggles, resulting in crisis-driven rather than preventive care.
  • Rapid social and lifestyle changes: Urbanisation, nuclear families and reduced community interaction have weakened traditional support systems. Adolescents today navigate identity, relationships and aspirations in a fast-changing environment without adequate emotional guidance.
  • Policy Framework and Implementation Gaps: India has programmes such as the National Mental Health Programme and school health initiatives under Ayushman Bharat, along with expanding tele-mental health services. However, implementation remains uneven. Routine mental health screening in schools is rare, teacher training is limited, and dedicated funding for child and adolescent mental health is inadequate.

Way Forward

India must adopt a preventive and community-based approach rather than a crisis-driven response.

  • Strengthen existing mental health programmes: India should improve the implementation of existing systems such as the National Mental Health Programme, school health services under Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres, and tele-mental health initiatives.
  • Introduce routine screening in schools: Schools should conduct regular screening to identify emotional, behavioural and learning problems early. Early identification can help prevent small problems from becoming serious mental health issues.
  • Train teachers and frontline workers: Teachers, paediatricians, counsellors and other child-care workers should be trained to recognise early signs of anxiety, depression, internet addiction and behavioural changes.
  • Improve referral systems: There should be clear pathways so that children who need professional help can be quickly connected to mental health specialists without delay.
  • Provide dedicated support for child mental health: Budget allocation and policy attention should specifically focus on child and adolescent mental health services, especially for low- and middle-income families.
  • Promote healthy digital behaviour: Schools and families should encourage balanced screen use. Guidelines on internet and social media use should be developed along with awareness programmes.
  • Expand community-based counselling: Affordable counselling services should be available at community level so that families do not depend only on specialised urban hospitals.
  • Encourage parent and peer support systems: Parent support groups and adolescent peer groups can help reduce isolation, share experiences and build emotional resilience.
  • Reduce stigma around mental health: Open discussion about mental health in families, schools and society is necessary so that children can seek help without fear or shame.

Conclusion

Adolescents' mental health in India is crucial for realising the country’s demographic dividend. With a large young population, protecting mental wellbeing through early intervention, school support systems, responsible digital use and reduced stigma is essential. Ensuring good adolescent mental health will help India convert its population advantage into long-term social and economic growth.

Adolescent Mental Health Crisis in India FAQs

Q1: What is adolescents mental health in India?

Ans: Adolescents mental health in India refers to the emotional, psychological and behavioural wellbeing of children and teenagers, which is becoming a growing public health concern due to rising stress, digital addiction and academic pressure.

Q2: What are the main causes of adolescent mental health crisis in India?

Ans: Key factors include early childhood vulnerability, excessive screen exposure, academic pressure, shortage of mental health professionals, social stigma and weak school-level emotional support.

Q3: How common are mental health problems among Indian adolescents?

Ans: Studies suggest that around 7-10% of Indian adolescents may have diagnosable mental health conditions, and about 5-7% of school-aged children may have ADHD.

Q4: Why is adolescent mental health important for India’s demographic dividend?

Ans: Good mental health helps young people become productive, skilled and socially stable, which is essential for converting India’s large youth population into economic and social strength.

Q5: What can be done to improve adolescent mental health in India?

Ans: Strengthening school screening, training teachers, promoting healthy digital habits, expanding counselling services and reducing stigma can help improve adolescent mental health outcomes.

Fluorescent Proteins, Working, Significance, Applications

February 25, 2026
Fluorescent Proteins

Fluorescent proteins are special proteins that emit visible light when exposed to light of certain wavelengths. They have become powerful tools in modern biology because they help scientists observe processes inside living cells. Originally discovered in marine organisms, these proteins revolutionised medical and biological research and even helped scientists earn the Nobel Prize in 2008.

Fluorescent Proteins Working

  • Fluorescent proteins work by absorbing light energy and then releasing it as light of another colour. This glow allows researchers to track the movement of molecules inside cells.
  • They are widely used in studying cancer cells, mapping brain neural circuits and understanding protein behaviour inside living organisms.
  • Recent research suggests that fluorescent proteins may do more than glow. Some modified fluorescent proteins can act as quantum sensors, meaning they can detect very weak magnetic or radio signals at the molecular level.

Significance of Fluorescent Proteins in Biology

Fluorescent proteins help scientists observe biological processes in real time.

  • They are used to track disease cells such as cancer cells.
  • They help study communication between neurons in the brain.
  • They allow monitoring of protein movement and biochemical reactions.

New research shows that fluorescent proteins can be genetically modified to detect magnetic fields and electron spin behaviour inside cells. This opens the possibility of hybrid quantum-biological technologies.

Fluorescent Protein as Quantum Sensor

Traditionally, quantum technologies were developed in controlled laboratory conditions. Living cells were considered unsuitable because heat and movement were believed to destroy quantum states.

However, new studies show that certain fluorescent proteins can form radical electron pairs whose behaviour is influenced by weak magnetic fields. This allows proteins to respond to magnetic or radio wave signals.

Researchers have successfully demonstrated optical detection of magnetic resonance signals inside living bacteria and human cells at low temperatures and even at room temperature.

Fluorescent Protein Applications

Fluorescent proteins may have important future applications:

  • High-precision biological imaging inside living cells
  • Real-time monitoring of biochemical reactions
  • Drug development and molecular medicine
  • Mapping magnetic and electric fields at nanoscale level
  • Understanding enzyme reactions and electron transfer processes

These developments can improve disease diagnosis and treatment.

Fluorescent Protein Challenges

  • Protein-based quantum sensors are currently less sensitive than solid-state quantum devices.
  • Shorter signal coherence time reduces measurement stability.
  • Photobleaching can reduce fluorescence over time.
  • Technology is still in early experimental stages.

Fluorescent Proteins FAQs

Q1: What are fluorescent proteins?

Ans: Fluorescent proteins are special proteins that glow when exposed to certain light. Scientists use them to study processes inside living cells.

Q2: Why are fluorescent proteins important?

Ans: They help scientists track cancer cells, study brain activity, observe protein movement and understand biological reactions inside the body.

Q3: Can fluorescent proteins work as quantum sensors?

Ans: Yes, recent research suggests that some modified fluorescent proteins can detect very weak magnetic or radio signals inside cells.

Q4: What are the main applications of fluorescent proteins?

Ans: They can help in disease diagnosis, drug development, high-precision biological imaging and studying molecular-level processes.

Q5: What are the challenges of this technology?

Ans: The technology is still experimental, less sensitive than traditional quantum devices, and faces issues like signal instability and photobleaching.

Part 22 of Indian Constitution, Articles, Amendments, Case Laws

February 25, 2026
Part 22 of Indian Constitution

Part 22 of the Constitution of India forms the concluding segment of the Constitution. It contains Articles 393 to 395 and deals with the Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals. Though brief in length, the Part 22 of Indian Constitution is constitutionally significant because it formally names the Constitution, fixes the date on which it came into force, provides for the authoritative Hindi version and repeals earlier British laws. These provisions ensure constitutional continuity, legal clarity and the complete sovereignty of the Republic of India after independence.

Article 393 of Part 22 of Indian Constitution

Article 393 of the Part 22 of Indian Constitution declares the official name of the Constitution in clear and simple terms.

  • Article 393 states that “This Constitution may be called the Constitution of India.” 
  • It establishes the formal legal name of the document adopted on 26 November 1949. 
  • Draft Article 313A, introduced on 17 October 1949, contained this declaration. 
  • This provision ensures uniform legal reference in courts, legislation and official documents, confirming the Constitution as the supreme governing instrument of India.

Article 394 of Part 22 of Indian Constitution

Article 394 of the Part 22 of Indian Constitution specifies when the Constitution came into force and lists provisions effective immediately.

  • Article 394 provides that this article and Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392 and 393 came into force at once. 
  • The remaining provisions became effective on 26 January 1950, referred to as the commencement of the Constitution. 
  • Draft Article 314 was debated on 17 October 1949. The date 26 January 1950 was chosen to commemorate the Declaration of Purna Swaraj of 26 January 1930, symbolizing complete independence from British rule.

Article 394A of Part 22 of Indian Constitution

Article 394A of the Part 22 of Indian Constitution establishes the authoritative Hindi version of the Constitution.

  • It was inserted by the Constitution (Fifty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1987.
  • Article 394A(1) (a): It empowers the President to publish the Hindi translation of the Constitution signed by members of the Constituent Assembly. It must conform to language, style and terminology of authoritative Hindi texts of Central Acts before publication.
  • Article 394A (1)(b): The President also publishes the Hindi translation of every constitutional amendment enacted in English, ensuring that all future changes to the Constitution are officially available in authoritative Hindi text.
  • Article 394A (2)- It states that the Hindi translation shall carry the same meaning as the original English text. If any difficulty arises in interpretation, the President may direct suitable revision. This ensures uniform constitutional understanding across languages and avoids legal ambiguity between versions.
  • Article 394A (3) (a)- It declares that the Hindi translation published under this Article shall be deemed authoritative for all purposes in Hindi. This provision strengthens linguistic accessibility and gives the Hindi text equal constitutional recognition alongside the English version.

Article 395 of Part 22 of Indian Constitution

Article 395 of the Part 22 of Indian Constitution formally repeals British enactments governing India before the Constitution.

  • Article 395 repeals the Indian Independence Act, 1947 and the Government of India Act, 1935 along with all enactments amending or supplementing the latter Act. 
  • However, it excludes the Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act, 1949. 
  • Draft Article 315 was discussed and members emphasized that the Constitution must stand as an independent legal authority and that earlier British legislation should cease upon its enforcement, affirming India’s full constitutional sovereignty.

Part 22 of Indian Constitution related Amendments

Certain constitutional changes have affected provisions under Part 22 of Indian Constitution:

  • Constitution (Fifty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1987: This amendment inserted Article 394A into Part XXII. It authorized the President to publish the authoritative Hindi text of the Constitution and its amendments. The amendment ensured linguistic parity and strengthened accessibility of constitutional law in Hindi while maintaining consistency with the English version.

Case Laws related to Part 22 of Indian Constitution

Judicial decisions have clarified commencement and repeal provisions connected to Part 22 of Indian Constitution:

  • Keshavan Madhava Menon v. State of Bombay (1951): This case examined the effect of commencement and continuation of pre-Constitution laws. The Court held that laws existing before 26 January 1950 remain valid unless inconsistent with the Constitution. It reinforced constitutional supremacy after repeal provisions under Article 395.
  • State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain (1975): This judgment referred to commencement and interpretative provisions while discussing constitutional authority. The case highlighted the importance of constitutional structure and effective enforcement from the date fixed under Article 394, emphasizing the supremacy of constitutional governance.

Part 22 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What does Part 22 of Indian Constitution deal with?

Ans: Part XXII contains Articles 393 to 395 and deals with the short title, commencement, authoritative Hindi text and repeal of earlier British laws.

Q2: What is stated in Article 393 of the Part 22 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: Article 393 declares the official name of the document as the “Constitution of India.”

Q3: When did the Constitution of India come into force under Article 394 of Part 22 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: Most provisions of the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, known as the commencement date of the Constitution.

Q4: Why was Article 394A added to the Constitution?

Ans: Article 394A, inserted by the 58th Amendment Act, 1987, provides for the authoritative Hindi version of the Constitution.

Q5: Which Acts were repealed by Article 395 of Part 22 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: Article 395 repealed the Government of India Act, 1935 and the Indian Independence Act, 1947, ensuring full constitutional sovereignty of India.

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) 2.0, Features, Mechanism

February 25, 2026
National Monetization Pipeline 2.0

Why in the News?

The Government of India has launched the second phase of the National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) for the period FY 2025-26 to FY 2029-30. It was announced in the Union Budget 2025-26. It sets a monetisation target of about ₹10 lakh crore, while the broader Total Monetisation Value (TMV) is estimated at ₹16.72 lakh crore over five years.

National Monetisation Pipeline 2.0?

  • National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) is a government programme to generate funds by leasing out already built public infrastructure assets (brownfield public infrastructure) for a fixed period.
  • Under this model, operational assets such as highways, railway infrastructure, ports and power transmission lines are leased to private players for operation and maintenance.
  • It is not privatisation, as ownership remains with the government while the private sector manages the asset and shares revenue.
  • The proceeds generated are reinvested into new infrastructure projects, reducing pressure on government finances.
  • This approach of unlocking value from existing assets and reinvesting it into fresh capital expenditure is known as Asset Recycling.

The pipeline has been prepared by NITI Aayog in consultation with infrastructure ministries. It builds upon the first phase of NMP, which covered FY22–FY25 and achieved 90% of its ₹6 lakh crore target.

Key Features of National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) 

  • The programme covers 12 major sectors including highways, railways, power, ports, coal, mines, telecom, petroleum and natural gas, civil aviation, warehousing, urban infrastructure and tourism.
  • Highways, multi-modal logistics parks and ropeways account for the largest share of monetisation value. 
  • The power sector, railways and ports also constitute significant portions of the pipeline. 
  • Coal and mining assets are expected to generate substantial revenues over the five-year period.
  • The Total Monetisation Value of ₹16.72 lakh crore includes both direct proceeds to government entities and private sector capital investment mobilised through Public-Private Partnerships (PPP).

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) Working Mechanism 

  • Under NMP 2.0, assets are monetised through models such as concession agreements (PPP), Infrastructure Investment Trusts (InvITs), securitisation of revenue streams, or transparent commercial auctions.
  • The private sector operates the asset and pays the government either upfront, periodically, or through revenue sharing, depending on the agreement.
  • The money received is credited to different accounts based on the project structure.
    • If the project belongs to a central ministry, the revenue goes to the Consolidated Fund of India.
    • If a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) monetises an asset, the proceeds go to that PSU.
    • In sectors like coal and mining, royalty payments go to the respective State Consolidated Funds
    • Private sector investment in PPP projects is recorded separately as part of overall infrastructure financing.
  • The entire programme is monitored by an empowered Core Group of Secretaries, chaired by the Cabinet Secretary, to ensure coordination and transparency.

Achievements of NMP 1.0

  • The first phase of the National Monetisation Pipeline mobilised ₹5.3 lakh crore against a target of ₹6 lakh crore. 
  • Sectors such as coal, highways, ports and petroleum performed strongly. However, railways, telecom and civil aviation showed relatively lower achievement levels.
  • Importantly, NMP 1.0 helped institutionalise asset recycling, attract domestic and global investors such as pension and sovereign wealth funds, and improve coordination across ministries.

How NMP 2.0 is Different from NMP 1.0

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) 2.0 builds upon the experience of the first phase, but with a bigger target and stronger implementation framework.

  • Higher monetisation target: NMP 1.0 (2021–25) had a target of about ₹6 lakh crore and achieved nearly 90% of it. NMP 2.0 (2025–30) proposes an estimated potential of around ₹16.7 lakh crore, making it about 2.6 times larger in scale.
  • Greater private investment component: NMP 2.0 includes an estimated ₹5.8 lakh crore of private sector investment, indicating deeper private participation compared to the first phase.
  • Stronger focus on Asset Recycling: While NMP 1.0 introduced the concept, NMP 2.0 more clearly links monetisation proceeds with fresh capital expenditure (CAPEX) to fund new infrastructure.
  • Improved governance structure: NMP 2.0 will be monitored by the Core Group of Secretaries on Asset Monetisation (CGAM), chaired by the Cabinet Secretary, ensuring closer inter-ministerial coordination.

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) Significance

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) is significant because if following reasons: 

  • NMP 2.0 aligns with the broader vision of infrastructure-led growth and the goal of building a “Viksit Bharat”. 
  • It improves efficiency by allowing specialised private operators to manage assets.
  • It creates fiscal space for new capital expenditure.
  • It aligns with the broader vision of long-term economic development and infrastructure expansion.
  • At a time of global economic uncertainty, such mechanisms provide alternative financing routes to maintain growth momentum.

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) Challenges 

The experience of NMP 1.0 shows that asset monetisation is not just about setting big targets. It requires strong institutions, investor trust and clear policies. While the first phase achieved close to 90% of its target, it also revealed practical challenges that NMP 2.0 must address.

  • Uneven investor interest: Roads performed well, but sectors like railways and telecom saw limited participation.
  • Valuation concerns: Fixing the right price is difficult. Overpricing discourages bidders, while underpricing raises public criticism.
  • Regulatory uncertainty: Policy changes and approval delays reduce investor confidence. NITI Aayog has stressed the need for stable and predictable frameworks.
  • Public perception issues: Monetisation is often misunderstood as privatisation, leading to political resistance.
  • Institutional capacity gaps: Some ministries and PSUs lack expertise in structuring PPP contracts effectively.
  • Revenue risks: Lower-than-expected traffic or usage affects returns and investor interest.
  • Coordination challenges: Asset monetisation requires smooth coordination between the Centre, states and multiple agencies. Delays in clearances and approvals slowed progress in certain projects.
  • Market conditions: Market conditions and investor sentiment may affect the pace of monetisation.

Way Forward

If these steps are taken, NMP 2.0 can support infrastructure growth through sustainable asset recycling without increasing fiscal burden.

  • Provide policy stability to build long-term investor confidence.
  • Ensure transparent and realistic valuation to attract competitive bids and avoid public criticism.
  • Strengthen institutional capacity within ministries and PSUs to manage PPP contracts effectively.
  • Improve communication to clarify that monetisation is not privatisation. 
  • Adopt balanced risk-sharing mechanisms to handle revenue and demand uncertainties.
  • Enhance Centre-State coordination for faster approvals and smoother implementation.

National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) FAQs

Q1: What is National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0)?

Ans: National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) is a government programme to raise funds by leasing already built public infrastructure assets to private players for a fixed period.

Q2: Is National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) privatisation?

Ans: No. Under the National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0), ownership of assets remains with the government. Only the operation and maintenance are given to private players.

Q3: What is the main objective of National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0)?

Ans: The main objective of National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) is to unlock value from existing assets and use the money to build new infrastructure without increasing fiscal burden.

Q4: What is the target under National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0)?

Ans: National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) has a monetisation target of around ₹10 lakh crore, with a broader total monetisation value estimated at ₹16.72 lakh crore for 2025–30.

Q5: Why is National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) important for India?

Ans: National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP 2.0) is important because it supports infrastructure-led growth, improves efficiency of public assets and strengthens the strategy of asset recycling for long-term development.

Right to Die With Dignity, Article 21, Living Will

February 25, 2026
Right to Die with Dignity

The Right to Die with Dignity refers to a person’s right to refuse life-prolonging medical treatment and to die peacefully without unnecessary suffering. It is closely linked to the concept of passive euthanasia and the idea that life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution includes the right to live with dignity. In recent years, this issue has gained major legal and ethical attention in India, especially after landmark judgments by the Supreme Court of India.

What is a Living Will?

A Living Will is a written legal document in which a person clearly states their wishes about medical treatment in case they become terminally ill or unable to communicate. It allows an individual to refuse life-support or extraordinary medical procedures that only prolong suffering. In India, the concept was recognized by the Supreme Court of India in 2018 as part of the Right to Die with Dignity. It ensures that a person’s autonomy and dignity are respected even at the end of life.

Active vs Passive Euthanasia

Active vs Passive Euthanasia refers to two different approaches to ending life in cases of terminal illness. Active euthanasia involves deliberately causing death through medical intervention, while passive euthanasia involves withdrawing or withholding life-support treatment to allow natural death.

Active vs Passive Euthanasia

Basis

Active Euthanasia

Passive Euthanasia

Meaning

Direct act to cause death (e.g., lethal injection)

Withdrawal or withholding of life-support treatment

Nature

Intentional medical intervention to end life

Allows natural death by stopping extraordinary treatment

Legal Status in India

Illegal

Legal under strict guidelines

Judicial Position

Not permitted by the Supreme Court of India

Recognized and permitted by the Supreme Court of India (2011, 2018)

Example

Administering a fatal drug dose

Removing ventilator support in terminal illness

Right to Die With Dignity FAQs

Q1: What is the Right to Die with Dignity?

Ans: It is the right of a person, especially a terminally ill patient, to refuse life-prolonging medical treatment and die naturally without unnecessary suffering. In India, it is recognized as part of Article 21 (Right to Life).

Q2: Is the Right to Die legal in India?

Ans: Active euthanasia is illegal in India. However, passive euthanasia is legal under strict safeguards as recognized by the Supreme Court of India.

Q3: What is passive euthanasia?

Ans: Passive euthanasia means withdrawing or withholding life-support treatment such as ventilators or feeding tubes in cases of terminal illness or permanent vegetative state, allowing natural death.

Q4: What is active euthanasia?

Ans: Active euthanasia involves directly causing a person’s death through medical intervention, such as administering a lethal injection. It is not permitted under Indian law.

Q5: What is a Living Will?

Ans: A Living Will (Advance Directive) is a written document in which a person states in advance that they do not wish to receive life-prolonging treatment if they become terminally ill or unable to communicate.

Freedom of Speech in Parliament, Constitutional Basis, Concerns

February 25, 2026
Freedom of Speech in Parliament

Why in the News?

The Budget Session of Parliament 2026 has brought attention to the issue of freedom of speech of Members of Parliament (MPs), particularly due to the expunction of certain portions of speeches.

Freedom of Speech in Parliament 

Freedom of speech inside the legislature is one of the most important features of parliamentary democracy. In India, this right is guaranteed to members of Parliament of India under Article 105 of Indian Constitution. The objective of freedom of speech in Parliament is to ensure open discussion while maintaining discipline and decorum in legislative proceedings.

However, this freedom is not absolute. It is subject to constitutional provisions, house rules, and the dignity of parliamentary debate.

Constitutional Basis of Freedom of Speech in Parliament

  • Article 105 grants MPs freedom of speech inside Parliament and protection from legal action for statements made during parliamentary proceedings. This privilege allows members to express views freely without fear of external prosecution.
  • Article 105(2) further provides immunity to MPs from civil or criminal cases for statements or votes made inside Parliament.
  • However, Article 121 of Indian Constitution restricts Parliament from discussing the conduct of judges of higher courts except during impeachment proceedings. 

Similar provisions exist for State Legislatures under Article 194 of the Constitution. It grants Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) and Legislative Council (MLCs) freedom of speech within the House and immunity from legal proceedings for anything said or any vote given in the legislature or its committees. Like Parliament, this freedom is subject to constitutional restrictions, including the bar on discussing the conduct of judges except during removal proceedings.

Regulation of Freedom of Speech in Parliament 

Freedom of speech in Parliament is not absolute. It operates within constitutional boundaries and regulated through the Rules of Procedure to maintain discipline and dignity inside the House.

  • One of the important regulatory mechanisms is expunction of speech. 
    • Under Rule 380 of the Rules of Procedure of Lok Sabha (India), the Speaker can remove words or expressions considered unparliamentary, indecent, defamatory, or offensive. 
    • However, the purpose of expunction should be limited to removing only objectionable words. If entire sentences or paragraphs are removed, the meaning of the speech may be lost, which can indirectly weaken parliamentary privilege.
  • Members are also expected to avoid discussing sub judice matters, making personal allegations, or questioning the integrity of fellow members. 
  • Similarly, comments that undermine the dignity of high constitutional authorities are discouraged.
  • The Committee of Privileges examines cases where parliamentary privilege is violated or misused. This mechanism helps maintain a balance between freedom of speech and protection of individual reputation.

These rules are meant to ensure civilised and meaningful debate rather than restrict political criticism. The Supreme Court of India has repeatedly emphasised that restrictions on rights should not destroy the core of those rights. Therefore, parliamentary rules should regulate speech without neutralising freedom of expression.

Contemporary Concerns

In recent times, there are concerns that parliamentary speech freedom is being narrowed due to:

  • Overuse of expunction powers: Excessive use of expunction powers can sometimes weaken meaningful debate. If large parts of speeches are removed, political criticism may lose clarity.
  • Political weaponisation of procedural rules: Procedural rules may sometimes be used to limit political criticism rather than only maintaining discipline.
  • Growing confrontation between ruling and opposition parties: Parliamentary democracy functions best when both sides respect each other’s right to speak.

Way Forward

  • Parliament should ensure that freedom of speech of MPs is protected while maintaining decorum.
  • Expunction should be used carefully and only for clearly offensive words. Strengthening the role of committees like the Committee of Privileges can help prevent misuse of parliamentary privileges.
  • Political parties should promote mutual tolerance and constructive debate. A strong opposition is necessary for democratic accountability.

Freedom of Speech in Parliament Related Judgements 

The judiciary has played an important role in defining the scope of parliamentary speech.

  • In Tej Kiran Jain v. N. Sanjiva Reddy (1970), the Supreme Court of India held that parliamentary immunity under Article 105(2) is very wide. The word “anything” in the article was interpreted to give broad protection to MPs.
  • In P.V. Narasimha Rao v. State (1998), the Court ruled that MPs had immunity from prosecution related to voting inside Parliament.
  • In Raja Ram Pal v. Hon’ble Speaker, Lok Sabha (2007), the Court clarified that parliamentary privileges are not completely beyond judicial review if constitutional principles are violated.
  • In Kaushal Kishor v. State of Uttar Pradesh (2023), the Court observed that a minister’s personal statement does not automatically represent the government’s official position.
  • In Sita Soren v. Union of India (2024), the Court overruled the 1998 judgment regarding bribery immunity and held that accepting bribes for voting or speaking in Parliament is a criminal offence.

Conclusion

Freedom of speech inside Parliament is the foundation of India’s democratic system. While MPs must have the liberty to express views without fear, this freedom should be exercised responsibly. Balanced regulation, institutional respect, and healthy debate are essential for the effective functioning of Parliament and democracy.

Freedom of Speech in Parliament FAQs

Q1: Under which article is freedom of speech of MPs protected?

Ans: It is protected under Article 105 of the Indian Constitution.

Q2: Why is freedom of speech inside Parliament important?

Ans: Freedom of speech allows MPs to express opinions, raise public issues, and scrutinise government decisions without fear of legal action. It supports healthy democratic debate and effective lawmaking.

Q3: What is expunction of speech?

Ans: It is the removal of offensive or improper words from parliamentary records to maintain dignity and discipline.

Q4: Can MPs be prosecuted for statements made inside Parliament?

Ans: Generally, MPs have immunity under Article 105(2) for speech and voting inside Parliament. However, recent Supreme Court judgments have clarified that this immunity does not cover criminal acts such as bribery.

Q5: What are the main challenges related to parliamentary speech freedom today?

Ans: Major concerns include overuse of expunction powers, possible political misuse of procedural rules, and increasing conflict between ruling and opposition parties, which can affect meaningful parliamentary debate.

India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention (DTAC)

February 25, 2026
India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention

Why in the News?

During the recent visit of the President of France to India, the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the French Republic have signed a Protocol amending the India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention (DTAC).

India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention (DTAC)

  • A Double Taxation Avoidance Convention is an agreement between two countries to ensure that a person or company does not have to pay tax twice on the same income in both countries.
  • For example, if a French company earns income in India, both India and France may claim the right to tax that income.
  • A DTAC decides how this income will be taxed and in which country.
  • This reduces confusion, avoids disputes and encourages cross-border investment.
  • India has signed DTACs with many countries. India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention has been in force since 1992. However, due to changes in the global tax system, it required amendments.

India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention (DTAC) Amendments

Key changes in the India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention are as follows: 

  • Taxation of Capital Gains: The amendment gives full taxing rights on capital gains from the sale of shares to the country where the company is based. For example, if shares of an Indian company are sold, India will have the right to tax the capital gains. 
  • Removal of the Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) Clause: The amendment removes the MFN clause from the treaty. The MFN clause earlier created interpretational issues because it required India to extend certain benefits to France if similar benefits were given to another country. Its removal brings clarity and avoids future legal disputes.
  • Changes in Dividend Taxation: Earlier, dividends were taxed at a single rate of 10%. The amendment introduces two different rates, 5% tax if the investor holds at least 10% of the company’s capital and 15% tax in all other cases. This structure encourages long-term and substantial investment, while still ensuring revenue for the source country.
  • Clearer Definition of Technical Services: The definition of “Fees for Technical Services” has been aligned with India’s tax treaty with the United States. This reduces confusion about what kind of services can be taxed and ensures consistency across major tax agreements.
  • Expansion of Permanent Establishment (PE): The amendment expands the definition of “Permanent Establishment” by including “Service PE.” This means that if a company from one country provides services in the other country for a significant period, it may become taxable there. This ensures that businesses pay tax where economic activity actually takes place.
  • Stronger Information Sharing: The updated treaty improves provisions related to exchange of information between tax authorities. It also introduces a new article on assistance in collection of taxes. This allows India and France to cooperate more closely in preventing tax evasion and improving compliance.
  • Alignment with Global Standards (BEPS):  The amendment incorporates provisions of the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Multilateral Instrument (MLI), which both countries have already signed. This aligns the treaty with international efforts led by the OECD to prevent tax avoidance and profit shifting by multinational companies.

Significance of the Amendment

The updated DTAC is significant for several reasons:

  • It provides greater tax certainty to businesses and investors.
  • It reduces the risk of double taxation and legal disputes.
  • It strengthens tax transparency and cooperation between the two countries.
  • It aligns the treaty with global standards under the BEPS framework.
  • It encourages greater investment, technology exchange and professional mobility.

India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention FAQs

Q1: What is the India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention (DTAC)?

Ans: The India-France DTAC is an agreement between India and France to ensure that the same income is not taxed twice in both countries. It sets clear rules on which country has the right to tax certain types of income.

Q2: Why was the India-France Double Taxation Avoidance Convention (DTAC) amended in 2026?

Ans: The global tax system has changed since the treaty was signed in 1992. The amendment updates the agreement to match modern international standards and provide greater clarity and certainty to taxpayers.

Q3: What is the major change regarding capital gains?

Ans: The amendment gives full taxing rights on capital gains from the sale of shares to the country where the company is resident. For example, if shares of an Indian company are sold, India will have the right to tax the gains.

Q4: Has the MFN clause been removed?

Ans: Yes. The Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) clause has been removed from the treaty. This brings clarity and avoids disputes that arose due to different interpretations of that clause.

Q5: How does the amendment benefit India and France?

Ans: The updated treaty provides tax certainty, improves cooperation between tax authorities, aligns with global anti-tax avoidance standards, and is expected to boost investment, technology flow, and movement of professionals between the two countries.

UPSC Daily Quiz 25 February 2026

February 25, 2026

[WpProQuiz 101]

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Article 19 of Indian Constitution, Amendments, Case Laws

February 25, 2026
Article 19 of Indian Constitution

Article 19 of Indian Constitution guarantees certain important freedoms to citizens. It gives six basic rights: freedom of speech and expression, peaceful assembly, forming associations or unions, moving freely throughout India, residing and settling anywhere in India, and practicing any profession or business. These freedoms are essential for democracy and personal development. However, they are not absolute. The State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of security, public order, morality and sovereignty of India.

Article 19 of Indian Constitution

Article 19 guarantees six fundamental freedoms to every citizen of India. These are:

Article 19 of Indian Constitution

Clause

Freedom Guaranteed

Exceptions / Reasonable Restrictions

Related Articles

Article 19(1)(a)

Freedom of Speech and Expression

Article 19(2): Sovereignty & integrity of India, security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, contempt of court, defamation, incitement to an offence

Article 21, Article 361A

Article 19(1)(b)

Freedom to Assemble Peaceably and Without Arms

Article 19(3): Sovereignty & integrity of India, public order

Article 144

Article 19(1)(c)

Freedom to Form Associations or Unions or Cooperative Societies

Article 19(4): Sovereignty & integrity of India, public order, morality

Article 43B

Article 19(1)(d)

Freedom to Move Freely Throughout the Territory of India

Article 19(5): Interest of general public, protection of interests of Scheduled Tribes

Article 21

Article 19(1)(e)

Freedom to Reside and Settle in Any Part of India

Article 19(5): Interest of general public, protection of interests of Scheduled Tribes

Article 21

Article 19(1)(g)

Freedom to Practice Any Profession or Carry on Any Occupation, Trade or Business

Article 19(6): Professional/technical qualifications, reasonable restrictions in public interest, State monopoly in trade/business

Article 301

Article 19 of Indian Constitution Availability

  • The freedoms under Article 19 are available only to Indian citizens and not to foreigners.
  • In R.C. Cooper v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that when citizens form a company, they do not lose their fundamental rights. If a government action affects the company in a way that also affects the rights of its shareholders (who are Indian citizens), then those citizens can claim protection under Article 19.
  • However, foreigners cannot claim the freedoms given under Article 19.

Article 19 of Indian Constitution Case Laws

  • Romesh Thappar v. State of Madras (1950): The Supreme Court held that freedom of speech includes the right to circulate ideas, which is essential for democracy.
  • Bennett Coleman & Co. v. Union of India (1972): Freedom of the press is part of Article 19(1)(a); restrictions on newspaper circulation were declared unconstitutional.
  • Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986): Upheld the right to remain silent; no citizen can be forced to express views against their beliefs.
  • Union of India v. Naveen Jindal (2004): Hoisting the national flag is a form of expression under Article 19(1)(a).
  • S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): The right to form associations includes the right to form political parties.
  • Kharak Singh v. State of UP (1963): Police surveillance and domiciliary visits violate the right to free movement and privacy.
  • State of Gujarat v. Mirzapur Moti Kureshi (2005): Reasonable restrictions on trade, such as prohibiting cow slaughter for public welfare, are valid.
  • Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): Struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, protecting online speech from arbitrary restrictions.

Article 19 of Indian Constitution Key Amendments

Article 19 of the Indian Constitution guarantees six fundamental freedoms, but over time, certain amendments have expanded the State’s power to impose reasonable restrictions or changed the rights themselves. The most important amendments are the 1st, 16th, 44th, and 97th.

  • 1st Amendment (1951): Introduced new grounds for restricting freedom of speech and expression, such as public order, friendly relations with other countries, and preventing incitement to an offence.
  • 16th Amendment (1963): Added “sovereignty and integrity of India” as a reason to impose restrictions on the freedoms of speech, assembly, and association.
  • 44th Amendment (1978): Removed the right to property (Article 19(1)(f)) from the list of fundamental rights, reducing the total freedoms under Article 19 from seven to six.
  • 97th Amendment (2011): Added the right to form cooperative societies under Article 19(1)(c).

These amendments balance individual freedoms with public interest and national security, shaping the way citizens can exercise their rights today.

Suspension of Article 19 during National Emergency

  • Article 19 of Indian Constitution, which guarantees six fundamental freedoms such as speech, assembly, and movement, is automatically suspended under Article 358 when a National Emergency is declared on the grounds of war or external aggression. This means the State can make laws or take actions that would otherwise violate these rights, and such actions cannot be challenged in court, as long as they are directly connected to the emergency.
  • The 44th Amendment Act (1978) clarified that this automatic suspension applies only to external emergencies (war or aggression) and not to internal disturbances like armed rebellion. The suspension remains in effect for the entire duration of the National Emergency.

Article 19 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What does Article 19 guarantee?

Ans: Six fundamental freedoms for Indian citizens: speech and expression, assembly, association/unions/cooperatives, movement, residence, and profession/trade.

Q2: Can foreigners claim rights under Article 19?

Ans: The freedoms under Article 19 are available only to Indian citizens. Foreigners cannot claim these rights.

Q3: What are “reasonable restrictions” under Article 19?

Ans: The State can restrict these freedoms for public order, security, morality, sovereignty, integrity of India, or protection of others’ rights.

Q4: Is Article 19 suspended during an emergency?

Ans: Article 19 can be automatically suspended only during a national emergency caused by war or external aggression, while other Fundamental Rights (except Articles 20 and 21) can be suspended by the President through a written proclamation.

Q5: How are restrictions applied?

Ans: Each freedom has specific grounds for restriction, such as Articles 19(2) to 19(6), ensuring limits are reasonable, necessary, and constitutional, balancing rights with social welfare and public safety.

Capital Punishment in India, Background, Legal Provisions

February 25, 2026
Capital Punishment in india

Capital Punishment in India refers to the death penalty awarded by courts for the most serious crimes. India has not abolished the death penalty, but its use is extremely limited. The Supreme Court has clearly stated that it should be given only in the “rarest of rare” cases. This article explains the concept, covering its history, legal provisions, doctrine, procedure, and arguments for and against it.

What is Capital Punishment?

Capital Punishment means giving the death sentence to a person convicted of a very serious crime such as murder, terrorism, or certain cases of rape.

In India, the method of execution is hanging by the neck till death, as provided under criminal procedure law. It is considered the highest form of punishment in the Indian legal system.

Capital Punishment in India Historical Background

Capital Punishment in India has evolved from ancient times to the modern constitutional framework.

  • Ancient India – Early legal texts and kingdoms permitted death penalty for serious offences like treason and murder to maintain social order and royal authority.
  • Medieval Period – During Sultanate and Mughal rule, capital punishment was commonly imposed for grave crimes, often based on religious and customary laws.
  • British Colonial Period – The death penalty was formally codified under the Indian Penal Code, drafted under the leadership of Thomas Babington Macaulay, making it a structured legal punishment.
  • Post-Independence Retention (1950 onwards) – After the adoption of the Constitution of India, capital punishment was retained but made subject to constitutional safeguards under Article 21 (Right to Life).
  • Judicial Transformation (1980 Landmark) – In Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, the Supreme Court upheld the validity of the death penalty but limited it to the “rarest of rare” cases.
  • Modern Era Approach – Courts now emphasize reformative justice, consider mitigating factors, and use the death penalty sparingly, reflecting a more cautious and rights-based approach.

Legal Provisions Related to Death Penalty in India

With the replacement of the IPC by the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), the legal framework for capital punishment has been retained and reorganized.

  • Waging War Against the Government of India: Attempting or waging war against the Government of India can attract the death penalty or life imprisonment.
  • Murder: Murder remains one of the primary offences punishable with death or life imprisonment, depending on the gravity of the case.
  • Terrorism-Related Acts: Certain acts of terrorism resulting in death or serious threat to national security may attract capital punishment.
  • Rape Resulting in Death or Vegetative State: In extremely brutal cases where rape leads to the victim’s death or permanent vegetative condition, courts may award the death penalty.
  • Gang Rape of Minor: Aggravated sexual assault involving minors, especially where the offence is particularly heinous, may invite capital punishment.
  • Kidnapping for Ransom Resulting in Death: In cases where kidnapping for ransom leads to the victim’s death, the death penalty may be imposed.
  • Repeat Offenders in Certain Heinous Crimes: In specific circumstances involving repeat convictions for serious offences, courts may consider awarding capital punishment.

Exemptions: Juveniles, pregnant women, and mentally ill persons cannot be executed. 

Rarest of Rare Case Doctrine

The Rarest of Rare Case Doctrine means that the death penalty should be given only in the most exceptional and extremely serious cases. The Supreme Court introduced this principle in Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab to prevent misuse of capital punishment. According to this rule, life imprisonment is the normal punishment, and death penalty is an exception. Courts must carefully consider both aggravating and mitigating factors before awarding a death sentence.

Procedure for Awarding Death Sentence in India

The procedure for awarding a death sentence in India is strict and involves multiple layers of judicial review to ensure fairness and prevent miscarriage of justice.

  • Trial Court Judgment – The Sessions Court may award the death penalty after conviction in a heinous case.
  • High Court Confirmation – The death sentence must be confirmed by the High Court; without confirmation, it cannot be executed.
  • Appeal to Supreme Court – The convict has the right to appeal before the Supreme Court.
  • Review Petition – The convict can file a review petition against the Supreme Court judgment.
  • Curative Petition – A final judicial remedy can be sought in rare circumstances.
  • Mercy Petition – The convict may file a mercy petition before the President of India under Article 72 or the Governor under Article 161 of the Constitution.

Arguments in Favour of Capital Punishment

Supporters of capital punishment believe that it is necessary for dealing with the most heinous and shocking crimes.

  • Deterrence Against Heinous Crimes – The fear of death penalty may discourage people from committing serious offences like murder, terrorism, and brutal rape.
  • Justice for Victims – It provides a sense of justice and closure to the victims’ families, especially in extremely cruel and inhuman crimes.
  • Protection of Society – Executing dangerous criminals ensures they cannot harm society again.
  • National Security – In cases involving terrorism or waging war against the country, capital punishment is seen as necessary to protect the nation.
  • Maintaining Public Confidence – Awarding the highest punishment in rare and brutal cases strengthens people’s faith in the justice system.
  • Retributive Justice – Some believe that punishment should be proportionate to the crime, and the most serious crimes deserve the most severe penalty.

Arguments Against Capital Punishment

Opponents of capital punishment argue that the death penalty is harsh, irreversible, and inconsistent with modern human rights principles.

  • Risk of Wrongful Conviction – Judicial errors are possible, and once a person is executed, the mistake cannot be corrected.
  • Violation of Human Rights – Many organizations, including Amnesty International, consider the death penalty inhuman and degrading.
  • No Clear Deterrent Effect – Research has not conclusively proven that the death penalty reduces crime more effectively than life imprisonment.
  • Possibility of Reform – Criminals may change over time, and the reformative theory of punishment supports rehabilitation instead of execution.
  • Arbitrary Application – Critics argue that socio-economic background, quality of legal representation, and judicial discretion may affect who receives the death penalty.
  • Global Trend Towards Abolition – Many countries have abolished capital punishment, viewing it as outdated in a modern democratic society.

Capital Punishment in India FAQs

Q1: Is capital punishment legal in India?

Ans: Yes, capital punishment is legal in India. However, it is awarded only in the “rarest of rare” cases as laid down in Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab.

Q2: What is the method of execution in India?

Ans: The method of execution in India is hanging by the neck till death.

Q3: Which law provides death penalty in India?

Ans: The death penalty is provided under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita for certain heinous offences like murder, terrorism, and rape resulting in death.

Q4: What is the ‘Rarest of Rare’ doctrine?

Ans: It is a principle laid down by the Supreme Court stating that the death penalty should be awarded only in exceptional and extremely serious cases.

Q5: Can a death sentence be challenged?

Ans: Yes, a convict can appeal to the High Court and Supreme Court, file review and curative petitions, and also submit a mercy petition to the President under Article 72 or the Governor under Article 161.

Article 14 of Indian Constitution, Equality Before Law, Rule of Law

February 25, 2026
Article 14 of Indian Constitution

Article 14 of Indian Constitution guarantees the Right to Equality. It states that all people are equal before the law and must be treated equally by the State. This means no person is above the law, and everyone gets the same legal protection. However, Article 14 also allows the government to make reasonable classifications to treat different groups differently when there is a valid reason. The main aim of Article 14 is to ensure fairness, justice and non-discrimination in governance.

Article 14 of Indian Constitution

It states that the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.

Equality Before the Law

  • Equality Before the Law is a concept of British origin and is a negative concept, which means it mainly prevents special privileges. It says that the law must treat everyone equally and that similar cases should be treated in a similar manner.
  • This principle means that no person is given special advantages because of birth, religion, status, or position. All individuals, whether rich or poor, powerful or ordinary, government official or common citizen, are equally subject to the ordinary law of the land.
  • It also means that no one is above the law. Everyone must follow the same laws, and all are tried by the same ordinary courts. However, equality before law does not mean absolute equality, because complete equality among human beings is not practically possible. It simply ensures fairness and the absence of special privileges.

Rule of Law

  • The idea of equality before law is part of the broader concept of Rule of Law, which was explained by A.V. Dicey in England. Rule of Law means that the law is supreme and everyone must follow it. It ensures that the government also acts according to law and does not misuse its power.

  • Dicey gave three main elements of Rule of Law:
  1. Supremacy of Law (Absence of Arbitrary Power): This means that no person can be punished except for breaking a law. The government cannot act according to its own will or use power arbitrarily. Law is above everyone.
  2. Equality Before Law: This means all persons, rich or poor, powerful or ordinary, officials or common citizens, are equally subject to the ordinary law of the land and tried in ordinary courts.
  3. Primacy of Individual Rights: Dicey said that individual rights are protected by courts, and the Constitution is based on these rights.
  • However, in the Indian system, only the first two elements fully apply. In India, the Constitution is the source of individual rights, not the result of court decisions.
  • In Bachhan Singh v. State of Punjab, the Supreme Court stated that Rule of Law in India is based on three basic principles: law-making must be done by a democratically elected legislature; even the legislature cannot have unlimited power; and there must be an independent judiciary to protect citizens from misuse of power by the legislature and executive.

Equal Protection of the Laws

  • Equal Protection of the Laws is a positive concept of equality taken from the American Constitution. It means that the State must treat people equally in similar situations.
  • It ensures that people who are in the same circumstances are given the same rights and are subject to the same responsibilities. In simple words, equals should be treated equally, without discrimination. The same laws must apply in the same way to persons who are similarly placed.
  • However, this does not mean that everyone must be treated exactly the same. If people are different in their situation, they can be treated differently. The Supreme Court has held that Article 14 does not apply when equals and unequals are treated differently.
  • Article 14 does not allow class legislation (laws that unfairly favour a particular group), but it permits reasonable classification. This means the government can classify people, objects, or situations for valid reasons, as long as the classification is not arbitrary or unfair.
  • This right is available to all persons, including citizens, foreigners, and even legal persons like companies.

Exceptions to Rule of Law and Equality

  • Although Rule of Law and Article 14 of Indian Constitution guarantee equality before law, there are certain exceptions in the Indian system.
  • First, equality before law does not mean that private citizens and public officials have the same powers. For example, a police officer has the legal power to arrest a person, but an ordinary citizen generally does not have this power.
  • Second, the Rule of Law does not prevent some groups from being governed by special laws. For example, members of the armed forces are governed by military laws, and professionals like doctors and lawyers follow rules made by their respective professional bodies.
  • Third, ministers and executive authorities are sometimes given discretionary powers by law. This means they can act according to their judgment within the limits of the law.
  • Apart from these, the Constitution also provides certain specific exceptions to equality:
    • Under Article 361, the President of India and the Governor enjoy certain immunities from court proceedings while in office.
    • Under Article 361A, no person can be punished for publishing a true report of Parliamentary or State Legislature proceedings.
    • Under Articles 105 and 194, Members of Parliament and State Legislatures enjoy certain privileges for what they say or do inside the House or its committees.
    • Under Article 31C, laws made to implement certain Directive Principles (Article 39(b) and (c)) cannot be challenged on the ground that they violate Article 14.
  • Foreign diplomats and sovereigns also enjoy diplomatic immunity from civil and criminal proceedings. Similarly, the United Nations and its agencies have diplomatic immunity.

Thus, while equality and Rule of Law are fundamental principles, the Constitution allows reasonable exceptions in special situations.

Doctrine of Anti-Arbitrariness

  • The scope of Article 14 was greatly expanded by the Supreme Court through the doctrine of anti-arbitrariness. In the case of E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu (1974), the Court held that Article 14 not only ensures equality before law but also protects people from arbitrary actions of the State.
  • Arbitrariness means acting according to personal will or without proper reason. The Court said that equality and arbitrariness cannot exist together. If a government action is arbitrary, it violates Article 14.

Thus, Article 14 acts as a safeguard against misuse of power by the executive and ensures that all State actions must be fair, reasonable, and non-arbitrary.

Classification Test

In Ram Krishna Dalmia v. Justice Tendolkar (1958), the Supreme Court laid down the Classification Test under Article 14. It held that the State can make reasonable classification if it satisfies two conditions: first, the classification must be based on an intelligible differentia that clearly distinguishes those included from those excluded; and second, this differentia must have a rational nexus with the objective of the law. If these conditions are met, the law does not violate equality before law.

Doctrine of Legitimate Expectation

  • The Doctrine of Legitimate Expectation means that a person can expect fair treatment from a public authority if there is a clear promise or a consistent past practice. This expectation must be reasonable, and it ensures that the government does not act arbitrarily.
  • In Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, the Supreme Court issued guidelines to prevent sexual harassment at the workplace, linking Articles 14, 19(1)(g), and 21 to the right to a safe working environment.
  • In Javed v. State of Haryana, the Court upheld the two-child norm for Panchayat elections, stating that the classification was reasonable and did not violate Article 14.

Article 14 of Indian Constitution Case Laws

Over time, the Supreme Court has greatly expanded the scope of Article 14 of the Indian Constitution, making it one of the most powerful guarantees of equality in the Constitution.

  • State of U.P. v. Deoman Upadhyaya (1960): Justice Subba Rao stated that Article 14 has both negative and positive aspects. It includes equality before law and equal protection of laws.
  • S.G. Jaisinghani v. Union of India (1967): The Court held that absence of arbitrary power is essential to the Rule of Law. Executive discretion must have clear limits, otherwise it violates Article 14.
  • Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): The Supreme Court held that Articles 14, 19, and 21 are interconnected. Any law affecting personal liberty must be fair, reasonable, and non-arbitrary. This greatly expanded the scope of Article 14.
  • A.K. Kraipak v. Union of India (1969): The Court held that principles of Natural Justice, such as the rule against bias and the right to fair hearing, are part of Article 14. This ensured fairness in administrative actions.
  • Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1993): The Court upheld reservations for backward classes and held that Article 16 is a part of Article 14. It said reasonable classification, including reservation, is allowed to achieve equality.
  • Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997): The Court held that sexual harassment at the workplace violates Articles 14, 19, and 21. It laid down guidelines to protect working women until a law was made.
  • NALSA v. Union of India (2014): The Court recognized transgender persons as a “third gender” and held that Article 14 applies to all persons, including transgender individuals.
  • Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017): The Supreme Court declared instant triple talaq unconstitutional, stating that it violates gender equality under Article 14.

Geographical Application of Law under Article 14 of Indian Constitution

  • The words “within the territory” in Article 14 of Indian Constitution do not mean that the same law must apply uniformly across the whole country. Different laws can apply to different States or even to different regions within a State, if there are valid reasons based on local conditions.
  • In Krishna Singh v. State of Rajasthan, the Supreme Court upheld the Marwar Land Revenue Act, 1949, which applied only to the Marwar region of Rajasthan. The Court held that it did not violate Article 14 because special local conditions justified a separate law for that area.

Article 14 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What does Article 14 of Indian Constitution state?

Ans: Article 14 guarantees the Right to Equality. It states that the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.

Q2: What is Equality before Law?

Ans: It means no one is above the law and no special privileges are given to anyone.

Q3: What is Equal Protection of Laws?

Ans: It means people in similar situations must be treated equally.

Q4: What is the Classification Test?

Ans: In Ram Krishna Dalmia v. Justice Tendolkar, the Court held that classification is valid if based on intelligible differentia and has a rational nexus with the law’s objective.

Q5: What is the Doctrine of Anti-Arbitrariness?

Ans: In E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu, the Court held that arbitrariness violates Article 14. Equality and arbitrariness cannot exist together.

Principle of Just Deserts, Meaning, Constituents, Basis, Criticism

February 25, 2026
Principle of Just Deserts

The Principle of Just Deserts means that a person should receive what they deserve based on their actions. If someone does good work or behaves well, they should be rewarded. If someone commits a wrong or crime, they should be punished. The focus is on fairness and responsibility.

Principle of Just Deserts Meaning

  • The Principle of Just Deserts says that punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Serious crimes deserve strict punishment, while minor crimes deserve lighter punishment. It is based on fairness and proportionality.
  • The main idea is retribution, which means a wrongdoer morally deserves punishment. The aim is not mainly reform or deterrence, but to give a fair response and restore the balance disturbed by the crime. When someone commits a crime, they take an unfair advantage over law-abiding citizens and punishment removes that advantage.
  • Even repeat offenders may deserve stricter punishment, but it must still be proportionate. Overall, the principle promotes fairness, responsibility and trust in the justice system.

Constituents of Desert

The idea of Just Desert has three main parts:

  1. Deserver (Who deserves?)
  2. Deserved Modes of Treatment (What is deserved?)
  3. Bases of Desert (Why is it deserved?)

Deserver of the Desert

The deserver refers to the person, group, or sometimes even an institution that is said to deserve something. For example, a student deserves good marks for writing a good exam, an athlete deserves a medal for winning a competition, and a criminal deserves punishment for breaking the law. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant believed that morally good individuals deserve happiness. Usually, the deserver is a human being, but in some cases even non-human entities, such as historical monuments or ancient cities, are said to deserve protection or preservation.

Deserved Modes of Treatment

This refers to the kind of treatment or outcome that is deserved. It may be positive, such as rewards, promotion, salary, respect, rights, or happiness. It may also be negative, such as punishment, fines, penalties, or criticism. In some situations, the outcome can be neutral, like average marks for average performance. Thus, desert does not always mean giving rewards; it can also involve fair punishment or a balanced response depending on the situation.

Bases of Desert

The basis of desert explains why a person deserves something. It may be based on effort (the hard work put in) or performance (the final result achieved). Sometimes effort and performance do not match, which makes deciding desert complex. Responsibility is also important; a person who commits a wrong knowingly deserves punishment because they are responsible. However, people may also deserve help even when they are not responsible, such as victims of natural disasters. Another factor is time, desert is often based on past actions, but in some cases future potential may also be considered. Together, these bases help determine what is fair and just.

Philosophical Basis

  • The Principle of Just Deserts is based on retributive justice, which says people should receive what they morally deserve. Punishment or reward must be fair and proportionate to the action.
  • Immanuel Kant supported this view, arguing that punishment is justified because the offender deserves it and must be held morally responsible. Aristotle linked desert to distributive justice, saying benefits like honour and wealth should be given according to merit.
  • The principle assumes that individuals are rational and responsible for their choices, so they must face the consequences of their actions.

Criticism

Many philosophers argue that desert is not a simple or fully fair basis of justice. John Rawls says success depends largely on luck, such as talent and family background, so people may not truly deserve their advantages. David Hume points out that it is difficult to correctly judge what someone deserves and that applying it strictly may create practical problems. Libertarians believe justice should focus on protecting individual freedom, not redistributing rewards based on desert. Therefore, desert as a principle of justice faces serious philosophical and practical criticisms.

Principle of Just Deserts FAQs

Q1: What is the Principle of Just Deserts?

Ans: It means a person should receive what they deserve based on their actions. Good actions deserve rewards, and wrong actions deserve punishment. The focus is on fairness and responsibility.

Q2: What is the main idea behind punishment in this theory?

Ans: The main idea is retribution. A person is punished because they morally deserve it, not mainly to reform them or to scare others.

Q3: What are the three main constituents of desert?

Ans: They are the deserver (who deserves), the deserved mode of treatment (what is deserved), and the basis of desert (why it is deserved, such as effort or responsibility).

Q4: What is the philosophical basis of the Principle of Just Deserts?

Ans: It is based on retributive justice and moral responsibility. Since individuals freely choose their actions, they must face the consequences.

Q5: How does the principle treat repeat offenders?

Ans: Repeat offenders may deserve stricter punishment because they repeatedly break the law, but the punishment must still remain proportionate.

Part 21 of Indian Constitution, Article 369 to 392, Amendment

February 25, 2026
Part 21 of Indian Constitution

Part XXI of the Indian Constitution is titled “Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions.” It covers Articles 369 to 392 and deals with unique arrangements made for certain States and transitional situations after the Constitution came into force. This Part was designed to address regional aspirations, protect tribal customs, manage disturbed law and order conditions, and ensure balanced development of backward regions. Many provisions under Part 21 of Indian Constitution were added later through constitutional amendments, especially Articles 371 to 371J, to respond to state reorganisation and specific regional needs.

Articles under Part 21 of Indian Constitution

Part 21 of Indian Constitution contains Articles 369 to 392 covering temporary, transitional and special arrangements for States and governance matters.

  • Article 369: It granted Parliament temporary authority to legislate on certain State List subjects as if they were in the Concurrent List, ensuring administrative continuity during the early constitutional phase.
  • Article 370 (Omitted): It provided temporary provisions for the State of Jammu and Kashmir, granting it special constitutional arrangements within the Union framework.
  • Article 371: It contains special provisions for Maharashtra and Gujarat, empowering the President to assign special responsibilities to Governors for balanced regional development.
  • Article 371A: It grants special protection to Nagaland regarding religious and social practices, customary law, land ownership, and administration of justice based on Naga traditions.
  • Article 371B: It empowers the President to create a committee of the Assam Legislative Assembly consisting of members elected from Tribal Areas.
  • Article 371C: It provides for a committee of the Manipur Legislative Assembly from Hill Areas and gives the Governor special responsibility, including annual reporting to the President.
  • Article 371D: It ensures equitable opportunities in public employment and education in Andhra Pradesh and later extended to Telangana in 2014.
  • Article 371E: It enables Parliament to establish a Central University in Andhra Pradesh to promote higher education development.
  • Article 371F: Inserted by the 36th Amendment Act 1975, it lays down special provisions for Sikkim, including Assembly strength and representation in the Lok Sabha.
  • Article 371G: It protects Mizoram’s religious practices, customary law, land ownership, and requires State Assembly consent for related Parliamentary laws.
  • Article 371H: It gives the Governor of Arunachal Pradesh special responsibility for law and order and fixes Assembly strength at not less than 30 members.
  • Article 371-I: It specifies that the Goa Legislative Assembly shall consist of not less than 30 members.
  • Article 371J: It empowers the President to assign special responsibility to the Governor of Karnataka for Hyderabad-Karnataka region development and reservations.
  • Article 372: It continues existing laws in force after commencement of the Constitution, subject to adaptation and modification.
  • Article 372A: It authorises the President to adapt laws for bringing them in conformity with constitutional provisions.
  • Article 373: It empowers the President to make orders regarding persons under preventive detention in certain transitional cases.
  • Article 374: It deals with Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending before the Federal Court or His Majesty in Council.
  • Article 375: It ensures courts, authorities and officers continue functioning subject to constitutional provisions.
  • Article 376: It contains provisions relating to Judges of High Courts during the transition period.
  • Article 377: It provides transitional arrangements regarding the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
  • Article 378: It lays down provisions relating to Public Service Commissions during the initial constitutional phase.
  • Article 378A: It makes a special provision regarding the duration of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly.
  • Articles 379 to 391 (Omitted): These articles earlier dealt with provisional Parliament, Governors, Legislatures, population determination, financial matters and amendments to Schedules, but are now omitted.
  • Article 392: It empowers the President to remove difficulties in implementing the Constitution during the transitional period.

Part 21 of Indian Constitution Amendments

Many Articles in Part 21 of Indian Constitution were introduced later to address state-specific needs and regional aspirations.

  • 13th Constitutional Amendment Act 1962: The 13th Amendment inserted Article 371A, granting special autonomy to Nagaland after the 16-Point Agreement. It protected Naga religious practices, customary law, land ownership and required State Assembly consent before Parliament could apply such laws.
  • 32nd Constitutional Amendment Act 1973: The 32nd Amendment inserted Articles 371D and 371E for Andhra Pradesh. It empowered the President to ensure equitable public employment and education through local cadres and administrative tribunals to reduce regional imbalances.
  • 36th Constitutional Amendment Act 1975: The 36th Amendment integrated Sikkim as the 22nd State of India and inserted Article 371F. It preserved Sikkim’s existing laws, Assembly structure and representation in Parliament while ensuring constitutional continuity.
  • 87th Constitutional Amendment Act 2003: The 87th Amendment adjusted population figures based on the 2001 Census for delimitation, indirectly affecting representation structures in States enjoying special provisions under Articles 371A to 371J.
  • 98th Constitutional Amendment Act 2012: The 98th Amendment inserted Article 371J for the Hyderabad-Karnataka region, providing special development boards, local reservations in education and public employment to address historical backwardness.
  • Extension of Article 371D in 2014: Through the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act 2014, Article 371D was extended to Telangana to ensure equitable public employment and educational opportunities.
  • Abrogation of Article 370 in 2019: It granted special autonomous status to Jammu and Kashmir and was effectively repealed in August 2019.

Case Laws related to Part 21 of Indian Constitution

Judicial interpretations clarified scope and implementation of special and transitional constitutional provisions under Part 21 of Indian Constitution.

  • Rameshwar Prasad v. Union of India (2006): The Supreme Court held that constitutional provisions granting special status cannot be misused arbitrarily. It emphasized federal balance, constitutional morality and ruled that executive actions must strictly comply with constitutional safeguards, including Article 371 frameworks.
  • Madhaorao Phalke v. State of Madhya Bharat (1960): The court examined whether "Kalambandis" (rules issued by rulers of former princely states) qualify as existing law under Article 372.
  • Regional Provident Fund Commissioner v. Shillong City Bus Syndicate (1995): While concerning Article 371A, the Court recognized Nagaland’s autonomy over customary practices and land laws. It reinforced that central legislation cannot override protected subjects without constitutional compliance and State consent.
  • A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950): While primarily challenging the Preventive Detention Act, 1950 (enacted shortly after the Constitution), this landmark case established the framework for evaluating preventative detention laws that fell under the purview of Article 373's transitional phase.
  • P. Sambamurthy v. State of Andhra Pradesh (1987): The Supreme Court struck down provisions under Article 371D that limited judicial review by placing tribunal decisions beyond High Court scrutiny. It affirmed that judicial review is part of the basic structure doctrine.
  • Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): Although unrelated directly to Article 371, this landmark case reinforced that constitutional amendments and special provisions must conform to democratic principles and the basic structure, indirectly safeguarding federal special-status arrangements.

Part 21 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What is Part XXI of the Indian Constitution?

Ans: Part 21 of Indian Constitution deals with Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions. It contains Articles 369 to 392 and provides special arrangements for certain States and transitional constitutional matters.

Q2: Why was Part XXI included in the Constitution?

Ans: Part XXI was included to address regional imbalances, protect cultural identities, and manage transitional issues after independence. It allows flexible constitutional arrangements for specific States based on historical and political conditions.

Q3: Which States are covered under special provisions of Part 21 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: States such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa and Karnataka have special provisions under Articles 371 to 371J.

Q4: Is Article 370 still part of Part 21 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: Article 370, which provided special status to Jammu and Kashmir, was abrogated in 2019. After this change, the special constitutional arrangement for the State ceased to operate.

Q5: Can Parliament amend provisions under Part 21 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: Yes, Parliament can amend provisions under Part XXI through the procedure laid down in Article 368. Several Articles such as 371A to 371J were added through constitutional amendments.

Chicory

February 25, 2026
Chicory

Chicory Latest News

Recently, FSSAI gave an advisory related to Chicory, whose content must be prominently displayed on front of coffee powder packs from 1 July.

About Chicory

  • Chicory (Cichorium intybus) is a plant belonging to the Asteraceae family.
  • It is a perennial plant mainly cultivated in temperate regions worldwide.
  • There are several varieties of the chicory plant, known differently globally due to its numerous medicinal, culinary, and nutritional qualities.
  • It is a local wild edible, and the leaves, flowers and root can all be used in culinary creations.
  • Additive in Coffee: Chicory is a popular additive that provides a darker colour and an earthy taste to the beverage.
    • It is naturally caffeine-free and significantly less expensive than high-quality coffee.
  • Nutritional Value: Most parts of the plant contain nutrients ranging within carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, soluble fiber, trace elements, and bioactive phenolic compounds.
  • Uses: It is used as forage for livestock, as folklore remedies, or as a vegetable addition in human diets.

Source: LM

Chicory FAQs

Q1: Which part of Chicory is often used as a coffee substitute?

Ans: Roots

Q2: What is Chicory rich in?

Ans: Bioactive phenolic compounds and nutrients

SUJVIKA Portal

February 25, 2026
SUJVIKA Portal

SUJVIKA Portal Latest News

Recently, the Union Minister of Science & Technology launched the SUJVIKA Portal during the 40th foundation day of the Department of Biotechnology.

About SUJVIKA Portal

  • It is an AI driven Biotech Product Data Portal.
  • It is developed in collaboration with Industry partners ABLE.
  • SUJVIKA is a Trade Statistics Digital Intelligence Platform that presents authenticated biotechnology product import data in a structured and accessible format.

Features of SUJVIKA Portal

  • The portal provides sector-wise insights into biochemical products, industrial enzymes, and other biotechnology imports.
  • It enables researchers, startups, and industry to identify high-value and high-volume imports, assess import dependency and prioritise indigenisation and R&D efforts.
  • The portal also supports evidence-based planning and promotes public–private partnerships for strengthening domestic biomanufacturing.

Key Facts about Department of Biotechnology

  • It was set up in 1986.
  • It acts as a nodal agency supporting research and its applications in the Life Sciences and promotes & accelerates the pace of development and large-scale use of biotechnology in the country.
  • DBT also supports Research and Development innovations and manufacturing in advanced Biofuels as well as ‘Waste to Energy’ technologies.

Source: PIB

SUJVIKA Portal FAQs

Q1: What is SUJVIKA Portal?

Ans: An AI-driven biotech product data portal

Q2: What is the purpose of SUJVIKA Portal?

Ans: To provide data on biotechnology imports and support research

Exercise Dharma Guardian

February 25, 2026
Exercise Dharma Guardian

Exercise Dharma Guardian Latest News

Recently, the Exercise 'DHARMA GUARDIAN' commenced at the Foreign Training Node, Chaubattia in Uttarakhand.

About Exercise Dharma Guardian

  • It is the annual joint military exercise between the Indian Army and Japan.
  • Aim: The aim of Exercise 'DHARMA GUARDIAN' is to strengthen military collaboration and enhance combined capabilities to undertake joint operations in a semi-urban environment.
  • The exercise is held alternately in India and Japan and remains a key pillar of defence cooperation between the two nations.
  • It is the 7th edition of the annual Joint Military Exercise.
  • Key tactical activities during the exercise include
    • Establishing a Temporary Operating Base
    • Developing an Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) grid
    • Setting up Mobile Vehicle Check Posts
    • Conducting Cordon and Search Operations in hostile environment
    • Executing Heliborne Operations
    • Undertaking House Intervention Drills

What are Other Exercises between India and Japan?

  • Malabar: India and Japan with the United States and Australia participate in the naval war gaming exercise named Malabar.
  • JIMEX (Naval)
  • SHINYUU Maitri (Air Force).

Source: PIB

Exercise Dharma Guardian FAQs

Q1: What is Exercise Dharma Guardian?

Ans: A joint military exercise between India and Japan

Q2: Where was Exercise Dharma Guardian held?

Ans: Both India and Japan (alternating locations)

Capsid

February 25, 2026
Capsid

Capsid Latest News

A new study found that to escape the drug Lenacapavir, HIV must damage its own capsid, reaffirming that the viral capsid is an effective target for antiviral therapy.

About Capsid

  • A capsid is a three-dimensional proteinaceous capsular shell around a virus that encloses the viral genetic material. 
  • It is located just below the viral envelope.
  • The capsid is made of several repeating finite numbers of protein subunits known as capsomeres or protomers. 
  • The capsomeres of the protein coat can be associated with or may be closely related to the viral genetic material or nucleic acid. 
  • The complexity of the capsid is dictated by the virus’s own genetic material. The more complex the genome, the more intricate the protein shell must be. 
  • Some complex viruses have capsids with non-protein components like lipids, or in certain viruses, the capsid is further enclosed in a glycoprotein layer; such capsids are known as enveloped capsids.
  • The viral capsid is in the nanometer (nm) size range and possesses complex and unique mechanical properties.
  • It serves multiple functions, namely, encapsulating and protecting viral genetic material and transferring of genetic material to the required place in the new host. 
  • For serving all these functions, the capsid needs highly specific mechanistic and functional flexibility as well as strength.

Source: TH

Capsid FAQs

Q1: What is a capsid?

Ans: A capsid is a three-dimensional protein shell that surrounds and encloses a virus’s genetic material.

Q2: What is the capsid made of?

Ans: It is made of repeating protein subunits called capsomeres or protomers.

Q3: What are the main functions of a capsid?

Ans: To protect viral genetic material and help transfer it into a new host cell.

Key Facts about Kenya

February 25, 2026
Kenya

Kenya Latest News

Recently, the 1st Joint Working Group (JWG) meeting on Agriculture was held between India and Kenya in virtual mode. 

About Kenya

  • Location: It is located in Eastern Africa.
  • Bordering Countries: It is bordered with Somalia (North East), Ethiopia (North), South Sudan (North West), Uganda (West), Tanzania (South).
  • Maritime Border: It has a coastline on the Indian Ocean to the southeast.
  • Capital City: Nairobi
  • Nairobi hosts UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and UN-HABITAT headquarters.

Geographical Features of Kenya

  • It is almost bisected by the Equator.
  • Major lakes: Lake Victoria (shared with Uganda & Tanzania), Lake Turkana.
  • Rivers: Athi/Galana, Tana (Longest river of Kenya), Mara.
  • Mountain Ranges: Aberdare, Mau Escarpment.
  • Highest Peak: Mount Kenya (second highest in Africa after Kilimanjaro).
  • Island: Lamu Island, part of the Lamu Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, is noteworthy. 
  • Natural Resources: Lead, zircon, iron, titanium, mica, chaum, oil, coal, diatomite, gypsum.
  • Famous Tribes: San Bushmen, Samburu, Maasai.
  • Masai Mara National Reserve: It is located in south west Kenya and is a vast scenic expanse of gently rolling African savannah plains.

Source: PIB

Kenya FAQs

Q1: What is the capital of Kenya?

Ans: Nairobi

Q2: Kenya is known for?

Ans: Maasai Mara National Reserve and Mount Kilimanjaro

Unity in Diversity in India, Meaning, Background, Importance

February 25, 2026
Unity in Diversity

Unity in Diversity in India is one of the most defining characteristics of the nation. India is a land of multiple religions, languages, cultures, traditions, and geographical variations. Yet, despite these differences, the people of India live together with a shared identity and national pride.

This concept explains how India remains united even though it is socially and culturally diverse. It reflects the spirit of harmony, brotherhood, tolerance, and mutual respect that binds 1.4 billion people together.

Unity in Diversity Meaning

Unity in Diversity means maintaining oneness and solidarity despite differences in religion, language, culture, caste, region, and lifestyle. It reflects the idea that diversity does not divide a nation; rather, it enriches it. In India, people may look different, speak different languages, and follow different customs, but they identify themselves as Indians first.

This concept is deeply rooted in India’s civilization and cultural traditions. It shows that differences are natural, but unity is a conscious choice. India proves that diversity can exist without conflict when there is mutual respect and constitutional values.

Features of the Concept

  • Acceptance of Differences – People respect each other's beliefs, customs, and traditions without forcing uniformity.
  • Common National Identity – Despite regional identities, the feeling of being Indian remains strong.
  • Shared Democratic Values – Equality, liberty, justice, and fraternity bind citizens together.
  • Cultural Integration – Different traditions blend and influence each other over time.
  • Emotional Integration – A sense of belonging and patriotism connects citizens across regions.

Unity in Diversity Historical Background

India’s unity in diversity has developed over thousands of years through cultural interaction, trade, migration, and shared spiritual ideas. Even when India was divided into different kingdoms, there was cultural and philosophical unity. The idea of India as a civilization existed long before political unity.

Ancient Period

  • India was known as Bharat, symbolizing cultural and spiritual unity.
  • Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were read and respected across regions, creating moral and cultural unity.
  • Pilgrimage routes connected North, South, East, and West India, promoting interaction among people.
  • Ancient universities like Takshashila and Nalanda attracted students from different regions.

Medieval Period

  • Cultural exchange between different communities led to the development of composite culture.
  • Architecture, music, and art reflected a blend of traditions.
  • Bhakti and Sufi movements emphasized love, equality, and devotion beyond religious divisions.

Freedom Struggle

  • Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel united people from all backgrounds.
  • Movements like Non-Cooperation and Quit India involved participation from every region.
  • The struggle created a strong feeling of national identity and unity.

Religious Diversity in India

India is home to almost every major religion in the world. It is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and also has large populations of Muslims and Christians. This religious diversity is visible in festivals, places of worship, and daily life.

Despite following different faiths, Indians often participate in each other's celebrations. Religious harmony is a key pillar of unity in diversity.

  • Important religious sites such as Golden Temple, Kashi Vishwanath Temple, and Mecca Masjid represent different faiths coexisting peacefully.
  • National holidays include festivals from various religions like Diwali, Eid, Christmas, and Guru Nanak Jayanti.
  • The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion to all citizens.
  • Interfaith harmony is visible in mixed neighborhoods and workplaces.
  • Many Indians respect and visit places of worship of different religions.

Linguistic Diversity in India

India is one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world. The Constitution recognizes 22 scheduled languages, and hundreds of dialects are spoken across the country. Language reflects culture, history, and regional identity.

Despite language differences, communication and cooperation continue smoothly due to multilingualism and national integration.

  • Hindi, English, Tamil, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu, Kannada, and many other languages are widely spoken.
  • States are organized largely on linguistic basis, yet national unity remains intact.
  • People often learn multiple languages for education and employment.
  • Literature in regional languages contributes to India’s cultural richness.
  • Language differences rarely stop people from working and living together.

Cultural Diversity in India

Cultural Diversity in India includes traditions, customs, art forms, dance, music, dress, and food habits. Every state in India has its own unique cultural identity. However, these cultures influence and enrich each other. Indian culture is not uniform but inclusive. It absorbs new ideas while preserving ancient traditions.

  • Classical dances like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi belong to different regions.
  • Food varies from dosa in the South to litti chokha in Bihar and dhokla in Gujarat.
  • Traditional clothing differs such as saree, phiran, mekhela chador, and lungi.
  • Festivals are celebrated with regional variations but shared enthusiasm.
  • Art and handicrafts reflect regional skills and creativity.

Geographical Diversity in India

India’s geography ranges from the Himalayas to coastal plains and deserts. This physical diversity influences occupation, climate, food habits, and lifestyle. People living in mountains have different lifestyles compared to those in coastal areas.

Despite geographical differences, transportation and communication systems connect the country strongly.

  • The Himalayas in the north protect the country and influence climate.
  • The Thar Desert shapes the culture and lifestyle of Rajasthan.
  • Fertile plains of the Ganga support agriculture and dense population.
  • Coastal regions promote fishing and trade activities.
  • The Northeast region has unique biodiversity and tribal cultures.

Role of the Constitution in Promoting Unity

The Constitution of India plays a central role in maintaining unity in a diverse country like India. It provides a common legal and moral framework that binds citizens together despite differences in religion, language, caste, and region. By guaranteeing equality, justice, liberty, and fraternity, the Constitution ensures that diversity becomes a strength rather than a source of division.

  • Equality Before Law (Article 14): Ensures that all citizens are treated equally without discrimination based on religion, caste, gender, or place of birth. This prevents social divisions and promotes fairness in governance.
  • Prohibition of Discrimination (Articles 15–16): The State cannot discriminate against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Equal opportunity in public employment strengthens national integration.
  • Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28): Guarantees the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. This constitutional secularism ensures peaceful coexistence of different faiths.
  • Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30): Protects the language, script, and culture of minorities. It assures communities that their identity will be preserved within the national framework.
  • Single Citizenship: India provides single citizenship for the whole country, unlike some federal systems. This creates a strong sense of national identity above regional identity.
  • Federal Structure with Unitary Features: Powers are divided between the Centre and States, but the Union remains strong during emergencies. This balance prevents regional conflicts while maintaining national integrity.
  • Fundamental Rights: Protect individual freedoms such as speech, expression, and movement across India. These rights help people live and work anywhere in the country.
  • Directive Principles of State Policy: Guide the government to promote social and economic justice, reduce inequality, and ensure welfare of all sections of society.
  • Fundamental Duties (Article 51A): Encourage citizens to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood transcending religious, linguistic, and regional differences.
  • Independent Judiciary: The Supreme Court and High Courts safeguard constitutional values and resolve disputes between states or communities peacefully.
  • Official Language Provisions: Recognize multiple languages and allow states to adopt their own official languages, respecting linguistic diversity.
  • Emergency Provisions: Allow the central government to take necessary steps during crises to protect sovereignty, unity, and integrity of the nation.

Unity in Diversity Importance

  • Promotes national integration by uniting people beyond differences of religion, caste, language, and region.
  • Strengthens the feeling of patriotism and common national identity among citizens.
  • Ensures peaceful coexistence and reduces social conflicts in a diverse society.
  • Supports the smooth functioning of democracy by encouraging participation from all communities.
  • Encourages economic growth and development by maintaining internal stability and cooperation among states.
  • Enhances India’s cultural richness and global identity through diverse traditions, art, and heritage.
  • Builds mutual respect and tolerance among different religious and social groups.
  • Protects fundamental rights and equality as guaranteed by the Constitution of India.
  • Strengthens national security by creating unity against external and internal threats.
  • Encourages social harmony and brotherhood among citizens.
  • Promotes inclusive growth by ensuring representation of diverse communities in governance and society.
  • Increases India’s international reputation as a successful multicultural nation.

Unity in Diversity Challenges

  • Rise of communalism leading to religious tensions and conflicts between communities.
  • Growth of caste-based discrimination and social inequality in different regions.
  • Increase in regionalism and separatist movements demanding special status or independence.
  • Linguistic conflicts over language imposition and regional language identity issues.
  • Spread of misinformation and hate speech through social media and digital platforms.
  • Political misuse of identity politics for vote-bank and electoral gains.
  • Economic inequality creating a gap between rich and poor states or communities.
  • Lack of proper value-based education promoting tolerance and constitutional values.
  • Cultural misunderstandings due to lack of awareness about other communities.
  • Migration-related tensions causing competition over jobs and resources.
  • External forces attempting to disturb India’s unity through propaganda and interference.

Way Forward

  • Promote value-based and constitutional education in schools and colleges to develop tolerance, respect, and civic responsibility.
  • Ensure effective implementation of the Constitution of India to protect equality, secularism, and fundamental rights.
  • Encourage interfaith and intercultural dialogue to reduce misunderstandings among communities.
  • Strengthen strict action against hate speech, communal violence, and discrimination.
  • Promote balanced regional development to reduce economic inequality among states.
  • Encourage youth participation in national integration programs and cultural exchange initiatives.
  • Regulate and monitor misinformation on social media platforms to prevent division.
  • Promote inclusive governance ensuring representation of diverse communities in decision-making.
  • Encourage responsible media reporting that highlights unity rather than division.
  • Strengthen national campaigns like “Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat” to promote cultural bonding.
  • Support policies that reduce caste and gender inequality through social justice measures.

Unity in Diversity FAQs

Q1: What is meant by Unity in Diversity?

Ans: Unity in Diversity means maintaining unity and harmony despite differences in religion, language, culture, caste, and region. It reflects the idea that diversity strengthens a nation instead of dividing it.

Q2: Why is Unity in Diversity important in India?

Ans: It promotes national integration, social harmony, and peaceful coexistence in a country with vast cultural and religious diversity. It also supports democracy and economic development.

Q3: How does the Constitution promote Unity in Diversity?

Ans: The Constitution of India ensures equality, freedom of religion, cultural rights, and justice for all citizens. It provides a common legal framework that binds diverse communities together.

Q4: What are examples of Unity in Diversity in India?

Ans: Celebrating different religious festivals together, multilingual communication, cultural exchange among states, and national unity during sports events are common examples.

Q5: What are the main challenges to Unity in Diversity?

Ans: Communalism, caste discrimination, regionalism, linguistic conflicts, misinformation, and economic inequality are major challenges.

Periyar Tiger Reserve

February 25, 2026
Periyar Tiger Reserve

Periyar Tiger Reserve Latest News

Recently, the Periyar Tiger Reserve has initiated Phase III of All India Tiger Estimation 2025-26, aimed at assessing the tiger population across the country.

About Periyar Tiger Reserve

  • Location: It is located in the Idukki district of Kerala.
  • It is named after the Periyar River.
  • It is set high at Cardamom Hills and Pandalam Hills of the Western Ghats, adjacent to the border with Tamil Nadu.
    • It surrounds the Periyar Lake, which was created in 1895 by building a dam across the Periyar River.
  • Terrain: The terrain is hilly and undulating with a maximum altitude of 2016 m. The highest peak is Kottamala (2016 m).
  • Rivers: Two major rivers namely Periyar and Pamba drain the area.
  • Dams: Mullaperiyar Dam is located within the PTR. 
  • Tribes: It is home to many tribal communities, including the Mannans and the Palians.
  • Vegetation: It mainly comprises tropical evergreen forests, semi- evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, transitional fringe evergreen forests, grasslands, and eucalyptus plantations.
  • Flora: Teak, mangoes, rosewood, jamun, jacarandas, terminalias, tamarind, royal ponciana, bamboo, etc.
  • Fauna: Elephants, Wild Pigs, Mouse Deer, Barking Deer, and Tiger.
    • The major four species of primates are also found at Periyar – the rare lion-tailed macaque, the Nilgiri Langur, Gee’s Golden Langur, Common Langur, and Bonnet Macaque.
    • It is also being considered as the habitat of the elusive Nilgiri Tahr.

Source: TH

Periyar Tiger Reserve FAQs

Q1: Where is Periyar Tiger Reserve located?

Ans: Kerala

Q2: Periyar Tiger Reserve is part of which hill range?

Ans: Western Ghats

CM-302 Missile

February 25, 2026
CM-302 Missile

CM-302 Missile Latest News

Reports are emerging that Iran is close to finalizing a deal with China to buy CM-302 supersonic anti-ship missiles.

About CM-302 Missile

  • It is a supersonic anti-ship cruise missile developed by China.
  • It is an export version of the YJ-12 missile used by the Chinese Navy. 
  • It is intended to strike large naval vessels and other maritime targets.

CM-302 Missile Features

  • The missile is almost 7 m long, with a body diameter of 0.7 m and a launch weight of 2000-2500 kg. 
  • It is equipped with a liquid direct-flow air-breathing jet engine and four air intakes. 
  • The missile travels at sustained supersonic speeds, reportedly around Mach 2.5–3 or higher, making it very hard and challenging to intercept once launched.
  • It has a range of about 290 km.
  • It is equipped with a conventional high-explosive warhead weighing approximately 250 kg.
  • It can be launched from both ships and ground-based launchers. 
  • The CM-302 approaches its target at extremely low altitudes. 
  • The guidance system of the missile combines inertial navigation with China’s BeiDou satellite navigation for mid-course guidance, along with an active radar seeker for terminal homing.
  • It has a high hit probability, nearly 90 percent, owing to its sea-skimming flight profile and advanced guidance suite.

Source: OI

CM-302 Missile FAQs

Q1: What is the CM-302 Missile?

Ans: It is a supersonic anti-ship cruise missile developed by China.

Q2: What is the primary role of the CM-302 missile?

Ans: It is designed to strike large naval vessels and other maritime targets.

Q3: What is the operational range of the CM-302?

Ans: It has a range of about 290 km.

Q4: What type of warhead does the CM-302 carry?

Ans: It carries a conventional high-explosive warhead weighing about 250 kg.

Tsomgo Lake

February 25, 2026
Tsomgo Lake

Tsomgo Lake Latest News

Over 2,700 tourists stranded due to heavy snowfall near Tsomgo Lake in East Sikkim were rescued recently.

About Tsomgo Lake

  • Tsomgo Lake, also known as Tsongmo Lake or Changu Lake, is a glacial lake located in East Sikkim.
  • The lake derives its water from the melting snow of the mountains surrounding the lake.
  • Located at an elevation of 3,753 m (12,313 ft), the lake remains frozen during the winter season. 
  • After the winter season ends in the middle of May, the periphery of the lake has scenic blooms of flower species of rhododendrons (the state tree of Sikkim), primulas, blue and yellow poppies, irises, and so forth. 
    • Also seen in the precincts of the lake are several species of birds, including Brahminy ducks. 
    • Wildlife seen includes the red panda.
  • The lake surface reflects different colours with the change of seasons and is held in great reverence by the local Sikkimese people.
  • Buddhist monks prognosticated after studying the changing colours of the lake.

Source: TH

Tsomgo Lake FAQs

Q1: Where is Tsomgo Lake located?

Ans: It is located in East Sikkim, India.

Q2: What type of lake is Tsomgo Lake?

Ans: It is a glacial lake.

Q3: What happens to Tsomgo Lake during winter?

Ans: The lake remains frozen during the winter season.

Q4: How does the lake’s appearance change with seasons?

Ans: The surface reflects different colours depending on the season.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

February 25, 2026
Human Papillomavirus

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Latest News

The Union Health Ministry is set to launch a nationwide Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination programme targeting girls aged 14 years.

About Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

  • HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI), and there are more than 100 types of HPV. Most do not cause health problems.
  • However, some types of HPV infection cause skin growths called warts, and some types of HPV infection can cause cancer.
  • More than 95% of cervical cancer is caused by the HPV virus.
  • Transmission:
    • The virus that causes HPV infection is transmitted through skin-to-skin contact. 
    • Most people get a genital HPV infection through direct sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex.
  • About 80% of people – both men and women – will get an HPV infection at some point in their lives. 
  • Most people with HPV don’t know they’re infected and never develop symptoms. 
  • The body most often clears the virus before it causes any health problems. 
  • But for some, the infection persists and can lead to precancerous changes.
  • Symptoms may include warts on the genitals or anus or cancerous growths in the mouth or throat. 
  • Treatment: 
    • There’s no cure for HPV. 
    • HPV vaccination is the most effective way to prevent HPV-related cancers.

HPV Vaccination

  • The HPV vaccine is a series of shots that can protect you from an HPV infection. 
  • It prevents HPV infections that can progress to cancer or genital warts.
  • The HPV vaccination is more efficacious if given between the age group of 9-26 years.
  • Once a person gets HPV, the vaccine may not be as effective.
  • The HPV vaccine isn’t given during pregnancy.

Source: TH

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) FAQs

Q1: What is Human Papillomavirus (HPV)?

Ans: HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI) with more than 100 different types.

Q2: What conditions can certain types of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) cause?

Ans: Some types cause warts, while others can lead to cancers.

Q3: How is Human Papillomavirus (HPV) transmitted?

Ans: HPV spreads through skin-to-skin contact.

Q4: What is the most effective way to prevent HPV-related cancers?

Ans: HPV vaccination is the most effective prevention method.

Part 20 of Indian Constitution, Article 368, Amendments, Case Laws

February 25, 2026
Part 20 of Indian Constitution

Part XX of the Constitution of India deals exclusively with the amendment process of the Constitution. Unlike many other Parts that contain several Articles, Part 20 of Indian Constitution consists of only one provision as Article 368. This Article grants Parliament the authority to amend the Constitution and prescribes the procedure for doing so. This Part of Indian Constitution explains the type of majority required, the role of the President, and when ratification by States becomes necessary. Over time, Article 368 has been shaped by constitutional amendments and landmark judicial decisions that clarified its scope and limitations.

Article 368 of Part 20 of Indian Constitution

Article 368  of the  Part 20 of Indian Constitution provides the procedure and scope for amending the Constitution of India. It defines Parliament’s constituent power, required majorities, State ratification conditions, and related constitutional limitations.

  • Article 368 (1): This clause empowers Parliament, exercising its constituent authority, to amend any constitutional provision by addition, variation, or repeal, following the prescribed procedure. It begins with a non obstante clause, overriding other constitutional provisions while using special amendment procedure distinct from ordinary legislation.
  • Article 368 (2): Amendment can be initiated only through a Bill introduced in either House of Parliament, not in State Legislatures. The Bill must be passed in each House by a majority of total membership and by two-thirds of members present and voting, reflecting a special majority requirement. After being passed by both Houses with the required special majority, the Bill is presented to the President. The President is constitutionally bound to give assent, and upon assent, the Constitution stands amended according to the Bill’s provisions.
  • Article 368 (2)(a): Amendments affecting Articles 54, 55, 73, 162, 241, and 279A require ratification by at least half of State Legislatures. These provisions relate to federal structure, executive powers, and Goods and Services Tax framework, thereby necessitating State participation.
  • Article 368 (2)(b): Changes concerning Chapter IV of Part V, Chapter V of Part VI, or Chapter I of Part XI require State ratification. These Chapters deal with the Union Judiciary, High Courts in States, and legislative relations, directly impacting federal balance.
  • Article 368 (2)(c): Any amendment altering provisions in the Seventh Schedule Lists must be ratified by not less than one-half of the States. Since these Lists distribute legislative powers between Union and States, State approval safeguards cooperative federalism.
  • Article 368 (2)(d): Amendments modifying the representation of States in Parliament require ratification by half of the States. This ensures that changes affecting federal representation at the national level cannot be made unilaterally by Parliament.
  • Article 368 (2)(e): If the amendment seeks to change Article 368 itself, ratification by at least half of the State Legislatures is mandatory. This protects the amendment procedure from unilateral alteration and preserves structural stability.
  • Article 368 (3): This clause clarifies that Article 13 does not apply to constitutional amendments made under Article 368. Therefore, amendments cannot be invalidated solely for violating Fundamental Rights, distinguishing constituent power from ordinary legislative power.
  • Article 368 (4): Inserted by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, this clause declared that no constitutional amendment, including those affecting Part III, could be questioned in any court on any ground, attempting to exclude judicial review.
  • Article 368 (5): Also inserted by the 42nd Amendment, this clause stated that there shall be no limitation on Parliament’s constituent power to amend the Constitution. However, the Supreme Court later held that such unlimited power is subject to the Basic Structure Doctrine.

Part 20 of Indian Constitution Amendments

Article 368 of Part 20 of Indian Constitution itself has been modified through constitutional amendments to clarify and expand Parliament’s amending authority.

  • Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971: This amendment substituted the heading of Article 368, inserted clause (1), renumbered existing provisions, and added clause (3) to confirm Parliament’s power to amend all parts of the Constitution.
  • Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956: It omitted the words “specified in Parts A and B of the First Schedule” from Article 368, updating references after reorganization of States.
  • Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976: Section 55 inserted clauses (4) and (5) in Article 368, declaring that amendments could not be challenged in court and that Parliament’s amending power had no limitation. However the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills case 1980 declared clauses (4) and (5) invalid, restoring judicial review over constitutional amendments under Article 368.

Case Laws related to Part 20 of Indian Constitution

Several landmark judgments have defined the scope, limits, and interpretation of Article 368 under Part 20 of Indian Constitution as highlighted below:

  • Shankari Prasad v. Union of India (1951): The Supreme Court upheld Parliament’s authority to amend Fundamental Rights under Article 368 and ruled that constitutional amendments are not ordinary laws under Article 13.
  • Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan (1965): The Court reaffirmed Parliament’s power to amend Fundamental Rights but indicated through dissent that certain core features might be beyond amendment.
  • Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967): The Court held that Parliament could not amend Fundamental Rights, treating amendments as “law” under Article 13, significantly restricting Article 368 power.
  • Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973): The Court upheld Parliament’s amending authority but introduced the Basic Structure Doctrine, stating that essential constitutional features cannot be destroyed.
  • Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): The Court struck down parts of the 39th Amendment and reinforced that judicial review and democracy form part of the Constitution’s basic structure.
  • Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980): The Supreme Court invalidated clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 inserted by the 42nd Amendment, affirming that judicial review is part of the basic structure.
  • Waman Rao v. Union of India (1981): The Court held that laws placed in the Ninth Schedule after the Kesavananda decision could be tested against the Basic Structure Doctrine.
  • I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007): The Court ruled that even laws inserted in the Ninth Schedule are subject to judicial review if they violate fundamental rights forming part of the basic structure.

Part 20 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What does Part 20 of Indian Constitution deal with?

Ans: Part XX contains only Article 368. It explains the procedure and powers of Parliament to amend the Constitution, including required majorities and State ratification conditions.

Q2: Which Article is included in Part 20 of Indian Constitution?

Ans: Part XX includes only Article 368. This Article grants Parliament the constituent power to amend any provision of the Constitution according to the prescribed procedure.

Q3: What type of majority is required under Part XX for constitutional amendments?

Ans: Most amendments require a special majority in both Houses of Parliament, meaning a majority of total membership and two-thirds of members present and voting.

Q4: Can a constitutional amendment Bill under Part XX be introduced in a State Legislature?

Ans: No. An amendment Bill under Article 368 can be introduced only in either House of Parliament, not in any State Legislature.

Q5: Can constitutional amendments under Part XX be challenged in court?

Ans: Yes. Although clauses once tried to bar judicial review, the Supreme Court ruled that amendments are subject to the Basic Structure Doctrine and can be reviewed.

Jeju Island

February 25, 2026
Jeju Island

Jeju Island Latest News

The Embassy of India in Seoul recently issued an advisory today addressing Indian nationals travelling to Jeju Island under the visa waiver scheme.

About Jeju Island

  • It is a volcanic island off the coast of South Korea.
  • It is a special autonomous province of South Korea. 
  • Oval in shape, it is Korea’s largest and southernmost island.
  • The provincial capital is the city of Jeju.
  • The island was created entirely from volcanic eruptions approximately 2 million years ago.
  • It is composed of a core of volcanic material that rises symmetrically to the crest of Mount Hallasan (6,398 feet [1,950 meters]), which has a lake in its crater.
    • Mount Hallasan is the tallest mountain in South Korea and a dormant volcano.
    • 360 satellite volcanoes are around the main volcano.
  • The island’s lava tubes and certain other volcanic formations (including Mount Hallasan) were collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2007. 
  • Jeju is bathed in warm currents, and its oceanic climate supports some subtropical plants.

Source: NDTV

Jeju Island FAQs

Q1: Where is Jeju Island located?

Ans: It is a volcanic island off the coast of South Korea.

Q2: How was Jeju Island formed?

Ans: It was created entirely by volcanic eruptions about 2 million years ago.

Q3: What is the administrative status of Jeju Island?

Ans: It is a special autonomous province of South Korea.

Q4: What is the shape and significance of Jeju Island?

Ans: It is oval-shaped and is Korea’s largest and southernmost island.

Q5: What is the main geological feature at the center of the island?

Ans: A core of volcanic material that rises symmetrically to the crest of Mount Hallasan.

Daily Editorial Analysis 25 February 2026

February 25, 2026
Daily-Editorial-Analysis

An Israel Visit —Its Strategic, Economic, Regional Impact

Context

  • West Asia faces an extremely fragile security environment marked by tensions between Iran and the United States, uncertainty surrounding the Gaza ceasefire, and shifting regional alignments involving Saudi Arabia and the UAE.
  • These developments raise concerns over regional stability, global trade routes, and energy supplies.
  • Within this context, Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Israel in February 2026 carries major strategic significance.
  • The visit reflects India’s expanding diplomatic role, its deepening partnership with Israel, and its attempt to balance relations with rival actors in the region.
  • India is gradually moving from a passive observer to an active geopolitical stakeholder in West Asia.

Changing Nature of India’s West Asia Policy

  • From Ideological to Pragmatic Diplomacy

    • India earlier balanced relations with Israel and Palestine due to political considerations and dependence on Arab energy sources.
    • The present standalone visit signals a clear policy shift. Through de-hyphenation, India treats Israel and Palestine as separate diplomatic relationships, emphasizing national interests over ideological positioning.

  • Strategic Autonomy and Multi-Alignment

    • Despite closer ties with Israel, India continues strong relations with Arab states such as the UAE, Oman, and Jordan.
    • Rather than joining rigid alliances, India follows strategic autonomy and multi-alignment, maintaining cooperation across competing regional camps.

Defence and Security Cooperation

  • Shared Security Concerns

    • Both countries face hostile neighbourhoods and threats from terrorism, creating natural security convergence.
    • India has become Israel’s largest defence customer, and cooperation has evolved from purchases to joint development.

  • Military Technology Collaboration

    • Israel has supplied India with drones, surveillance systems, radars, and missile defence
    • The jointly developed Barak-8 air defence system illustrates this collaboration.
    • India’s focus on anti-drone protection and air defence after recent military experiences has increased interest in the Iron Beam laser interception system, capable of neutralizing rockets and UAVs efficiently.
    • This partnership now emphasises futuristic defence technologies and co-production.

Technology, Agriculture, and Innovation Cooperation

  • Agricultural Development

    • Israel’s agricultural expertise supports India’s rural economy through more than 35 Centres of Excellence.
    • These initiatives promote precision farming, improved horticulture, and higher productivity in fruits and vegetables, strengthening food security.

  • Water Management

    • Israeli water-management and irrigation technologies are vital for drought-prone regions such as Rajasthan and Haryana.
    • Integrated water resource projects improve conservation and sustainable usage.

  • Future Technologies

    • Cooperation is expanding into Artificial Intelligence, electronics, and high-technology manufacturing.
    • The partnership increasingly resembles a development and innovation collaboration rather than purely defence engagement.

Trade and Economic Engagement

  • Expanding Bilateral Trade

    • Bilateral trade has grown steadily, traditionally dominated by diamonds, petroleum products, and chemicals, but now expanding into medical equipment, electronics, and communications technology.

  • Investment and Free Trade Agreement

    • A Bilateral Investment Agreement and negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) aim to deepen economic integration.
    • Israel is also interested in Indian participation in infrastructure projects and arrangements for skilled labour mobility, indicating increasing economic interdependence.

Strategic Connectivity and the IMEC Corridor

  • The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a major connectivity initiative linking India to Europe through West Asia.
  • The corridor offers a safer alternative to the Suez Canal, reduces shipping risks, and enhances trade efficiency.
  • However, its success depends on regional stability, particularly lasting peace in Gaza. Economic connectivity and peace are therefore closely connected.

Gaza Conflict and Regional Diplomacy

  • India’s Possible Role in Peace Efforts

    • India participated as an observer in international stabilization discussions.
    • Its balanced relations with Israel and Arab countries position it as a credible diplomatic participant in future peace initiatives.

  • Balancing Competing Alliances

    • Israel has suggested broader regional alignments against extremist forces, but India is unlikely to join a formal bloc.
    • It maintains engagement with Israel, Gulf countries, and Iran simultaneously to protect diplomatic flexibility and national interests.

India’s Strategic Interests in the Region

  • India’s involvement in West Asia is driven by concrete priorities: energy security, protection of trade routes, welfare of overseas workers, counter-terrorism cooperation, and technology transfer.
  • Stability in the region directly affects India’s economic growth and foreign policy goals.

Conclusion

  • The 2026 visit highlights the transformation of India-Israel relations into a multidimensional partnership encompassing defence, technology, trade, and connectivity.
  • At the same time, India continues constructive engagement with Arab states and Iran, reflecting a balanced diplomatic approach.
  • India is emerging as a strategically autonomous power capable of engaging multiple rivals without formal alliances.
  • By combining security cooperation with economic and technological collaboration and supporting regional stability, India positions itself as a potential stabilizing influence in West Asia.
  • The partnership with Israel therefore represents not only bilateral cooperation but also India’s broader rise as an influential actor in regional geopolitics.

An Israel Visit —Its Strategic, Economic, Regional Impact FAQs

Q1. Why is Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s 2026 visit to Israel strategically significant?
Ans. The visit is strategically significant because it reflects India’s growing geopolitical role in West Asia and its deepening partnership with Israel amid regional instability.

Q2. What does India’s policy of de-hyphenation mean in the context of Israel and Palestine?
Ans. De-hyphenation means that India treats its relationship with Israel independently from its engagement with Palestine.

Q3. How has India–Israel defence cooperation evolved over time?
Ans. India–Israel defence cooperation has evolved from a buyer-seller relationship to joint development and co-production of advanced military technologies.

Q4. Why is the IMEC corridor important for India?
Ans. The IMEC corridor is important because it provides a safer and shorter trade route to Europe while enhancing India’s strategic connectivity.

Q5. How does India maintain balance in West Asia despite close ties with Israel?
Ans. India maintains balance by pursuing strategic autonomy and maintaining strong relations with Israel, Arab Gulf states, and Iran simultaneously.

Source: The Hindu

India’s Trade Strategy in a Multipolar World

Context

  • India’s international economic policy has undergone a major transformation in the last decade.
  • Once hesitant about wide-ranging free trade agreements, the country now actively pursues deeper integration with leading global economies.
  • The Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) 2023 targets exports of $2 trillion by 2030, reflecting a broader national vision of economic expansion and global influence.
  • By 2025, total exports of merchandise and services reached $825.25 billion, showing sustained growth.
  • Trade policy now functions not only as an economic mechanism but also as a tool of strategic autonomy, diplomacy, and long-term development.

From Cautious Trade Engagement to Proactive Integration

  • Earlier Approach

    • For decades, India followed a protectionist orientation, preferring agreements with economies at comparable levels of development.
    • Domestic industry protection, economic sovereignty, and controlled market access shaped trade policy.
    • Large-scale engagement with advanced industrial economies remained limited.

  • The Policy Shift

    • India has moved toward a more assertive external trade strategy.
    • Negotiations with developed economies have accelerated, and the coverage of exports under free trade agreements (FTAs) is projected to rise from 22% in 2019 to nearly 71% by 2026.
    • Partnerships now include the European Union, United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and United Arab Emirates.
    • This transition represents a shift from regional trade arrangements to participation in high-value markets and deeper integration into global commerce.

Export-Led Growth and Economic Expansion

  • Export expansion has become central to India’s growth strategy.
  • Greater access to international markets encourages industrial expansion, investment flows, and employment generation.
  • Labour-intensive sectors such as textiles and leather gain new opportunities, while high-growth industries like pharmaceuticals, technology, and services trade strengthen competitiveness.
  • Integration of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) into global value chains widens the benefits of trade.
  • Expanded exports improve productivity and enable domestic firms to upgrade quality and efficiency. Trade therefore acts as a driver of both economic growth and industrial modernization.

Key Trade Agreements

  • The India–European Union Free Trade Agreement

    • The India–EU agreement signed on January 27, 2026 marked a major milestone in trade diplomacy.
    • The agreement reduces or eliminates tariffs on over 90% of traded goods, expanding market access for chemicals, marine products, pharmaceutical exports, and manufacturing industries.
    • Access to advanced European machinery lowers production costs and supports industrial upgrading.
    • The agreement strengthens regulatory cooperation, encourages digital trade, and increases investor confidence.
    • Enhanced competitiveness helps Indian exporters compete effectively with countries such as Bangladesh and Vietnam while improving the export ecosystem.

  • The India–United States Trade Framework

    • In February 2026, India and the United States signed an interim framework on reciprocal trade while negotiating a broader Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA).
    • The arrangement gradually reduces tariffs and improves market access for Indian products.
    • The partnership also promotes cooperation in rare earths, semiconductors, and electronics manufacturing.
    • This collaboration strengthens India’s ambition to emerge as a global manufacturing hub and supports expansion of high-technology production and exports.

Integration into Global Value Chains

  • Modern production depends on cross-border supply networks. FTAs reduce barriers on intermediate goods, enabling firms to participate in international supply chains.
  • Access to inputs, components, and advanced equipment improves efficiency and productivity.
  • Sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, and digital services benefit from seamless movement of goods and technology.
  • Integration into global production networks marks a transition from import substitution toward competitive integration in the world economy.

Trade Policy as a Tool of Diplomacy

  • Economic partnerships now reinforce foreign policy objectives.
  • Stronger ties with advanced economies increase India’s role in global economic governance and provide influence in shaping trade standards and regulatory norms.
  • Agreements across multiple regions diversify partnerships and prevent excessive reliance on a single trading partner.
  • Economic interdependence enhances political relationships, strengthens negotiating capacity, and expands India’s international standing.
  • Trade thus functions as both an economic and diplomatic instrument.

Strategic Autonomy and Domestic Development

  • Despite expanding globalization, India continues to emphasize independent decision-making.
  • After opting out of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), a balanced strategy emerged.
  • Domestic production is supported through production-linked incentives (PLI), infrastructure expansion, and manufacturing promotion, while international integration proceeds simultaneously.
  • Diversified partnerships, stronger supply chains, and expanding digital economy activity enhance resilience.
  • The policy combines domestic capacity building with international cooperation, ensuring growth without dependency.

Conclusion

  • India’s trade strategy represents a major reorientation in economic and foreign policy.
  • The country has moved from a cautious, protection-focused system toward proactive engagement with major economies.
  • Agreements with global partners expand exports, improve technology access, and strengthen diplomatic influence.
  • Trade policy now serves as a central pillar of development, enabling the country to emerge as a leading force in the international economic order.

India’s Trade Strategy in a Multipolar World FAQs

Q1. What is the main objective of India’s recent trade strategy?
Ans. The main objective is to expand exports, integrate into global markets, and strengthen India’s position as a major economic power.

Q2. How have India’s free trade agreements changed in recent years?
Ans. India has shifted from limited agreements with developing economies to comprehensive partnerships with advanced economies such as the EU and the United States.

Q3. Why is the India–EU Free Trade Agreement important?
Ans. It improves market access, reduces tariffs on most goods, and enhances competitiveness of Indian industries in international markets.

Q4. How do trade agreements support India’s technological development?
Ans. They promote cooperation in sectors like semiconductors and electronics manufacturing, which strengthens high-technology production.

Q5. What is meant by strategic autonomy in India’s trade policy?
Ans. Strategic autonomy means India engages globally in trade while maintaining independent decision-making and avoiding dependence on any single partner.

Source: The Hindu

Daily Editorial Analysis 25 February 2026 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

C. Rajagopalachari Legacy: Temple Entry Reformer and Hindi Policy Critic Honoured at Rashtrapati Bhavan

February 25, 2026
C. Rajagopalachari

C. Rajagopalachari Latest News

  • President Droupadi Murmu unveiled a statue of C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) in the central courtyard of Rashtrapati Bhavan, replacing the bust of British architect Edwin Lutyens. 
  • The decision, announced by PM Modi, highlighted Rajaji’s legacy of public service, self-restraint, and independent thinking.
  • The move symbolically honours Rajaji’s enduring political and moral influence, recognising him not merely as a statesman but as a leader who viewed power as a responsibility rather than a privilege.

C. Rajagopalachari’s Early Role in the Freedom Movement

  • C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji), born in December 1878 in Thorapalli, Tamil Nadu, grew up in a Tamil-speaking Brahmin family. 
  • Entry into National Politics - Rajaji attended the 1906 Calcutta and 1907 Surat sessions of the Indian National Congress, marking his early engagement with the national movement.
  • Rise in Local Leadership - In 1911, he was elected to the Salem Municipal Council. By 1916, he had joined Annie Besant’s Home Rule League and established its Salem unit. In 1917, he became Chairman of the Salem Municipal Council, reflecting his growing political prominence.
  • Move to Madras and Meeting with Gandhi - In 1919, Rajaji shifted to Madras to expand his public role. There, he met Mahatma Gandhi during his visit, a turning point that would deepen Rajaji’s involvement in the Independence movement.

C. Rajagopalachari: Freedom Struggle and the Rajaji Formula

  • Rowlatt and Non-Cooperation Movements (1919–20) - Rajaji was an early supporter of the Rowlatt Satyagraha in 1919. He later led the Non-Cooperation Movement in Tamil Nadu, giving up his successful legal practice and advocating boycott of elections, institutions, and official titles.
  • Salt Satyagraha in the South (1930) - In April 1930, he led the historic march from Trichy to Vedaranyam as part of the Salt Satyagraha. He was arrested multiple times for defying colonial authorities and distributing satyagraha material.
  • Differences During the Quit India Movement (1942) - While a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, Rajaji differed with him during the Quit India Movement. He doubted that Britain would leave merely in response to slogans and instead advocated a negotiated settlement with the Muslim League.

The Rajaji (CR) Formula

  • Rajaji proposed a Congress–Muslim League agreement, later known as the Rajaji Formula, which Gandhi agreed to consider.
  • Key Provisions
    • The Muslim League would cooperate in forming a provisional government.
    • Congress would accept a post-independence plebiscite in Muslim-majority districts of the North-West and East to decide on Pakistan.
    • In case of partition, mutual agreements would safeguard defence, commerce, and communications.
    • In 1944, Rajaji conveyed Gandhi’s acceptance of the proposal to Muhammad Ali Jinnah. 
    • However, Jinnah rejected it, arguing that the proposed Pakistan was smaller than demanded and conditional upon a plebiscite and treaty arrangements.

Rajagopalachari on Hindi Policy and Temple Entry Reform

  • As Premier of Madras in 1938, Rajaji introduced compulsory Hindi for Classes 6–8, describing it as “chutney on a leaf — to be tasted or left alone.” 
  • Students would not fail for poor performance. However, the move triggered widespread protests.
  • During the anti-Hindi agitations of 1965, Rajaji strongly opposed making Hindi the sole official language. 
  • He criticised its imposition by majority force, arguing English functioned more effectively as a neutral link language. His objection was to coercion, not to Hindi itself.

Champion of Temple Entry and Social Reform

  • Rajaji supported M. C. Rajah’s Bill to remove social disabilities against Dalits, making discrimination in jobs, education, and public access punishable. 
  • He also backed measures enabling temples to be opened to Dalits by majority approval.
  • Though supportive, Rajaji limited the Temple Entry measure initially to the Malabar district, likely to avoid provoking orthodox backlash amid the Hindi controversy.

The Meenakshi Temple Breakthrough (1939)

  • When trustees of the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai showed willingness to admit Dalits but feared legal consequences, Rajaji promised protective legislation. 
  • On July 8, 1939, Dalits entered the temple with official approval.
  • Facing legal challenges and demands for ritual purification, Rajaji introduced the Temple Entry Authorisation and Indemnity Bill (1939), protecting officials who permitted temple access.
  • Soon, several temples in Tanjore and other regions opened their doors to Dalits.

Reformist Outlook

  • Responding to scriptural objections at Srirangam, Rajaji remarked that sacred texts were like an “infinite ocean” from which one could draw either wisdom or prejudice.
  • His stance reflected a reformist vision balancing tradition with social justice while navigating political sensitivities.

Rajaji and the Swatantra Party: A Liberal Alternative to Congress

  • After serving as Home Minister under Jawaharlal Nehru (1950–51), Rajaji grew increasingly critical of Congress policies by the mid-1950s. 
  • He feared that the party’s dominance and statist, centralising approach could weaken democratic balance.
  • Rajaji argued that democracy required a strong Opposition to act as a corrective “brake” on excessive state control. 
  • He believed only a conservative—or, as he preferred, constitutional—party could provide a true democratic counterweight to Congress.

Formation of the Swatantra Party (1959)

  • In August 1959, Rajaji founded the Swatantra Party (Freedom Party). 
  • It evolved from earlier platforms like the Forum for Free Enterprise (1956) and the All India Agriculturalists’ Federation (1958).
  • The Swatantra Party championed free enterprise but rejected unregulated 19th-century laissez-faire capitalism.
  • Rajaji opposed “coercive Soviet-type planning,” advocating regulation and guidance instead of extensive state ownership.
  • Despite promoting liberal economic principles, the party faced criticism. Nehru and others portrayed it as representing feudal and elite interests, dismissing it as a party of “Lords, castles and Zamindars.”

Rajaji’s Enduring Significance

  • Replacing a colonial-era statue with that of C. Rajagopalachari at Rashtrapati Bhavan aligns with the emphasis on cultural nationalism and reinterpreting colonial legacies.

A Bridge from Colonial to Republican India

  • He became Premier under the Government of India Act, 1935.
  • He succeeded Lord Mountbatten as Governor-General in 1948 — the only Indian to hold the post.
  • He served as Chief Minister of Madras (1952–1954).
  • His career reflected India’s transition from colonial rule to sovereign republic.

Intellectual and Cultural Contributions

  • Rajaji is also remembered for his accessible retellings of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, which remain widely read.
  • Rajaji’s conservative outlook, particularly his critique of Nehruvian socialism, resonates with contemporary political currents, including the BJP’s economic and ideological positioning.
  • Respected by both Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajaji was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954 and accorded a state funeral in 1972.
  • His life exemplified “principled flexibility” in politics — balancing conviction with pragmatic adaptation.

Source: IE

C. Rajagopalachari FAQs

Q1: Why is C. Rajagopalachari legacy significant today?

Ans: C. Rajagopalachari legacy represents principled politics, temple entry reform, opposition to coercive language policy, and advocacy of economic liberalism through the Swatantra Party.

Q2: What was C. Rajagopalachari’s role in temple entry reform?

Ans: C. Rajagopalachari legacy includes strong support for Dalit temple entry, protective legislation in 1939, and backing social reform despite orthodox resistance.

Q3: How did C. Rajagopalachari view the Hindi policy?

Ans: C. Rajagopalachari legacy shows he opposed Hindi imposition, supporting linguistic balance and retaining English as a neutral link language.

Q4: What was the Rajaji Formula?

Ans: C. Rajagopalachari legacy includes proposing the Rajaji Formula, suggesting a plebiscite-based solution to the Congress–Muslim League deadlock before Partition.

Q5: Why did Rajagopalachari found the Swatantra Party?

Ans: C. Rajagopalachari legacy reflects his belief in free enterprise and democratic opposition, leading to the formation of the Swatantra Party in 1959.

India–Israel Relations: PM Modi’s Tel Aviv Visit and the Strategic Evolution of Ties

February 25, 2026
India–Israel Relations

India–Israel Relations Latest News

  • Prime Minister Narendra Modi is on an official visit to Israel, marking his first trip there since his landmark 2017 visit (the first-ever by an Indian Prime Minister after diplomatic ties were established). 
    • That visit elevated India-Israel relations into the open and strengthened bilateral cooperation.
  • However, the current visit takes place in a far more tense regional context, with concerns over a possible US-Iran conflict and a fragile ceasefire in Gaza. 
  • Against this backdrop, the visit highlights the evolution of India-Israel ties and underscores their growing strategic significance.

The Early Years: Recognition Without Full Ties

  • India recognised the state of Israel soon after its creation in 1948. 
  • However, full diplomatic relations were delayed for over four decades due to political sensitivities and regional considerations.
    • In January 1992, during Palestinian President Yasser Arafat’s visit to India, Prime Minister P V Narasimha Rao conveyed that diplomatic ties with Israel could strengthen India’s ability to influence the Palestinian cause.
    • Arafat publicly respected India’s sovereign decision, paving the way for a historic shift.
  • India formally established diplomatic relations with Israel on January 29, 1992 — a move that marked a decisive turning point in bilateral relations.

Growing Defence Cooperation

  • India had sourced Israeli weapons during the 1962 war with China, though engagement remained limited and episodic.
  • During the Kargil conflict, Israel swiftly supplied precision bombs from its emergency stockpiles to the Indian Air Force. 
  • This timely support significantly strengthened defence ties.

Political Engagement Deepens (2000–2003)

  • In 2000, India organised high-profile visits to Israel, including External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh and Home Minister L K Advani.
  • To address domestic political concerns, leaders across party lines — including Jyoti Basu and Najma Heptullah — also visited Israel.
  • Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon’s visit to India in September 2003 further consolidated defence and security cooperation.
  • Later, the then External Affairs Minister S M Krishna visited Israel in 2012. 
  • Public discussions focused on science and technology, agriculture, and commerce, while strategic defence ties were kept relatively low-profile.

India–Israel Relations After 2014

  • After assuming office in 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi brought India-Israel ties into the open. 
  • He met Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in New York in September 2014 — the first such meeting in a decade — signalling renewed political engagement.

High-Level Political Exchanges

  • Home Minister Rajnath Singh visited Israel in 2014.
  • President Pranab Mukherjee made the first-ever Indian Presidential visit in 2015.
  • External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj followed in 2016.
  • Over the past decade, several Indian ministers and parliamentarians have also visited Israel.

The 2017 Breakthrough Visit

  • PM Modi’s 2017 visit was historic not only as the first by an Indian Prime Minister but also because he skipped the customary stop in Palestine, signalling a more confident and independent diplomatic stance.
  • His current visit similarly focuses solely on Tel Aviv.

Reciprocal Engagement

  • Prime Minister Netanyahu visited India in January 2018, reinforcing bilateral ties.
  • Since Netanyahu’s re-election, the two leaders have spoken at least 10 times in three years, reflecting sustained high-level engagement.

Expanding Strategic and Economic Cooperation

  • India and Israel have deepened defence ties, evident during Operation Sindoor, and enhanced cooperation in cybersecurity, highlighted during the Pegasus disclosures.
  • In November 2025, both sides signed defence pacts and launched negotiations for a free trade agreement. Cooperation now spans sectors such as artificial intelligence, agriculture, and advanced technologies.

A Shifting Geopolitical Landscape

  • Since PM Modi’s first visit in 2017, West Asia’s geopolitical dynamics have changed significantly. 
  • Israel and several Arab nations have moved toward normalisation under the Abraham Accords signed during Donald Trump’s first term.

Gaza War and Fragile Ceasefire

  • The Hamas attack on October 7, 2023 triggered a prolonged war in Gaza, resulting in massive casualties and destruction.
  • An uneasy truce now holds under a US-backed peace plan, with the key challenge being the disarmament of Hamas.

Rising Iran Tensions

  • Tensions with Iran have intensified following a 12-day Israel-Iran conflict in June 2025, during which the US struck Iranian nuclear facilities.
  • The US has since increased its military presence around Iran, further destabilising the region.

India’s Diplomatic Tightrope

  • PM Modi’s visit comes amid regional turmoil, making it a sensitive diplomatic move. New Delhi must carefully balance costs and benefits.

Importance of Israel for India

  • A crucial defence and security partner.
  • A key economic partner in the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor.
  • A significant regional political player with expanding ties in West Asia.

Regional Sensitivities

  • Iran and other regional nations are closely observing India’s growing proximity to Israel and assessing its implications for their own ties with New Delhi.
  • Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, facing political pressure at home, is projecting the visit as a diplomatic success.

Conclusion

  • PM Modi’s Israel visit unfolds in a volatile regional environment and will be closely watched across West Asia. It reflects India’s effort to navigate complex geopolitical realities while safeguarding its strategic and economic interests.

Source: IE | IE

India–Israel Relations FAQs

Q1: Why are India–Israel relations strategically important?

Ans: India–Israel relations are vital for defence cooperation, cybersecurity, technology, agriculture, and economic connectivity through the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor.

Q2: How did India–Israel relations evolve historically?

Ans: India–Israel relations formally began in 1992, strengthened through defence cooperation during Kargil, and expanded into technology and trade partnerships after 2014.

Q3: What made Modi’s 2017 visit historic?

Ans: India–Israel relations entered a new phase in 2017 when PM Modi made the first standalone visit to Israel, skipping Palestine and signalling strategic maturity.

Q4: How do regional tensions affect India–Israel relations?

Ans: India–Israel relations are shaped by Gaza conflict, Iran tensions, Abraham Accords, and US involvement, requiring careful diplomatic balancing by New Delhi.

Q5: What sectors define modern India–Israel relations?

Ans: Modern India–Israel relations span defence, AI, cybersecurity, agriculture, free trade negotiations, and joint innovation initiatives.

Kerala to Keralam – Constitutional Process and Cultural Assertion

February 25, 2026
Kerala to Keralam

Kerala to Keralam Latest News

  • The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal to rename the State of Kerala as Keralam, reflecting the linguistic and cultural identity of the Malayalam-speaking population. 
  • The proposed Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026 will now be referred to the Kerala Legislative Assembly under Article 3 of the Constitution, after which Parliament will consider the amendment to the First Schedule.
  • The move follows resolutions passed unanimously by the Kerala Assembly in 2023 and 2024 and is seen as an assertion of linguistic identity and historical continuity.

Procedure for Renaming a State

  • Constitutional/ legal basis: Article 3 of the Constitution empowers Parliament to form new states, alter boundaries, change names of states.
  • Steps involved:
    • Proposal initiated by the state government.
    • Examination by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
    • Consultation with departments such as Intelligence Bureau, Survey of India, Registrar General of India, Department of Posts, Ministry of Railways.
    • The President refers the Bill to the State Legislature for views.
    • Introduction and passage of Bill in Parliament.
    • Presidential assent and notification.
  • Current status:
    • The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal.
    • The President will refer the Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026 to the Kerala Assembly.
    • After receiving the Assembly’s views, the Bill will be introduced in Parliament.

Rationale Behind Renaming

  • Linguistic identity: Kerala was created on 1 November 1956 during linguistic reorganisation of states. The state's name in Malayalam is Keralam. Kerala Piravi Day commemorates the state's formation.
  • Constitutional discrepancy: The First Schedule lists the state as "Kerala". Assembly resolutions sought correction to "Keralam".
  • Correction of earlier resolution: The 2023 resolution attempted changes in all Eighth Schedule languages, but technical discrepancies required a fresh resolution in 2024.

Historical Background

  • Origin of the name "Keralam": Several theories exist -
    • Mention in Ashoka’s Rock Edict II (257 BCE) as Keralaputra, linked to the Chera dynasty.
    • Derived from Cheram, referring to the ancient Chera kingdom. Scholar Herman Gundert linked "Keralam" to Cheram, meaning "joined land". "Alam" denotes land or region.
  • Movement for a unified Kerala:
    • Aikya Kerala movement: Began in the 1920s, demanding unification of Malayalam-speaking areas - Malabar, Kochi, Travancore.
    • Formation of Kerala: Travancore and Kochi merged in 1949. State Reorganisation Commission (Fazl Ali Commission) recommended formation of Kerala. Kerala officially formed in 1956 on linguistic basis.

Administrative and Political Dimensions

  • Union Cabinet decision: The name change decision was approved at the first Cabinet meeting held at Seva Teerth (new PMO complex). It is seen as reflecting the “will of the people”, and is supported across political parties in Kerala.
  • Seva Sankalp resolution: The cabinet adopted a governance pledge inspired by "Nagrik Devo Bhava", emphasising citizen-centric governance, transparency and service orientation.

Concerns and Significance

  • Concerns/ challenges:
    • Administrative adjustments: Changes required in official records, government documents, maps and surveys, educational materials, etc.
    • Past proposals have failed: 2018 proposal to rename West Bengal as Bangla was rejected due to similarity with Bangladesh.
    • Political timing: Decision comes ahead of Kerala Assembly elections, raising political interpretations.
  • Significance:
    • Cultural significance: Reinforces linguistic federalism. Strengthens regional identity within the Union.
    • Federalism dimension: Demonstrates cooperative federalism - State initiative, Central approval, Parliamentary process.
    • Historical continuity: Aligns constitutional nomenclature with historical usage.

Conclusion

  • The proposed renaming of Kerala to Keralam represents a symbolic but significant exercise in linguistic federalism and cultural recognition. 
  • While the change requires constitutional formalities and administrative adjustments, it aligns the state's constitutional identity with its historical and linguistic reality, reinforcing India's pluralistic federal structure.

Source: IE | IE

Kerala to Keralam FAQs

Q1: What is the constitutional procedure for renaming a state in India?

Ans: Renaming a state requires a law passed by Parliament under Article 3 of the Constitution.

Q2: What is the significance of the proposal to rename Kerala as Keralam?

Ans: The renaming reflects linguistic identity and aligns the constitutional name of the state with its Malayalam usage, strengthening linguistic federalism.

Q3: What are the historical roots of the demand for a unified Kerala state?

Ans: The Aikya Kerala movement of the 1920s sought to unite Malayalam-speaking regions.

Q4: Why does renaming a state require constitutional amendment while renaming cities does not?

Ans: State names are listed in the First Schedule of the Constitution, whereas city names can be changed through executive decisions.

Q5: What are the administrative challenges associated with renaming a state in India?

Ans: Renaming requires extensive updates to official records, legal documents, maps, and government databases across multiple institutions.

The Evolving Nature of Trade Agreements – Explained

February 25, 2026
Trade Agreements

Trade Agreements Latest News

  • The evolving nature of trade agreements has gained attention after the United States signed several “Agreements on Reciprocal Trade” (ARTs), including a proposed deal with India, raising questions about their compatibility with WTO rules. 

Trade Agreements and Global Trade Governance

  • Trade agreements formalise economic relations between countries by reducing tariffs, setting regulatory standards, and facilitating market access. 
  • Traditionally, international trade governance has revolved around the multilateral framework established under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and later the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
  • However, recent developments indicate the emergence of new forms of trade arrangements that differ from conventional Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). 
  • The U.S., under President Donald Trump, has labelled its recent deals as “Agreements on Reciprocal Trade” (ARTs), creating what appears to be a new typology in international trade law.
  • This shift has significant implications for global trade multilateralism.

Multilateral Trade Framework under GATT and WTO

  • The GATT, established in 1947, laid the foundation for a non-discriminatory global trading regime. 
  • Its core principle is the Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) rule, which mandates that any trade concession granted to one member must be extended to all other WTO members.
  • The formation of the WTO in 1995 institutionalised this framework by:
    • Expanding coverage from goods to services (GATS) and intellectual property (TRIPS).
    • Creating a binding dispute settlement mechanism.
    • Adopting a one-country-one-vote decision-making principle.
  • For developing countries, the WTO system provides a platform to negotiate collectively and challenge unfair trade practices.
  • Multilateralism, therefore, is designed to ensure predictability, transparency, and fairness in global trade.

Preferential Trade Agreements and WTO Exceptions

  • While the WTO is built on non-discrimination, it permits certain exceptions under Article XXIV of GATT. These include Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) & Customs Unions (CUs).
  • Such arrangements allow countries to grant preferential tariff treatment to specific partners without extending the same to all WTO members. However, these agreements must meet strict conditions:
    • They must cover “substantially all trade” between members.
    • Customs unions must adopt a common external tariff.
  • Over the past three decades, FTAs have proliferated. Examples include large regional groupings such as the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). 
  • Many modern FTAs are WTO-plus, meaning they extend beyond tariff reductions to include labour standards, environmental commitments, and investment protection.
  • Although FTAs deviate from MFN principles, they are notified to the WTO, allowing scrutiny and transparency.

Agreements on Reciprocal Trade

  • The ARTs introduced by the U.S. represent a departure from established WTO-compatible FTAs. Key features include:
    • They are not signed under Article XXIV of GATT.
    • They are not notified to the WTO.
    • They operate independently of multilateral oversight.
  • ARTs reflect an “America First” trade policy. While the U.S. continues to impose tariffs that may not align with WTO commitments, partner countries are reportedly pressured into reducing or eliminating tariffs on U.S. goods.
  • This asymmetry raises concerns about fairness and legal legitimacy.

WTO-Plus and One-Sided Provisions

  • ARTs also contain WTO-plus and unilateral clauses that expand obligations for partner countries. For instance:
    • Certain provisions reportedly require partner countries to adopt complementary trade restrictions if the U.S. invokes national security measures.
    • Some ARTs restrict data sovereignty by prohibiting customs duties on electronic transmissions.
  • These provisions may bind smaller economies more tightly to U.S. strategic and economic interests.
  • Unlike WTO-compliant FTAs, ARTs do not provide an institutional mechanism for third-party review or dispute settlement within the WTO framework. This reduces transparency and weakens global oversight.

Implications for India and Developing Countries

  • India has traditionally supported multilateralism while simultaneously pursuing bilateral FTAs with partners such as the EU, the U.K., and Australia.
  • The proposed India-U.S. trade deal raises important policy questions:
    • Should India enter into an ART-style agreement that may fall outside WTO norms?
    • How can India safeguard tariff policy autonomy and digital sovereignty?
    • What are the long-term implications for developing countries if multilateral rules are bypassed?
  • Developing countries benefit from the WTO’s collective bargaining structure. A shift toward unilateral or reciprocal trade arrangements may fragment global trade governance and reduce policy space for smaller economies.

Broader Trends in Trade Governance

  • The global trading system is witnessing three parallel trends:
    • Multilateral stagnation due to deadlock in WTO negotiations and weakening of the dispute settlement system.
    • Rise of bilateral and regional FTAs, many of which are comprehensive and WTO-plus.
    • Emergence of unilateral reciprocal deals, which may not conform to WTO norms.
  • This evolution reflects geopolitical competition and strategic economic policymaking.
  • If ART-style agreements become widespread, they may undermine the foundational principle of non-discrimination and erode the legitimacy of the WTO.

Source: TH

Trade Agreements FAQs

Q1: What is the core principle of the WTO trading system?

Ans: The WTO is based on the Most-Favoured-Nation (MFN) principle of non-discrimination.

Q2: What does Article XXIV of GATT allow?

Ans: It permits Free Trade Agreements and Customs Unions as exceptions to MFN rules.

Q3: What are Agreements on Reciprocal Trade (ARTs)?

Ans: ARTs are bilateral trade deals signed by the U.S. that operate outside Article XXIV of GATT and are not notified to the WTO.

Q4: How do ARTs differ from conventional FTAs?

Ans: Unlike FTAs, ARTs lack WTO linkage, oversight, and adherence to multilateral conditions.

Q5: Why are ARTs considered legally controversial?

Ans: They may violate WTO obligations and bypass established multilateral trade norms.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act 1988, Provisions, Significance

February 25, 2026
61st Constitutional Amendment Act

The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988, is a landmark reform in India’s democratic framework that lowered the voting age from 21 years to 18 years. This amendment, enacted during the tenure of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, expanded political participation among India’s youth, empowering millions of young citizens with the right to vote. It symbolized India’s commitment to deepening democracy by ensuring inclusivity and encouraging political awareness among younger generations.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988

The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act was passed by Parliament on March 28, 1989, and came into effect on March 28, 1989. It amended Article 326 of the Indian Constitution, which governs elections to the House of the People (Lok Sabha) and State Legislative Assemblies based on adult suffrage. Before this amendment, the minimum voting age was 21 years. The Act reduced this to 18 years, acknowledging the evolving maturity, awareness, and participation of India’s youth in the nation’s socio-political discourse.

This reform was rooted in the idea that youth form a vital segment of the population capable of shaping national policies and democratic institutions. With this change, a large number of new voters were added to India’s electoral rolls during the 1989 General Elections, marking a turning point in the political landscape.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Historical Background

India’s democratic evolution since independence has been marked by expanding rights and inclusivity. When the Constitution came into effect in 1950, the voting age was fixed at 21 years, reflecting post-independence caution regarding administrative readiness and citizens’ literacy levels.

However, by the 1980s, India had undergone significant socio-economic transformation. The literacy rate improved, communication networks expanded, and political awareness deepened through mass media. Youth-led movements like the JP Movement (1974) and student activism during the Emergency (1975-77) demonstrated that the young population was both politically conscious and socially engaged.

Recognizing this, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and the Congress government sought to harness this energy through democratic inclusion. The Statement of Objects and Reasons attached to the Amendment Bill highlighted that lowering the voting age would “provide an opportunity to the unrepresented youth of the country to express their feelings and help in shaping the destiny of the nation.”

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Provisions

The 61st Amendment Act is concise, containing only one operative clause:

  • Amendment to Article 326: The phrase “twenty-one years” was substituted with “eighteen years” in Article 326. This change applied to both parliamentary and state assembly elections, ensuring uniformity in the voting age across all levels of government.
  • Key Aspects:
    • The amendment does not affect eligibility to contest elections, which continues to be governed by Articles 84 and 173.
    • It aligns with global democratic standards, as many democracies, including the United States (1971) and the United Kingdom (1969), had already reduced their voting age to 18 years.
    • It reflects a progressive expansion of democratic rights, similar to the 42nd and 44th Amendments, which focused on the rights and duties of citizens.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Significance

The 61st Amendment holds immense constitutional, social, and political importance. It marked a generational shift in Indian democracy, making it more participatory and reflective of the nation’s demographic composition. Major Significances:

  1. Democratic Deepening: Strengthened India’s democratic base by expanding the electorate to include younger citizens.
  2. Youth Empowerment: Recognized youth as an active force in shaping governance and policy.
  3. Political Awareness: Promoted civic education and engagement among the young population.
  4. Global Alignment: Brought India in line with democratic norms worldwide regarding voting age.
  5. Increased Representation: Added millions of new voters, influencing electoral outcomes and political strategies.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Impact

The 61st Amendment altered India’s democratic framework by broadening the definition of “adult suffrage.” Article 326, under Part XV (Elections), ensures that elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies are based on adult suffrage. By redefining adulthood from 21 to 18 years, the Act:

Legal and Constitutional Impact:

  1. Expanded the electoral base by nearly 20%.
  2. Reinforced the principle of equality under Article 14, ensuring equal participation rights.
  3. Strengthened the fundamental right to participate in public affairs, indirectly upholding the spirit of democracy enshrined in the Preamble and Article 19.

Political and Social Impact:

  1. Increased Youth Representation: Political parties began incorporating youth-centric policies and manifestos, recognizing young voters as a significant constituency.
  2. Rise of Student Politics: University-level political activities gained greater legitimacy, feeding into national politics through parties like the NSUI, ABVP, and SFI.
  3. Policy Reorientation: Post-1989, governments introduced several youth-oriented programs, such as the Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS), Skill India Mission, and National Youth Policy (2014), promoting youth empowerment.
  4. Electoral Participation: Data from the Election Commission (2019) show that youth voter turnout has steadily increased, with nearly 55-60% participation among first-time voters in recent elections.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Global Perspective

Globally, the movement to lower the voting age was driven by similar democratic ideals. India’s reform followed a global democratic trend, highlighting its alignment with international standards of youth inclusion in governance.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Global Perspective
Country Year of Lowering Voting Age Previous Age New Age

United Kingdom

1969

21

18

United States

1971 (26th Amendment)

21

18

France

1974

21

18

India

1988

21

18

Japan

2015

20

18

61st Constitutional Amendment Act Challenges

While the amendment was widely welcomed, certain concerns and challenges have persisted:

  1. Political Manipulation: Critics argue that political parties often exploit young voters with populist promises.
  2. Lack of Civic Education: Many first-time voters lack awareness about democratic processes and their responsibilities.
  3. Urban-Rural Divide: Limited voter education in rural areas can hinder informed participation.
  4. Low Turnout: Despite inclusion, young voter turnout remains inconsistent, as per ECI reports.
  5. Digital Misinformation: The rise of social media has exposed young voters to fake news and ideological polarization.

Way Forward:

  1. Civic Education in Schools: Incorporate electoral literacy in the national curriculum under the National Education Policy (NEP 2020).
  2. Youth Voter Awareness Programs: Expand ECI’s Systematic Voters’ Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP) initiative to enhance informed participation.
  3. Political Accountability: Encourage issue-based campaigns rather than personality-driven politics.
  4. Digital Literacy: Combat misinformation through official awareness campaigns and collaborations with tech platforms.
  5. Engaging Youth in Governance: Promote youth representation in local bodies and advisory councils to sustain democratic engagement.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act UPSC

The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988, remains one of the most transformative milestones in India’s democratic journey. By lowering the voting age from 21 to 18, it not only empowered youth but also redefined India’s political dynamics. The reform broadened participation, deepened representation, and aligned India with global democratic norms. Even decades later, it continues to shape the spirit of inclusive governance and citizen empowerment envisioned by the Constitution.

  • According to the Election Commission of India (ECI), the number of registered voters increased from 36.5 crore in 1984 to 49.8 crore in 1989, a rise primarily due to the inclusion of youth aged 18-21.
  • As per the Census of India 1991, nearly 35% of India’s population fell within the age group of 15-34 years, underscoring the demographic potential tapped by the amendment.
  • The 1989 General Elections witnessed one of the highest levels of first-time youth participation in Indian electoral history.
  • The ECI’s “India Votes” report (2020) highlights that voters aged 18-25 today constitute nearly 15% of the total electorate, making them a decisive group in elections.
  • In 2024, the Election Commission of India launched a digital voter registration system, simplifying the process for first-time voters aged 18-21.
  • According to NITI Aayog (2023), India’s median age is 28.4 years, reinforcing the demographic importance of young voters.
  • The Lok Sabha Elections 2024 recorded over 1.85 crore first-time voters, reflecting the continued success of the amendment’s intent.

61st Constitutional Amendment Act FAQs

Q1: What is the 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988?

Ans: It reduced the minimum voting age in India from 21 to 18 years by amending Article 326 of the Constitution.

Q2: When was the 61st Amendment implemented?

Ans: The amendment came into effect on March 28, 1989.

Q3: Who introduced the 61st Constitutional Amendment Bill?

Ans: The amendment was introduced by the Rajiv Gandhi-led government.

Q4: How did the 61st Amendment affect voter participation?

Ans: It added a large number of new voters during the 1989 General Elections, significantly expanding electoral participation.

Q5: Why was the voting age reduced to 18 years?

Ans: It was reduced to recognize the maturity, awareness, and democratic rights of India’s young citizens.

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