2025 for January 1970

Goods and Services Tax, History, Components, Benefits

December 3, 2025

The Goods and Services Tax was an important reform introduced on 1st July 2017 by the Government of India to reform the indirect tax structure of the country. This new initiative also helped in improving Ease of Doing Business (EoDB) of India as well as unified and simplified the existing tax system. In this article, we are going to study about the Goods and Services Tax, its features, objectives and benefits.

Goods and Services Tax (GST)

Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services for domestic consumption across India.
While consumers pay this tax at the point of purchase, it is collected and deposited with the government by the businesses providing these goods and services. GST has unified and replaced a range of previous indirect taxes levied by both the Central and State Governments.
It is implemented nationwide and is based on the principle of value addition at each stage of the supply chain.

GST History and Evolution in India

The Kelkar Task Force on Indirect Tax, suggested the implementation of Goods and Services Tax in 2003, on the lines of Value Added Tax.
In 2006, the National Goods and Services Tax implementation was suggested in the Budget Speech.
The ‘One Nation One Tax’ system bill was introduced in 2014 as the 122nd Amendment. The bill got passed in 2016.
The Goods and Services Tax was finally implemented in India on 1st July 2017.

Goods and Services Tax Constitutional Framework

In 2014, the Goods and Services Tax was introduced in the Parliament in order to provide it a constitutional status. The bill got passed in 2016 as the Constitutional 101st Amendment Act. This amendment brought in 3 new articles to the constitution:

Article 246A- The Parliament and State Legislatures both get concurrent powers to make laws about GST. The Parliament will have the power to legislate in inter state trade of goods and services.
Article 269A- the inter-state trade is collected by the central government and then distributed between the centre and state on the basis of the numbers recommended by the GST Council.
Article 279A- The President of India has the power to outline the functioning and composition of the GST Council.

Goods and Services Tax Features

Tax on Supply, Not Sale or Manufacture:
GST is levied on the supply of goods and services, unlike the earlier regime where tax was imposed at multiple stages like manufacture or sale.
Destination-Based Consumption Tax:
GST follows the destination principle—tax revenue goes to the state where goods or services are consumed, not where they are produced.
Dual GST Structure:
India has adopted a dual model, allowing both the Centre and States to levy GST simultaneously on a common base.
Four Components of GST:

CGST (Central Goods & Services Tax)
SGST (State Goods & Services Tax)
UTGST (Union Territory GST)
IGST (Integrated GST on inter-state supply)

Harmonised Tax Rates:
Tax rates are finalized through mutual agreement between the Centre and States, based on GST Council recommendations.
Multiple Tax Slabs:
Different goods and services are taxed under various slabs—currently, 7 for goods and 5 for services.
Threshold Exemptions:
Small businesses with turnover below specified limits are exempt from GST. The exact exemption threshold varies by category and region.

Goods and Services Tax Components

The Goods and Services Tax can be be divided into 4 components:

Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST)

Levied on intra-state and intra-UT on Goods and services.
The Central Government can levy as well as collect this tax.
All the transactions occurring all over India are to charge this tax alongside the State GST.
CGST is charged uniformly all over the country.

State Goods and Services Tax (SGST)

The State Government levies and collects this tax from their respective states.
Applied on all transactions happening in the state along with CGST.
The state government has the power to decide their own rates.

Union Territories Goods and Services Tax (UTGST)

The Union Territory that has its own legislature can collect this tax.
CGST is also collected alongside the UT translation.
Each union territory has the authority to decide their own GST rates.

Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST)

Levied on inter-state supply of goods and services. This is also known as a combined tax.
The central government levies and collects this tax and the collected amount is distributed between the centre and the state.
The IGST rate remains uniform all over the country.

Indirect Taxes Subsumed under GST

The following indirect taxes are subsumed under the GST:

Central Taxes Subsumed under GST

The Goods and Services Tax replaced the following taxes levied and collected by the Centre:

Service Tax
Central Sales Tax
Central Excise Duty
Duties of Excise (Medicinal and Toiletries Preparations)
Additional Duties of Excise (Goods of Special Importance)
Additional Duties of Excise (Textiles and Textile Products)
Additional Duties of Customs (commonly known as CVD)
Special Additional Duty of Customs (SAD)
Central Surcharges and Cess, so far as they relate to the supply of goods and services.

State Taxes Subsumed under GST

State taxes subsumed under the Goods and Services Tax are:

State VAT/Sales Tax
Purchase Tax
Entertainment and Amusement Tax (other than those levied by the local bodies)
Luxury Tax
Octroi Duty and all other forms of Entry Tax
Taxes on lotteries, betting and gambling
Mandi Tax
Taxes on advertisements
State Surcharges and Cess, so far as they relate to the supply of goods and services.

Taxes Exempted from GST

While maximum indirect taxes have been subsumed under the Goods and Services tax, there are a few taxes that still stand independent. These taxes are:

Basic Customs Duty charged on goods imported in India.
Surcharge on Customs Duty.
Customs Cess.
Motor Vehicle Tax.
Stamp Duty.
Excise Duty on Liquor (which is levied by State Governments)
Excise Duty on Petroleum Products (which is levied by Central Government)
VAT on Petroleum Products
VAT on Tobacco Products
Anti-Dumping Duty and Safeguard Duty
Toll Tax and Entertainment Tax levied by Local Bodies

Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council)

The 101st Constitutional Amendment Act introduced Article 279A, empowering the President to establish the GST Council to oversee the implementation and administration of the GST framework in India.

The GST Council plays a central role in recommending key aspects of GST—such as tax rates, exemptions, laws, and procedural rules.

To explore the composition, functioning, and powers of the GST Council in detail, refer to our comprehensive article on the GST Council.

Goods and Services Tax Benefits

The implementation of Goods and Services taxes had the following benefits:

Establishment of a Unified National Market: By subsuming numerous Central and State taxes into a single tax structure, GST has facilitated the formation of a seamless national market.
Elimination of Cascading Taxes: GST has removed the burden of tax-on-tax, thereby reducing overall tax incidence and improving business efficiency.
Boost to Competitiveness: Lower indirect tax rates have enhanced the cost competitiveness of Indian goods and services, both domestically and globally.

For Business and Industry

Simplified Compliance: GST is supported by a robust IT infrastructure, streamlining return filing and tax payments.
Uniform Taxation: Harmonized tax rates and structures across the country bring predictability and reduce complexities.
Enhanced Competitiveness: Lower transaction costs and removal of cascading taxes improve overall business efficiency and competitiveness.

For Central and State Governments

Simplified Administration: Replaces multiple indirect taxes with a single tax, making the system easier to manage through a unified digital platform.
Reduced Tax Evasion: Digital trail and simplified procedures enhance transparency and reduce leakages.
Improved Revenue Efficiency: Lower cost of tax collection and increased compliance lead to more efficient revenue mobilization.

For Consumers

Lower Tax Burden: Elimination of tax-on-tax and rationalized rates reduce the overall tax burden on goods and services.
Price Stability: Transparency and efficiency help curb inflationary pressures, offering relief to end consumers.

For States

Wider Tax Base: States can now tax the full value chain, including services, expanding their revenue scope.
Greater Revenue Autonomy: Empowered to tax the fast-growing service sector, boosting state revenues.
Investment Boost: As a destination-based tax, GST benefits consuming states and enhances the investment climate.
Higher Compliance: Uniform tax rates across states discourage tax arbitrage and improve tax discipline.

Goods and Services Tax FAQs

Q1: What is the meaning of Goods and Services Tax?

Ans: GST is a comprehensive indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services across India.

Q2: What is the GST tax in India?

Ans: GST in India is a multi-stage, destination-based tax that replaces multiple indirect taxes and is levied at every point of sale.

Q3: How can I check my GST status online?

Ans: You can check your GST status on the official GST portal: www.gst.gov.in using your GSTIN or PAN.

Q4: Who heads the GST Council?

Ans: The Union Finance Minister is the Chairperson of the GST Council.

Q5: What are the benefits of GST implementation?

Ans: GST simplifies taxation, reduces tax cascading, promotes ease of doing business, and creates a unified national market.

Appiko Movement, History, Background, Objectives, Impact

December 3, 2025

Appiko means "to embrace" in Kannada, similar movement initiated just like the famous Chipko Movement in North India. In 1983, villagers from Salkani village in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, hugged trees and refused to let them be felled. Leading this southern "hug the trees" movement was environmentalist Panduranga Hegde. Over the next months, their grassroots campaign protected crucial parts of the Western Ghats, reversed deforestation policies, and promoted a broader ecological awakening.

Appiko Movement About

The Appiko Movement took place in September 1983, when men, women, and children gathered to prevent loggers from cutting trees in the Kalase forest near Salkani. It was a peaceful, culturally rooted protest. This movement succeeded in protecting tree felling through nonviolent, direct action and community resolve.

Appiko Movement History

In 1950, the forests of Uttara Kannada covered over 81% of its land. Over the decades, this rich forest was cleared to make way for pulp and paper mills, plywood factories, and hydropower projects, industries that removed both trees and livelihoods.
By 1980, less than 25% of original natural forests remained. Farmers suffered too: spice cultivation depended on leaf manure, dam projects displaced local communities, and bamboo were disappearing.
People recognized the link between environmental degradation and poverty. Development has become similar to exploitation which resulted in villagers initiating a Chipko-style resistance, demanding a stop to green‑tree felling.

Who Started the Appiko Movement?

Appiko Movement was initiated by Panduranga Hegde, a local environmentalist trained in Delhi and inspired by the Chipko Movement. On 8 September 1983, hundreds from Sirsi Taluk marched 8 km into Kalase forest and began surrounding trees to stop the loggers from cutting them.The practice of hugging trees took on a uniquely Kannada life as Appiko Chaluvali.

Appiko Movement Key Figures

Panduranga Hegde was the movement leader and environmentalist whose leadership, research, and mobilizing skills brought clarity, discipline, and direction.
Sunderlal Bahuguna was a Chipko veteran who visited Karnataka in 1979, supported Appiko's philosophy and helped it gain national momentum. His partnership with Hegde led to a 1989 ban on green felling in Western Ghats forests.

Appiko Movement Causes

Appiko Movement Causes are complex ecological, economic, and social stresses which includes:

Cutting trees for timber, paper, plywood, and dams led to massive forest loss transforming renewable resources into non‑renewable scars.
Deforestation caused soil erosion, disrupted water systems, and reduced yields in agriculture and spice cultivation.
Tribal families and farmers who needed bamboo, leaf manure, fuelwood, herbs saw their survival under threat.
State-led forestry ignored traditional rights, neglected the forest communities.
The success of the Chipko Movement provided both a model and moral courage to act in the south.

Appiko Movement Objectives

Built around the incentives to Ulisu, Belasu, Balasu ("Save, Grow, Use rationally"), Appiko focused on:

Protecting existing forest cover
Promoting natural regeneration of indigenous species
Ensuring sustainable use of non-timber forest resources such as bamboo and medicinal plants.
Through cultural performances, educational slideshows, marches, street theatre in forests and villages.
Planting fast-yielding native saplings of the "Five F's": Fruit, Fodder, Fuelwood, Fertilizer (leaf litter), Fiber.

Appiko Movement Methods and Strategies

The Appiko Movement involves a range of innovative, community-driven methods to protect forests and promote environmental awareness. Rooted in nonviolent resistance, its strategies combined traditional practices with modern outreach techniques. The following table highlights key Appiko Movement Methods and Strategies and their descriptions that was impactful and unique in India’s environmental history.

Appiko Movement Methods and Strategies
Tactic/Strategy	Description
Tree-Hugging	Nonviolent resistance by forming human chains around trees marked for felling
Padayatras & Cultural Outreach	Awareness through village walks, street plays, folk performances, and festivals to connect with locals
Educational Campaigns	Use of slideshows and exhibits in forest interiors to explain ecological importance scientifically
Tree-Growing Schemes	Community-led afforestation—e.g., 1.2 million saplings planted in Sirsi (1984–85)
Policy Engagement	Hegde's collaboration with forest departments and DFID led to Karnataka’s green-felling ban in 1990

Appiko Movement Impact

Karnataka responded in 1990 with a ban on green‑tree cutting in its evergreen forests which was a win for Appiko.
The emphasis on traditional sapling planting fruitful, fodder-yielding, fiber-producing reconnected livelihoods with conservation.
Saving bamboo, medicinal species, and forest fruits secured jobs and incomes for local artisans and farmers.
Appiko sparked campaigns in Karnataka, Goa, Eastern Tamil Nadu, and also inspired similar movements elsewhere, reinforcing the power of decentralized people's movements.
It helped communities reclaim rights over forest resources, prompted forest policy reforms, and shaped national discourse on sustainable development.

Appiko Movement FAQs

Q1: How did Appiko differ from Chipko?

Ans: Chipko began in the Himalayas in 1973; Appiko followed in 1983 in Southern India. Though both used tree-hugging, Appiko added cultural outreach and community-based regeneration reflecting the Western Ghats context.

Q2: Who was Panduranga Hegde?

Ans: A chartered accountant-turned-activist, trained in Delhi and Gandhian philosophy. Hegde pioneered Appiko, collaborated with Bahuguna, and influenced forest conservation policy at multiple levels.

Q3: What does “Ulisu, Belasu, Balasu” mean?

Ans: A Kannada slogan meaning “Save, Grow, Use Rationally” that guided Appiko’s approach to forest conservation and livelihoods.

Q4: Why was bamboo significant?

Ans: Bamboo was a staple resource for local crafts, construction, and income. Its decline threatened local economies and cultural practices.

Q5: What was the long-term result of Appiko?

Ans: Beyond the 1990 felling ban, Appiko helped institutionalize community engagement in forestry and inspired policy and legal frameworks that granted villages a stake in forest management.

Rise of Nationalism in India, Major Events, Significance

December 3, 2025

The Rise of Nationalism in India marked a turning point in the country’s history. It began taking shape in the late 19th century, when Indians started developing a shared sense of identity and purpose against British rule. What began as an awakening of collective unity soon grew into a powerful movement that challenged colonial domination. This spirit of nationalism not only inspired reforms and resistance but also laid the groundwork for the freedom struggle that contributed to independence in 1947.

Nationalism in India

Nationalism is the belief and movement that stresses loyalty and devotion to one’s nation. It calls on people to unite around shared identity, history, language, culture, and common aspirations. Often, nationalism grows stronger when a country faces domination or injustice at the hands of outside powers. At its core, it stands for self-rule and collective unity.

Nationalism in India took shape as a response to British colonial rule. The experience of foreign exploitation gradually made Indians recognize their shared past and common future. Literature, social reform, and cultural revival nurtured this collective spirit. Over time, this idea of unity transformed into a powerful movement that bound Indians together in the struggle for independence.

Rise of Nationalism in India

Several developments in the 19th and early 20th centuries pushed Indians toward nationalism:

British Rule and Exploitation: Heavy taxation, economic drain, and racial discrimination bred deep resentment.
Western Education: Exposure to ideas of liberty, equality, and democracy from European revolutions inspired educated Indians to demand similar rights.
Economic Hardship: The collapse of Indian handicrafts, decline of industries, and suffering of farmers revealed the exploitative nature of colonial rule.
Social and Religious Reform Movements: Thinkers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda fought social evils and revived cultural pride, fostering unity.
Rise of the Press: Regional newspapers and journals spread nationalist thought, evaluate British policies, and mobilise public opinion.
Indian National Congress (1885): Provided a common political platform for Indians to voice grievances and demand reforms.
Racial Discrimination: Unequal treatment in jobs, education, and law reinforced the need for collective resistance.

Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events

The growth of nationalism in India was not sudden but shaped through a series of turning points. Each major event deepened the people’s resolve against colonial rule and brought India closer to freedom. The table below highlights Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events:

Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events
Event	Year	Significance
Formation of Indian National Congress	1885	Created a political platform for Indians; initially sought reforms but later led the independence struggle.
Partition of Bengal	1905	Sparked the Swadeshi Movement; promoted boycott of British goods and use of indigenous products.
Home Rule Movement	1916	Led by Tilak and Annie Besant, popularized the demand for self-rule across India.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre	1919	Massacre of unarmed civilians by British troops in Amritsar; intensified anti-British sentiment.
Non-Cooperation Movement	1920-22	Gandhi’s nationwide movement; boycott of British institutions and goods; united masses in resistance.
Civil Disobedience Movement (Salt March)	1930-34	Gandhi’s Salt March challenged colonial salt laws; inspired widespread nonviolent protest.
Quit India Movement	1942	“Do or Die” call by Gandhi; demanded immediate independence; marked the final mass struggle before 1947.

Legacy of Indian Nationalism

The Indian Nationalist Movement left behind more than just independence in 1947, it gave Indians a new sense of identity and purpose. Its impact can be seen in several ways:

Unity in Diversity: It brought together people across castes, religions, and regions, shaping a collective national identity.
Democratic Foundations: The values of liberty, justice, and democracy that guided the struggle later became pillars of the Indian Constitution.
Social Reform and Awareness: The movement raised awareness against caste discrimination, untouchability, and gender inequality.
Inspiration for Future Movements: It became a model for other colonies, proving that peaceful mass resistance could succeed.

Empowerment of Common People: Farmers, workers, students, and women actively participated, discovering their ability to drive change.

Rise of Nationalism in India FAQs

Q1: What is the rise of nationalism in India?

Ans: The rise of nationalism in India was the growing unity and political consciousness against British rule, leading to movements for independence and self-determination.

Q2: What was the main idea of the rise of nationalism?

Ans: The main idea was to unite Indians across regions, religions, and languages against colonial exploitation, demanding political rights, economic freedom, and ultimately self-rule and independence.

Q3: What was the rise of nationalism in 10th class?

Ans: In 10th class history, rise of nationalism explains how colonial oppression, social reforms, and movements like Swadeshi inspired unity, political awakening, and struggles for India’s freedom.

Q4: When was nationalism started in India?

Ans: Nationalism in India started in the late 19th century with the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, slowly uniting Indians against British dominance.

Q5: Who is the father of nationalism?

Ans: Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the father of Indian nationalism for his assertive politics, inspiring slogan “Swaraj is my birthright,” and leadership in independence movements.

Heat Budget of Earth, Definition, Components, Impact, Significance

December 3, 2025

The Heat Budget of Earth, also called Energy or Radiation Budget, is the important balance between the incoming solar radiation (energy from the Sun) and the outgoing infrared radiation (heat energy leaving the Earth and Atmosphere). The dynamic equilibrium maintains the stability of the climate and average temperature of the earth (15° C). Without this balance, the earth would continuously heat or cool, making life difficult. Even a small imbalance of 0.5 to 1 W/m² can intensify global warming, as highlighted by IPCC AR6.

Heat Budget of Earth

The concept of the Heat Budget of Earth is governed by the First Law of Thermodynamics, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. To maintain the thermal equilibrium of the Earth over a long duration, the total energy received must be equal to the total energy lost. The Sun is the primary source of energy for the Earth, supplying around 1,361 W/m² of solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere (Solar Constant). This energy undergoes reflection, scattering, absorption, and re-emission, creating this balance.

Heat Budget of Earth Components

The Heat Budget of Earth explains how incoming solar energy is balanced by outgoing heat, helping maintain the planet’s overall temperature and climatic stability. The major components are listed below:

Insolation: Solar energy reaching Earth’s surface from the Sun, influencing heating patterns and driving atmospheric processes that keep the planet’s thermal system regulated.
Reflection: A portion of sunlight bounces off clouds, land, or water back to space, preventing heat absorption and helping regulate Earth’s temperature naturally.
Absorption: Land, water, and atmospheric gases take in solar radiation, convert it into heat, and warm the surface and lower atmosphere effectively.
Scattering: Tiny particles and air molecules spread incoming sunlight in various directions, reducing direct solar intensity and affecting sky brightness and visibility.
Terrestrial Radiation: Earth’s surface releases longwave infrared heat back toward the atmosphere and space, maintaining balance between absorbed solar energy and outgoing heat.
Latent Heat Transfer: Heat energy moves during evaporation or condensation processes, carrying stored heat through atmospheric moisture and redistributing energy without temperature change.
Sensible Heat Transfer: Heat shifts between Earth’s surface and air when temperatures differ, warming or cooling the atmosphere without any change in physical state.
Emission by Vapour and Clouds: Water vapour and clouds release infrared radiation, contributing to Earth’s outgoing heat and helping moderate atmospheric temperatures day and night.

Heat Budget of Earth Mechanism

The balance is often expressed in terms of 100 units (as 100%) of incoming solar radiation to track how this energy is distributed. The total 100 units of incoming shortwave solar radiation are processed by the Earth and its atmosphere in the following manner:

Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation)

The total solar radiation is 35 (reflected) + 14 (atmospheric absorption) + 51 (surface absorption) = 100 units.

Scattering and Reflection: Around 35 units of the Sun’s energy is lost to space due to reflection and scattering, forming the Earth’s overall albedo.

1. - Nearly 27 units are bounced back by cloud tops.
  - Close to 2 units are reflected from bright surfaces such as ice sheets, snowfields, and land.
  - About 6 units are scattered in different directions by atmospheric dust, aerosols, and air molecules.

Absorption: The remaining 65 units enter and warm the Earth system.

- Roughly 14 units are taken up by atmospheric gases including water vapour, ozone, and clouds.
- About 51 units are absorbed by the planet’s surface, mainly by oceans and landmasses.

Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation

The 51 units gained by the surface and 14 units absorbed by the atmosphere must eventually exit as longwave radiation to keep thermal balance. Overall Outgoing Budget:

35 (reflected solar) + 17 (surface radiation) + 48 (atmospheric radiation) = 100 units. Globally, the polar ice caps and fresh snow have the highest albedo (80-90%), while the ocean surface has the lowest (2-10%), making the oceans the primary heat sink.

Direct Radiation to Space: Roughly 17 units of heat from the surface escape straight to space through the atmospheric window.
Transfer from Surface to Atmosphere: The remaining 34 units held by the surface move upward to the atmosphere through:
19 units of sensible heat carried upward by convection and turbulence.
9 units of latent heat released when water vapour condenses into droplets.
6 units of longwave radiation absorbed by greenhouse gases.
Transfer from Radiation to Space: The atmosphere releases 48 units of longwave energy to space after absorbing 14 units from sunlight and 34 units from the surface.

Heat Budget of Earth Calculation

The Heat Budget of Earth is calculated by observing how much solar energy enters the planet and how much heat leaves it. Satellites equipped with radiometers, such as those used in the ERBE mission and later programs, track incoming sunlight and outgoing infrared radiation. Scientists compare these energy flows to check whether Earth is gaining or losing heat. The Global Energy balance equation is:

Net Energy Flow = Incoming Solar Energy - Reflected Solar Energy - Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation

For a balanced budget, the Net Energy Flow should be zero. However, modern measurements show a small positive net energy flow, suggesting the Earth system is currently accumulating heat (evidence of global warming).

Heat Budget of Earth Significance

The significances of the heat budget of earth can be discussed below:

Climate Regulation: The heat budget controls global temperatures, influencing weather patterns, rainfall, and seasonal variations.
Ocean Currents: Imbalances in heat absorption and radiation drive ocean circulation, affecting marine ecosystems and coastal climates.
Glacial Melting: Excess heat accumulation leads to polar ice melting, causing sea-level rise and altering Earth’s albedo.
Extreme Weather: Changes in energy distribution can intensify storms, heatwaves, and other extreme weather events.
Ecosystem Balance: Proper heat distribution maintains habitats, plant growth, and animal survival across different regions.

Heat Budget of Earth Variations

The Earth’s heat budget varies regionally and seasonally due to factors like latitude, surface type, cloud cover, and solar angle:

Equatorial regions receive more solar energy, creating warmer climates than polar areas.
Seasonal changes shift sunlight intensity, affecting temperature and rainfall patterns.
Snow and ice increase reflection, reducing local heat absorption (high albedo).
Oceans store heat differently than land, causing regional temperature differences.
Volcanic eruptions or dust storms temporarily reduce incoming solar radiation, altering heat balance.
Greenhouse gases trap outgoing infrared radiation, disrupting the natural heat budget and causing global warming effects worldwide.

Heat Budget of Earth Impact on Climate

The Earth’s energy balance directly influences climate systems, regulating weather patterns, atmospheric circulation, and ocean currents globally.

Heat imbalances drive winds and jet streams across continents.
Ocean currents transport heat, stabilizing coastal climates and influencing monsoon systems.
Polar warming accelerates ice melting, altering global sea levels.
Regional energy variations affect precipitation patterns and drought frequency.
Persistent heat accumulation can intensify storms, hurricanes, and cyclones.

Heat Budget of Earth FAQs

Q1: What is the Heat Budget of Earth?

Ans: The Heat Budget of Earth is the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing heat, maintaining Earth’s average temperature at 15° C.

Q2: Why is the Earth’s Heat Budget important?

Ans: It regulates global climate, weather patterns, ocean currents, and ecosystems, keeping conditions suitable for life.

Q3: How is the Heat Budget calculated?

Ans: Satellites measure incoming solar energy and outgoing infrared radiation. The formula used is: Net Energy Flow = Incoming Solar Energy - Reflected Solar Energy - Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation

Q4: What are the main components of the Heat Budget?

Ans: Key components include insolation, reflection, absorption, scattering, terrestrial radiation, latent heat, sensible heat, and emission by clouds and water vapour.

Q5: How do greenhouse gases affect the Heat Budget?

Ans: Greenhouse gases trap outgoing infrared radiation, reduce heat loss, and cause global warming by disturbing Earth’s natural energy balance.

UPSC Daily Quiz 3 December 2025

December 3, 2025

The Daily UPSC Quiz by Vajiram & Ravi is a thoughtfully curated initiative designed to support UPSC aspirants in strengthening their current affairs knowledge and core conceptual understanding. Aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, this daily quiz serves as a revision resource, helping candidates assess their preparation, revise key topics, and stay updated with relevant issues. Whether you are preparing for Prelims or sharpening your revision for Mains, consistent practice with these Daily UPSC Quiz can significantly enhance accuracy, speed, and confidence in solving exam-level questions.

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UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Objectives, Provisions, Significance

December 3, 2025

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is one of India’s most important environmental legislation, providing an important turning point in India’s approach to biodiversity conservation. The act provided a framework to conserve ecosystems, protect endangered species and regulate human interaction with wildlife. This law continues to be a foundation of India’s wildlife conservation strategy and its implementation has evolved through amendments, particularly in line with global conventions such as CITES. In this article, we are going to cover the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, its provisions and objectives its effectiveness.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was enacted by the Government of India, 1972 and came into force in 1973.

It provides a framework to protect wild animals, birds, plants and their habitats.
Regulates activities like hunting, poaching and trade of wildlife products.
Creates protected areas such as National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Objectives

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has the following objectives:

Protection of endangered species and prevention of extinction.
Regulation of hunting and safeguarding wildlife against poaching.
Control of trade and commerce in wildlife and its derivatives.
Creation of protected areas to conserve biodiversity in natural habitats.
Promotion of coexistence between humans and wildlife.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Key Provisions

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has the following provisions:

Wildlife includes animals (terrestrial and aquatic), plants, insects, fish, and vegetation forming part of any habitat.

2. Establishment of Wildlife Advisory Boards

Constituted at the state level to advise on:
- Selection and management of Sanctuaries and National Parks.
- Conservation policies for wildlife and plants.
- Harmonizing tribal needs with conservation goals.

3. Schedules of the WPA

The Act categorizes flora and fauna into six schedules with varying levels of protection.

Schedule I & II: Endangered species; absolute protection; highest penalties (1–6 years imprisonment + fine). Example: Tiger, Elephant.
Schedule III & IV: Species not endangered; lesser penalties. Example: Hyena, Nilgai.
Schedule V: Vermin species that may be hunted with license. Example: Crows, Rats.
Schedule VI: Regulation of cultivation and trade of specific plants. Example: Beddomes’ cycad.

4. Hunting Regulations

General ban on hunting animals from Schedules I–IV.
Chief Wildlife Warden may grant permits if animals pose danger or are diseased.
Permits can also be issued for education, scientific research, and zoological purposes.

5. Wildlife Sanctuaries

Declared by State Governments.
Protect ecologically significant areas.
Certain activities may be permitted with regulation.

6. National Parks

Declared by State Legislatures.
No alteration of boundaries without legislative approval.
Prohibited activities: hunting, grazing, habitat destruction, and exploitation.

7. Central Zoo Authority

Supervises zoos across India.
Ensures proper care and conservation practices for captive animals.

8. Ownership of Wildlife & Trophies

All wildlife (other than vermin), trophies, and animal products are state property.
Illegal possession, trade, or transfer is punishable.

Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act, 2021

CITES Implementation: Expanded protection for species under international trade regulation.
Rationalized Schedules: Reduced from six to four for clarity:
- Schedule I: Highest protection.
- Schedule II: Lesser protection.
- Schedule III: Protected plants.
- Schedule IV: CITES species.
Regulation of Invasive Alien Species: Government empowered to prohibit or control them.
Increased Penalties: General fine raised from ₹25,000 to ₹1,00,000.
Stronger Management of Sanctuaries: Gram Sabha consultation made mandatory in scheduled areas.
Voluntary Surrender: Captive animals and trophies can be surrendered without compensation.
Controversial Clause: Commercial trade in live elephants permitted under certain conditions.

Wildlife Protection Act 2021 Amendment Significance

Wildlife Protection Act 2021 has the following significance:

Aligns India’s wildlife laws with global conservation standards (CITES).
Provides clarity by simplifying schedules.
Strengthens community participation in wildlife management.
Introduces better penalties and enforcement mechanisms.
Recognizes modern conservation challenges like invasive alien species.

Wildlife Protection Act FAQs

Q1: What is the Wildlife Protection Act 1972?

Ans: The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Indian law enacted to protect wild animals, plants, and their habitats by creating a legal framework for conservation.

Q2: What are the protected areas under the Wildlife Protection Act?

Ans: Protected areas under the Act include National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.

Q3: What are the objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972?

Ans: Its objectives are to protect endangered species, regulate hunting, control wildlife trade, and establish protected areas.

Q4: What is Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972?

Ans: Schedule I provides absolute protection to endangered species, with the highest penalties for violations.

Q5: What is CITES?

Ans: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international treaty regulating trade in endangered species to ensure it does not threaten their survival.

Citizen’s Charter in India, Features, Principles, Challenges, Importance

December 3, 2025

The Citizen’s Charter in India represents an important step toward ensuring transparent, accountable, and citizen-centric governance. It defines the commitments of public service organizations and provides a framework for delivering quality services efficiently and ethically. By fostering accountability and empowering citizens, the Citizen’s Charter plays an important role in building trust between the government and the people. In this article, we are going to cover Citizen's Charter in India, its features, principles, challenges and importance in promoting good governance.

Transparency and Accountability in Governance

Transparency and accountability form the foundation of good governance. They ensure that administrative actions are conducted openly, and decision-makers are held responsible for their performance. In India, tools such as the Citizen’s Charter and the Right to Information (RTI) Act have become instrumental in realizing these ideals.

Transparency allows citizens to access information about government functioning, while accountability ensures that officials answer for their decisions and actions. In a democratic society, both are essential for curbing corruption, strengthening trust, and ensuring effective service delivery. With India’s rapid socio-economic transformation, transparency and accountability have become indispensable for efficient governance and citizen satisfaction.

Citizen’s Charter in India

The Citizen’s Charter is a formal document jointly prepared by citizens and the administration to improve the quality, efficiency, and responsiveness of public service delivery. It acts as a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the government and its citizens, specifying the standards of service, timeframes, and mechanisms for grievance redressal.

Although the Citizen’s Charter is not legally enforceable, it serves as a powerful administrative tool that promotes transparency, accountability, and participatory governance. By defining clear service standards, it transforms public service delivery from being supply-driven to demand-driven, ensuring that governance remains people-centric.

Citizen’s Charter in India Evolution

The concept of the Citizen’s Charter originated in the United Kingdom in 1991 under Prime Minister John Major, who introduced it to make public services more responsive and efficient. Inspired by this model, India adopted the concept during the Chief Ministers’ Conference on “Responsive Administration” in 1997.
The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) took the lead in formulating guidelines and encouraging ministries and departments to develop their own charters. By the end of 1997, over 700 Citizen’s Charters had been introduced across various levels of government.
Over time, these charters have evolved to cover a wide range of sectors, including health, education, transport, taxation, and public utilities. They continue to serve as a mechanism for bridging the gap between the government and its citizens.

Citizen’s Charter in India Features

The Citizen’s Charter includes many important features designed to improve service delivery and accountability:

Standards of Service Delivery: Clearly outlines the nature, quality, and timeframes of services citizens can expect from government agencies.
Information and Openness: Ensures comprehensive dissemination of information about procedures, costs, and grievance redressal mechanisms.
Choice and Consultation: Incorporates citizen feedback and provides multiple options for availing services wherever possible.
Courtesy and Helpfulness: Promotes a culture of respect, responsiveness, and empathy among public servants.
Grievance Redressal Mechanisms: Establishes structured systems to handle complaints efficiently and identify recurring issues for systemic improvement. These features aim to transform the interaction between citizens and public institutions, making governance more responsive and citizen-oriented.

Citizen’s Charter in India Principles

The Citizen’s Charter is built on nine key principles of effective service delivery:

Set Standards of Service: Define measurable and time-bound service benchmarks.
Be Open and Provide Full Information: Ensure transparency and accessibility of information.
Consult and Involve: Engage citizens in the formulation and monitoring of services.
Encourage Access and Promote Choice: Provide multiple platforms and options for availing services.
Treat All Fairly: Guarantee equitable treatment, especially for disadvantaged groups.
Put Things Right When They Go Wrong: Establish mechanisms for timely grievance redressal.
Use Resources Effectively: Optimize human and financial resources for better outcomes.
Innovate and Improve: Continuously upgrade processes and integrate modern technologies.
Work with Other Providers: Collaborate with other organizations for seamless and integrated service delivery.

These principles ensure that governance remains transparent, inclusive, and adaptable to evolving public needs.

Citizen’s Charter in India Implementation Challenges

Despite its conceptual strength, the implementation of the Citizen’s Charter in India faces several challenges:

Poor Design and Content: Many charters lack clarity, specificity, and measurable performance indicators.
Lack of Public Awareness: Citizens are often unaware of the commitments outlined in the charters, limiting their utility.
Inadequate Preparation: Agencies fail to reform internal processes to align with the promises made in the charter.
Resistance to Change: Bureaucratic inertia and vested interests often obstruct genuine implementation.
Exclusion of Marginalized Groups: The specific needs of vulnerable sections like senior citizens and persons with disabilities are often overlooked.
Lack of Updates: Many charters remain outdated and do not reflect current administrative realities.

These limitations have hindered the effectiveness of the Citizen’s Charter as a transformative governance tool.

Recommendations for Strengthening Citizen’s Charters

To improve the effectiveness of Citizen’s Charters, many measures can be adopted:

Inclusive Consultation: Engage both citizens and staff during the formulation and review process.
Training and Capacity Building: Conduct regular orientation programs on ethics, service delivery, and grievance handling.
Grievance Databases: Maintain detailed records of complaints for performance evaluation and policy improvement.
Public Awareness Campaigns: Use print, digital, and local media to increase awareness about citizens’ rights and service standards.
Institutional Support: Allocate dedicated resources for implementing and monitoring the charter.
Feedback and Continuous Improvement: Regularly update the charter based on citizen feedback and changing service dynamics.

These reforms can transform the Citizen’s Charter from a formal document into a living instrument of good governance.

Citizen’s Charter and the RTI Act

The Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 complements the Citizen’s Charter by providing a legal framework for enforcing transparency and accountability. While the Citizen’s Charter sets out the service standards and commitments, the RTI Act empowers citizens to demand information and hold officials accountable for non-performance.

For example:

Citizens can use RTI to obtain details about service standards promised in the Charter.
RTI queries can expose delays, inefficiencies, or violations of commitments.
The combined use of both instruments ensures that government functioning remains transparent, responsive, and citizen-focused.

Together, these mechanisms create a governance model that is accountable, participatory, and transparent.

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Citizen’s Charter in India FAQs

Q1: What are the 6 principles of a Citizen’s Charter?

Ans: The six principles are: setting service standards, providing full information, consulting and involving citizens, ensuring access and choice, treating all fairly, and putting things right when they go wrong.

Q2: When did India adopt a Citizen’s Charter?

Ans: India adopted the Citizen’s Charter in 1997 during the Chief Ministers’ Conference on “Responsive Administration.”

Q3: What is a Citizen’s Charter?

Ans: A Citizen’s Charter is a formal document outlining the commitments of public service organizations to deliver transparent, accountable, and citizen-centric services.

Q4: What is the RTI Act?

Ans: The Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005, empowers citizens to access information from public authorities, promoting transparency and accountability in governance.

Planning Commission of India, Historical Background, Composition

December 3, 2025

The Planning Commission of India was formed on 15th March 1950 and marked a landmark institution that laid the foundation of India’s economic and social development in the post-independence era. Its responsibilities included formulating and overseeing the five year plans and taking the nation towards planned development, resource mobilization and focusing on socio-economic growth objectives. In this article, we are going to cover all about the Planning Commission, its historical background, its functions and objectives.

Planning Commission of India

The Planning Commission was an apex body established by a Government of India resolution in 1950, under the chairmanship of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It was a non-constitutional and non-statutory body. Its purpose was to guide India’s economic development through structured Five-Year Plans. Its responsibilities included:

Assessing national resources (natural, financial, and human).
Formulating plans and setting developmental priorities.
Allocating resources for different sectors and ministries.
Monitoring plan implementation and making mid-course corrections.
Advising the government on policy matters concerning development.
In essence, the Commission worked as the chief architect of India’s post-independence economic strategy.

Planning Commission of India Historical Background

The creation of Planning Commission of India can be traced back on the lines of the following historical background:

First Five-Year Plan (1951–1956): Focused on agriculture, irrigation, and energy to address food security and basic needs.
Second Plan (1956–1961): Inspired by the Mahalanobis model, it emphasized rapid industrialization and the growth of the public sector.
Third Plan (1961–1966): Aimed at making India self-reliant but was disrupted by wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965), along with a severe drought.
Plan Holiday (1966–1969): Annual plans were introduced due to resource constraints, inflation, and currency depreciation.
Fourth Plan (1969–1974): Restarted the planned development framework with a focus on growth with stability and self-reliance.
Eighth Plan (1992–1997): Introduced after the 1991 economic crisis and liberalization, focusing on modernization, privatization, and globalization.
Ninth Plan onwards (1997–2002): Shifted attention towards social justice, poverty alleviation, and decentralized planning.
The Planning Commission continued its work until the Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012–2017), after which it was abolished and replaced by NITI Aayog.

Planning Commission of India Composition

The Planning Commission of India consists of the following members:

Chairman: The Prime Minister of India served as the ex-officio Chairman.
Deputy Chairman: The de facto executive head responsible for drafting and presenting the Five-Year Plans. Equivalent in status to a Cabinet Minister but without voting powers.
Full-time Members: Experts in economics, planning, agriculture, industry, and administration.
Part-time Members: Central Ministers holding key portfolios.
Ex-Officio Members: The Finance Minister and Planning Minister.

Planning Commission of India Functions

The Planning Commission body of India served the following functions:

Formulating Five-Year Plans: Designing developmental blueprints with clear objectives, targets, and investment patterns.
Resource Assessment: Evaluating India’s financial, natural, and human resources.
Prioritization: Allocating resources to sectors based on national priorities.
Monitoring and Evaluation: Reviewing implementation, identifying bottlenecks, and suggesting corrective action.
Inter-Ministerial Coordination: Ensuring policy alignment across ministries and departments.
Research and Innovation: Encouraging scientific research and supporting institutions.
Policy Advisory Role: Advising the government on economic, industrial, and social development strategies.
Regional Balance: Promoting equitable development among states and regions.
Social Justice: Emphasizing inclusion of marginalized sections – women, minorities, and disadvantaged communities.
Stakeholder Participation: Involving experts, industries, and citizens in shaping policies.

Difference in Between the Planning Commission and NITI Aayog

The Planning Commission of India was finally dissolved in 2014 and taken over by the NITI Aayog. This new planning body reflects India’s shift from centralised, top-down planning to a more flexible, decentralised and participatory policy framework. Here is a list of differences between the Planning Commission of India and the NITI Aayog.

Feature	Planning Commission	NITI Aayog
Nature	Centralized, top-down approach	Decentralized, cooperative federalism
Role	Drafted and enforced Five-Year Plans	Acts as think tank & policy advisory body
States’ Role	Limited, indirect via National Development Council	Direct, full participation of states & UTs
Functioning	Resource allocation and plan implementation	Knowledge hub, innovation, and strategy
Leadership	PM as Chairman, Deputy Chairman as executive head	PM as Chairman, supported by Vice-Chairperson, CEO, and experts
Approach	One-size-fits-all	Flexible, state-specific policy tailoring

Planning Commission of India FAQs

Q1: Who is the current Planning Commission of India?

Ans: The Planning Commission no longer exists; it was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.

Q2: Why did NITI Aayog replace the Planning Commission?

Ans: NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission to promote cooperative federalism, decentralized planning, and flexible policy-making suited to contemporary needs.

Q3: In which year was the Planning Commission of India set up?

Ans: The Planning Commission was established in 1950.

Q4: What is the difference between the Planning Commission and NITI Aayog?

Ans: The Planning Commission followed a centralized, top-down approach with Five-Year Plans, while NITI Aayog is a decentralized think tank promoting state participation and policy innovation.

Q5: What are the functions of the NITI Aayog?

Ans: NITI Aayog functions as a policy think tank, focusing on strategy formulation, innovation, cooperative federalism, monitoring developmental programs, and fostering sustainable growth.

Cropping Pattern in India, Types, Importance, Factors Affecting

December 3, 2025

Cropping Pattern in India refers to the distribution and arrangement of crops in a region, including the sequence in which they are grown and the share of land allotted to each crop during different seasons. The choice of Cropping Pattern in India is largely shaped by factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil characteristics, and overall climatic conditions of the area.

Cropping Pattern in India

Cropping Pattern in India refers to the variety of crops grown in a region at a given time. In India, this pattern is influenced not just by natural factors such as temperature, rainfall, wind, and soil quality, but also by economic aspects like minimum support prices, market demand, crop value, and the availability of labour.

For example, rice dominates during years of good monsoon rainfall, whereas in years of weak monsoons, farmers often switch to hardier crops like millets. Similarly, certain regions have developed strong associations with particular crops, cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam, and jute in West Bengal continue to be the mainstay due to favourable conditions for their cultivation.

Cropping Pattern in India Types

Mono-cropping: In this system, the same crop is cultivated on the same piece of land year after year. While simple to manage, it often reduces soil fertility over time.
Multiple cropping: This involves growing more than one crop on the same land in a single year. It can be of two types:
- Intercropping: Different crops are grown together on the same field in a planned row arrangement, helping farmers make better use of space and resources.
- Sequential cropping: Different crops are cultivated one after another in the same field within a year, ensuring continuous use of the land.
Mixed cropping: In this method, farmers grow two or more crops simultaneously on the same land, but without a fixed row pattern. It reduces the risk of complete crop failure, as one crop may survive if another is damaged.
Relay cropping: A variation of multiple cropping, relay cropping involves planting the next crop before the first one is fully harvested. This overlapping use of time helps maximize productivity.

Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern in India

The Cropping Pattern in India is a mix of geographical, economic, political, and historical factors which are discussed in brief below:

Geographical Factors

Relief: The landscape directly influences what can be grown. For example, rice thrives on irrigated hill terraces, while tea and coffee need well-drained slopes with ample rainfall. In irrigated plains with warm climates, crops like rice and sugarcane dominate, while wheat prefers regions with moderate temperatures and rainfall.
Rainfall: The amount and distribution of rain create distinct cropping zones:
- Heavy rainfall areas (150+ cm annually): East India and the West Coast plains grow rice, tea, coffee, jute, and sugarcane. Livestock is also common due to abundant fodder.
- Medium rainfall areas (75-150 cm): Eastern UP, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh (east), and Vidarbha in Maharashtra support rice (higher rainfall), wheat (lower rainfall), maize, soybeans, and cotton.
- Low rainfall areas (25-75 cm): Semi-arid stretches cultivate millets, jowar, bajra, ragi, and oilseeds. Wheat is grown in irrigated tracts, and mixed cropping with pulses is common to reduce risk.
Soil: Each soil type has its own crop preference. Clayey soils favour rice, loamy soils suit wheat, and black regur soils of the Deccan are perfect for cotton. Coarse grains thrive in lighter soils, while delta soils of Bengal, renewed by annual floods, make jute cultivation ideal. In Darjeeling, the humus-rich soils nurture tea plantations.

Economic Factors

Irrigation: Areas with strong irrigation support multiple crops annually—rice in southern belts, wheat in the north, while coarse grains receive less attention.
Size of Landholdings: Small farmers often grow subsistence crops like food grains, while larger holdings allow for cash crops and commercial farming. Still, monocultures of rice and wheat dominate many large farms.
Risk and Insurance: Access to crop insurance influences patterns. Plantation crops in southern states, for example, expanded because insurance schemes made them less risky.
Inputs and Infrastructure: Seeds, fertilisers, water storage, transport, and market access play a big role in deciding what farmers grow.
Value and Demand: High-value crops like apples are replacing millets in Himachal and Uttarakhand. Similarly, rice dominates in densely populated regions because of high demand and assured markets.

Political Factors

Government policies often Cropping Patterns in India. Legislation like Food Crops Acts, subsidies, or land reforms can push farmers toward certain crops. The Minimum Support Price (MSP) system has made rice and wheat dominant, leading to monocultures in many regions. In times of drought or inflation, policies shift again, encouraging or discouraging specific crops.

Historical Factors

Tea plantations in Assam and Kangra Valley trace back to British times. Sugarcane expanded in North India because colonial rulers promoted it as a replacement for indigo when artificial dyes killed its market.

Post-Green Revolution, the surplus production of rice and wheat shifted the focus to diversification. Oilseeds and pulses gained more space in fields, marking a new chapter in India’s cropping story.

Cropping Pattern in India FAQs

Q1: What is meant by the cropping pattern?

Ans: Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of land under different crops and the arrangement or sequence of crops cultivated in an area over time.

Q2: What are the major cropping seasons in India?

Ans: India has three main cropping seasons: Kharif (June–October), Rabi (October–March), and Zaid (April–June).

Q3: Which factors influence cropping patterns in India?

Ans: Climate, soil type, rainfall, irrigation, technology, government policies, market demand, and socio-economic conditions affect cropping patterns.

Q4: What is the difference between cropping pattern and cropping system?

Ans: Cropping pattern is the distribution of crops in time and space, while the cropping system includes techniques like intercropping, crop rotation, and mixed farming.

Q5: Which are the main crops grown in India?

Ans: Rice, wheat, maize, millets, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, and plantation crops like tea and coffee dominate Indian agriculture.

73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, Features, Panchayati Raj Structure

December 3, 2025

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act 1992 constitutionally recognised the Panchayati Raj System in India. This amendment helped promote decentralisation of power especially in the local form of governance and give power to local bodies and make sure democratic participation is encouraged at grassroots level. In this article, we are going to cover all about the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act 1992.

73rd Constitutional Amendment Act

The Panchayati Raj System acts at the level of local governance. The system is divided into three tiers: Gram Panchayat at village level, Mandal Parishad or Block Samiti of Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad at District level.

The 73rd Amendment Act helped Panchayati Raj System get a constitutional status in 1992.

At present, Panchayati Raj System exists in almost all states in India except Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram as well as Delhi.

Also Check: 103rd Constitutional Amendment Act

73rd Amendment Act Features

Following are the features of 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act:

Gram Sabha (Article 243A): The Gram Sabha consists of people listed in the electoral rolls of a village within a Panchayat’s jurisdiction. It forms the core of the Panchayati Raj system and may exercise powers and perform functions as provided by State legislation.
Three-Tier System (Article 243B): The Constitution mandates a three-tier Panchayati Raj structure—village, intermediate, and district levels—for all States. However, States with populations below 20 lakhs can skip the intermediate level.
Election of Members and Chairpersons (Article 243C): Panchayat members at all levels are directly elected. Chairpersons at the intermediate and district levels are elected indirectly from among elected members. The method of electing village-level Chairpersons is determined by the State.
Reservation of Seats (Article 243D): Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population in each Panchayat. One-third of all seats are reserved for women. States may provide further reservations for backward classes.
Duration of Panchayats (Article 243E): The standard term is five years. If dissolved prematurely, elections must be held unless the remainder of the term is less than six months.
Disqualification of Members (Article 243F): A person is disqualified if deemed so under State law. However, those above 21 years of age cannot be disqualified solely for not having reached 25 years.
Powers and Functions (Article 243G): State legislatures may empower Panchayats to function as institutions of self-government. This includes preparing plans for economic development, social justice, and implementing government schemes.
Finances (Article 243H): States may allow Panchayats to collect taxes, receive State-assigned revenues, grants, and establish local funds.
Finance Commission (Article 243I): The Governor appoints a Finance Commission to evaluate Panchayat finances and recommend tax-sharing principles and permissible levies.
Audit of Accounts (Article 243J): State legislatures decide procedures for maintaining and auditing Panchayat accounts.
State Election Commission (Article 243K): Responsible for preparing electoral rolls and conducting Panchayat elections in a free and fair manner.
Application to Union Territories (Article 243L): The President may apply the 73rd Amendment to Union Territories with necessary modifications.
Exempted States and Areas (Article 243M): The Act does not apply to Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and certain scheduled and tribal areas, unless Parliament decides otherwise.
Continuance of Existing Laws (Article 243N): Existing State laws related to Panchayats remain valid for one year post-implementation, unless repealed earlier.
Judicial Non-Interference (Article 243O): Courts cannot interfere in Panchayat elections or challenge seat allocations and delimitation. Election disputes must follow procedures laid out by State law.

Also Check: 104th Constitutional Amendment Act

Panchayati Raj Structure

The Panchayati System in India has the following structure:

Division into three-tier Panchayati Raj System: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act established a three-tier Panchayati Raj System in every state, including Panchayats at village, intermediate and district levels.
Enable Uniformity: The decentralisation of power ensures uniformity in the structure of Panchayati Raj System all over the country.
Optional for smaller states: A state with population not exceeding 20 lakh has the option to either constitute or not constitute Panchayats at intermediate level.

73rd Constitutional Amendment Act FAQs

Q1: What is the 73rd Amendment Act 1992?

Ans: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, granted constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions and introduced Part IX in the Constitution.

Q2: When was the Panchayati Raj System established in India?

Ans: The Panchayati Raj System was formally established on 24th April 1993 with the implementation of the 73rd Amendment Act.

Q3: What is Gram Sabha?

Ans: Gram Sabha is the assembly of all registered voters in a village within a Panchayat area, serving as the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system.

Q4: What are the Articles covered under the Panchayati Raj System?

Ans: Articles 243 to 243-O under Part IX of the Constitution cover the Panchayati Raj System.

Q5: Which states have not adopted the Panchayati Raj System in India?

Ans: Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram have not adopted the Panchayati Raj system due to the prevalence of traditional tribal governance.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000

December 3, 2025

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 are major regulatory frameworks enacted by India to control the production, trade, and use of ozone-depleting substances in line with global environmental commitments. It was established under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986, these rules help India comply with the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol. They focus on restricting Ozone Depleting Substances consumption, licensing trade, and promoting phase-out programmes. Over time, these rules have become central to India’s national environmental protection strategy.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 were notified on 19 July 2000 to regulate the production, consumption, import, export, sale, and use of ODS in India. These rules aim to gradually eliminate harmful substances such as CFCs, CTC, Halons, HCFCs, and Methyl Bromide. India introduced these rules to fulfil its obligations under the Montreal Protocol (1987), which legally binds member nations to phase out Ozone Depleting Substances.

Also Read: Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 & 2017

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 Historical Background

The rules emerged from decades of international scientific concern, negotiations, conventions, and global agreements to control ozone-damaging chemicals.

1976: UNEP Governing Council first discussed ozone depletion concerns.
1977: UNEP and WMO formed the Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer (CCOL).
1981: Intergovernmental negotiations began on an international framework to restrict ODS.
March 1985: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer adopted.
September 1987: Montreal Protocol signed to create binding ODS phase-out targets.
1986: India prepared domestic regulatory framework under the Environment Protection Act.
1992: India ratified the Montreal Protocol.
19 July 2000: India notified the ODS Rules 2000.
2014: Rules amended to align with accelerated HCFC phase-out schedules.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 Provisions

The rules impose strict controls on production, trade, and use of ODS with licensing, restrictions, and progressive phase-out requirements.

Prohibit production and consumption of ODS beyond limits notified by the central authority.
Ban import and export of ODS to or from non-party countries under the Montreal Protocol.
Require prior licence for import and export of ODS even with listed countries.
Regulate sale, purchase, storage, and use of substances containing ODS.
Restrict circulation or sale of listed ODS without special permission.
Provide regulation for industries using ODS-based equipment.
Apply controls on manufacturing processes using CFCs, CTC, Halons, HCFCs, and other listed chemicals.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 Features

The rules define applicability, regulatory mechanisms, licensing requirements, and compliance obligations for phase-out of Ozone Depleting Substances in India.

Enforced under the Environment Protection Act 1986.
Implemented to fulfil obligations under the Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol.
Apply to producers, sellers, traders, importers, and users of all notified ODS.
Cover substances such as CFCs, HCFCs, Halons, CTC, Methyl Chloroform, and Methyl Bromide.
Mandate licensing for import, export, sale, purchase, and storage.
Require reporting and record-keeping to monitor usage and production.
Enable central government to issue updated schedules and amendments.
Restrict ODS-based equipment manufacturing and servicing.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 Challenges

Implementation of the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 faces scientific, technological, financial, industrial, and enforcement-related challenges across multiple sectors as highlighted below:

High cost of shifting to non-ODS and climate-friendly alternatives for industries.
Need for advanced technology to replace ODS in refrigeration, fire protection, solvents, and aerosols.
Strong dependence of small-scale manufacturers on older ODS-based equipment.
Limited technical capacity for monitoring large and diverse industrial sectors.
Need for continuous policy alignment with evolving international obligations including HCFC phase-out schedules and HFC control under new agreements.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 Achievements

India has consistently met its Ozone Depleting Substances phase-out targets and modernised regulations to match global environmental standards.

By 1 January 2015, global phase-out of CFCs, CTC, Halons, Methyl Chloroform, and Methyl Bromide achieved.
India successfully phased out CFCs, CTC, Halons, and progressing on HCFC elimination in Aug 2008.
Multiple amendments supporting national phase-out management plans.
Adoption of new technologies and training programmes across refrigeration and fire-suppression sectors.
Reduction in ODS demand due to climatic regulations and market transition.
Consistent compliance reporting to UNEP and Montreal Protocol bodies.

Kigali Agreement

The Kigali Agreement is the amendment ot the Montreal Protocol which adds HFCs to regulated substances, guiding long-term climate-friendly refrigerant transitions.

Came into force 1 January 2019, legally binding for parties.
Follows CBDR-RC, offering flexibility to developing economies including India.
Aims to phase down high-GWP HFCs with financial support from the Multilateral Fund.
India secured favourable baseline and freeze years enabling industrial growth.
Promotes energy-efficient alternatives during refrigerant transition.
Expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions significantly while aiding technological advancement.

Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 FAQs

Q1: What are the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000?

Ans: The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 regulate the production, trade, use, and phase-out of ozone-depleting substances in India under the Environment Protection Act 1986.

Q2: Who enforces the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000?

Ans: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) enforces the Rules, supported by state pollution control boards for monitoring and compliance.

Q3: What substances are covered under Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000?

Ans: The Rules cover CFCs, HCFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, methyl bromide, and other ozone-depleting chemicals listed in the Schedules.

Q4: What major restrictions are included in the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000?

Ans: They include controls on manufacture, import, export, sale, and use of ODS, mandatory registration, phased elimination schedules, and restrictions on ODS-based equipment.

Q5: Are exemptions allowed under Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000?

Ans: Yes, limited exemptions exist for essential uses such as medical, laboratory, or feedstock applications, but only with strict approval from the central government.

Parts of Indian Constitution, Check All 25 Parts Subject, Key Details

December 3, 2025

The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, originally consisted of 395 Articles, 22 Parts, and 8 Schedules. Over time, through amendments, its scope has expanded to address emerging needs of governance and society. Today, the Constitution contains 448 Articles, 25 Parts, and 12 Schedules.

The Parts of Indian Constitution serve as the backbone, organizing its provisions into broad themes such as fundamental rights, directive principles, governance structure, and emergency provisions. Later additions like Part IXA (Municipalities), Part IXB (Co-operative Societies), and Part XIVA (Tribunals) highlight the evolving nature of constitutional law in India.

It’s also important to note that when new Articles or Parts are inserted, they are numbered alphabetically (like Article 21A) to maintain the document’s structure without disrupting the original sequence.

Parts of Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India is not just a legal document but also the supreme law of the land. It lays down the framework of governance by defining the roles of people in positions of authority and clearly outlining the limitations on their power. At the same time, it secures the rights, powers, procedures, and duties of both the government and the citizens.

What makes it unique is its emphasis on the supremacy of the Constitution itself, rather than the supremacy of the legislature. This ensures that every law and every action of the government remains within the constitutional framework.

To understand this structure better, here’s an overview of the Parts of the Indian Constitution presented in a table:

Parts of Indian Constitution Overview
Particulars	Details
Constitution formed on	26th November 1949
Parts of Indian Constitution Originally	22 Parts
Parts of Indian Constitution at Present	25 Parts
New Parts added in Constitution	Part IX A of the Constitution was inserted by the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992. It contains provisions for local self government at the urban level. Part IXB of the Constitution grants constitutional status to co-operative societies and contains provisions for their democratic functioning. It was inserted by the Constitution (97th, Amendment) Act, 2011. Part XIVA of the Indian Constitution provides for the appointment of tribunals for administrative and other disputes. It was not a part of the Constitution of India 1950, but was added by the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1942.

List of Parts of Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution is a written document that serves as the supreme law of the land. It was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, with key contributions from leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Rajendra Prasad, and Jawaharlal Nehru, and came into effect on January 26, 1950.

To ensure clarity and proper governance, the Constitution is divided into distinct sections that address specific subjects. Over time, it has expanded and now consists of 25 Parts, each focusing on different aspects of governance, rights, and duties.

List of Parts of Indian Constitution
Parts and Subject	Articles
Part I - The Union and its Territories	1 - 4
Part II - Citizenship	5 -11
Part III - Fundamental Rights	12 - 35
Part IV - Directive Principles of State Policy	36 - 51
Part IV A - Fundamental Duties	51A
Part V - The Union	52 - 151
Part VI - The States	152 - 237
Part VII - The States in Part B of First Schedule	238 [Repealed]
Part VIII - The Union Territories	239 - 242
Part IX - The Panchayats	243 - 243O
Part IXA - The Municipalities	243P - 243ZG
Part IXB - The Co-operative Societies	243ZH - 243ZT
Part X - The Scheduled and Tribal Areas	244 - 244A
Part XI - Relation between the Union and the States	245 - 263
Part XII - Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits	264 - 300A
Part XIII - Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the territory of India	301 - 307
Part XIV - Services Under the Union and the States	308 - 323
Part XIVA - Tribunals	323A - 323B
Part XV - Elections	324 - 329A
Part XVI - Special provisions relating to certain classes	330 - 342
Part XVII - Official language	343 - 351
Part XVIII - Emergency Provisions	352 - 360
Part XIX - Miscellaneous	361 - 367
Part XX - Amendment of the Constitution	368
Part XXI - Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions	369 - 392
Part XXII - Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals	393 - 395

Parts of Indian Constitution Details

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the land. It was adopted on 26 January 1950 and originally contained 395 Articles, 22 Parts, and 8 Schedules. Today, through amendments, it has expanded to 448 Articles, 25 Parts, and 12 Schedules.

Each Part of the Constitution deals with a specific subject - from Union and State structures to rights, duties, emergency provisions, and governance frameworks.

Parts of Indian Constitution Details
Part	Articles Covered	Subject / Theme	Brief Explanation
Part I	Articles 1 - 4	The Union and its Territory	Defines India as a Union of States; regulates formation of new states and alteration of boundaries.
Part II	Articles 5 - 11	Citizenship	Lays down provisions for citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution and rules for acquisition/termination.
Part III	Articles 12 - 35	Fundamental Rights	Guarantees six categories of Fundamental Rights to citizens, inspired by the US Bill of Rights.
Part IV	Articles 36 - 51	Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)	Guidelines for the State to establish a just society; non-justiciable but fundamental to governance.
Part IVA	Article 51A	Fundamental Duties	Lists 11 duties of citizens, added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) on recommendation of Swaran Singh Committee.
Part V	Articles 52 - 151	The Union	Deals with the Union Government - Executive (President, PM, Council of Ministers), Parliament, and Judiciary.
Part VI	Articles 153 - 237	The States	Deals with State Governments - Governors, State Legislature, and High Courts.
Part VII	[Repealed]	States in Part B	Dealt with Part B states; repealed by the 7th Amendment (1956).
Part VIII	Articles 239 - 242	Union Territories	Provides for administration of Union Territories by the President through Administrators.
Part IX	Articles 243 - 243O	The Panchayats	Establishes Panchayati Raj system (73rd Amendment, 1992) for rural local self-government.
Part IXA	Articles 243P - 243ZG	The Municipalities	Establishes urban local bodies (74th Amendment, 1992) with structure, powers, and responsibilities.
Part IXB	Articles 243ZH - 243ZT	Co-operative Societies	Provides for regulation and management of co-operatives (97th Amendment, 2011).
Part X	Articles 244 - 244A	Scheduled and Tribal Areas	Deals with administration of Scheduled Areas (Fifth Schedule) and Tribal Areas (Sixth Schedule).
Part XI	Articles 245 - 263	Relations between the Union and States	Lays down legislative, administrative, and financial relations between the Centre and States.
Part XII	Articles 264 - 300A	Finance, Property, Contracts, and Suits	Covers distribution of revenues, borrowing powers, property rights, and legal suits involving government.
Part XIII	Articles 301 - 307	Trade, Commerce, and Intercourse	Ensures freedom of trade and commerce across India; modeled on Australian Constitution.
Part XIV	Articles 308 - 323	Services under Union and States	Covers recruitment, conditions of service, and role of Public Service Commissions.
Part XIVA	Articles 323A - 323B	Tribunals	Provides for Administrative Tribunals and other tribunals for speedy justice (42nd Amendment, 1976).
Part XV	Articles 324 - 329A	Elections	Deals with conduct of elections; empowers Election Commission of India.
Part XVI	Articles 330 - 342	Special Provisions for Certain Classes	Safeguards for SCs, STs, and Anglo-Indians, including reservation of seats.
Part XVII	Articles 343 - 351	Official Language	Declares Hindi in Devanagari script as official language; provides for use of English and development of regional languages.
Part XVIII	Articles 352 - 360	Emergency Provisions	Provides for National Emergency, President’s Rule, and Financial Emergency.
Part XIX	Articles 361 - 367	Miscellaneous	Covers protection of President/Governors, privy purses, interpretation of Constitution, etc.
Part XX	Article 368	Amendment of the Constitution	Provides the procedure for constitutional amendments - flexible yet rigid.
Part XXI	Articles 369 - 392	Temporary, Transitional, and Special Provisions	Deals with temporary and special provisions for certain states and union territories.
Part XXII	Articles 393 - 395	Short title, Commencement, Authoritative Text, Repeals	Specifies short title, date of commencement, authoritative text in Hindi, and repeals of previous laws.

Parts of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: Are there 22 or 25 parts in the Indian Constitution?

Ans: Originally, the Constitution had 22 parts, but after subsequent amendments and additions, it now has 25 parts.

Q2: Why is part 7 removed?

Ans: Part 7 dealt with Part-B states. After the 7th Constitutional Amendment, 1956, Part-B states were merged with others, making this part redundant, so it was repealed.

Q3: What is part 8 of the Indian Constitution?

Ans: Part 8 (Articles 239-242) deals with Union Territories, their administration, governance, and special provisions.

Q4: What are the articles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 of the Constitution?

Ans: Article 1 - India, that is Bharat, is a Union of States, Article 2 - Admission/establishment of new States, Article 3 - Formation of new States and alteration of areas/boundaries, Article 4 - Laws under Articles 2 & 3 not amendments under Article 368, Article 5 - Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.

Q5: How to remember 25 parts of the Indian Constitution?

Ans: Use a mnemonic chain technique. For example: “The Union’s State Needs Citizenship, Directive Policies, Emergency Provisions, Panchayati Raj, Tribunals...” linking each part in order with keywords.

Coal Mines In India, State Wise List, Types, Largest, Oldest, Map

December 3, 2025

Coal Mining refers to the extraction of coal deposits from both the Earth’s surface and underground layers. Coal played a crucial role as the primary source of energy during the Industrial Revolution, driving industrial expansion and leading to large-scale exploitation of coal reserves.

By the late 20th century, open-pit mining gradually replaced underground mining as the dominant method in many industrial nations. With advancements in technology, Coal Mines In India today whether surface or underground has become a highly mechanized and efficient process.

In India, the first coalfield was discovered at Raniganj, where mining began in 1774 under the East India Company. Owing to its vast reserves of ancient hard rocks, India holds significant mineral resources, with coal continuing to be one of its most important.

Coal Mines in India

India holds significant coal reserves of around 319 billion tonnes, making it one of the largest coal producers in the world. The major coal-bearing areas are concentrated in the eastern and central regions of the country. The dominant types of coal found in India are bituminous and sub-bituminous, which are widely used for power generation and industrial purposes.

Coal Mines in India are broadly classified into two categories - Gondwana Coal and Tertiary Coal.

Gondwana Coal, among the oldest and most important reserves globally, is mainly located in central India. It forms the bulk of India’s coal resources.
Tertiary Coal, comparatively younger in age, is primarily found in the northeastern states, such as Meghalaya, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Within the Gondwana Reserves, coal is further categorized based on its carbon content into anthracite, bituminous, and sub-bituminous varieties. These categories determine the energy content and suitability of coal for different applications, ranging from domestic use to large-scale power generation and industrial consumption.

List of Coal Mines in India

In India, there are several places where coal is mined from the ground. These areas are called coal mines, and they are mainly located in states rich in mineral resources. Some of the well-known coal mines in India include:

List of Coal Mines in India
Coal Mine	States
-Jharia, Dhanbad -Bokaro -Jayanti -Godda -Giridih (Karbhari Coal Field) -Ramgarh -Karanpura -Daltonganj	Jharkhand
-Raniganj Coalfield, -Dalingkot (Darjeeling) Birbhum, -Chinakuri	West Bengal
-Korba -Bishrampur - Sonhat - Jhilmil - Hasdo-Arand	Chhattisgarh
-Jharsuguda, - Himgiri, - Rampur, -Talcher	Odisha
-Singareni, -Kothagudem, -Kantapalli	Telangana/ Andhra Pradesh
-Neyveli	Tamil Nadu
-Kamptee(Nagpur) -Wun field -Wardha -Walarpur -Ghughus -Warora	Maharashtra
-Ledo -Makum -Najira -Janji -Jaipur	Assam
-Darrangiri (Garo hills), -Cherrapunji, -Liotryngew, -Maolong - Langrin coalfields (Khasi & Jaintia Hills)	Meghalaya
-Singrauli, -Sohagpur, -Johila, -Umaria, - Satpura coalfield	Madhya Pradesh

Coal Types

Coal in India is classified into four main types based on its carbon content, heating capacity, and age. These types range from the oldest and most energy-rich (Anthracite) to the youngest and least carbon-rich (Lignite). Each type has distinct properties and uses, and their distribution varies across regions.

Coal Types
Type of Coal	Carbon Content	Properties	Major Uses	Major Deposits in India
Anthracite	80-95%	Hard, shiny, highest quality, burns cleanly	Industrial use, domestic heating	Jammu & Kashmir
Bituminous	60-80%	Black, soft, high heating value	Power generation, steel industry	Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal
Sub-Bituminous	45-60%	Lower heat, burns cleaner than bituminous	Electricity generation	Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Lignite	25-35%	Brown, soft, high moisture, lowest heating	Power generation in local plants	Tamil Nadu (Neyveli), Rajasthan, Gujarat

Largest Coal Mines in India

India is home to some of the largest coal mines in the world, which play a crucial role in meeting the country’s energy needs. These mines supply coal for electricity generation, industries, and other everyday uses. Here are some of the most important Largest Coal Mine in India:

Largest Coal Mines in India
Coal Mine / Coalfield	State	Key Features
Jharia Coalfield	Jharkhand	Famous for high-quality bituminous coal; major source of coking coal for steel.
Raniganj Coalfield	West Bengal & Jharkhand	India’s first coalfield (mining started in 1774); supplies thermal coal.
Singrauli Coalfield	Madhya Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh	One of the largest coal reserves; key supplier for thermal power plants.
Korba Coalfield	Chhattisgarh	Major source for NTPC’s thermal power stations; rich in thermal coal.
Talcher Coalfield	Odisha	Among the largest coalfields in Asia; fuels several power plants and industries.
Neyveli Lignite Mines	Tamil Nadu	Famous for lignite (brown coal); supports Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC).

Oldest Coal Mines in India

Coal Mining in India has a long history, with some mines operating for more than a century. These mines not only powered industries during the colonial period but also laid the foundation for India’s modern energy sector. Here are two of the Oldest Coal Mines in India:

Oldest Coal Mines in India
Coalfield / Mine	State	Significance
Raniganj Coalfield	West Bengal	India’s first coal mining area, where operations began in 1774 during British rule.
Jharia Coalfield	Jharkhand	Known for its rich reserves of coking coal and a long history of underground mining.

Coal Mines in India Map

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/coal.map_.webp" align="none" size="medium" title="Coal Mines in India Map" alt="Coal Mines in India Map" width="auto" height="auto"]

An illustration showing the geographical distribution of coal reserves in India is presented in a coal mines map. Such a map highlights the major coalfields and mining regions across the country. You can view an example of this Coal Mines in India Map here.

Coal Mines in India Challenges

Coal Mines in India face a range of challenges that affect its efficiency, safety, and sustainability. Some of the most pressing issues include:

Environmental Impact: Mining often causes deforestation, soil erosion, air and water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Balancing energy needs with environmental protection remains a tough task.
Safety Concerns: Coal mines are hazardous workplaces. Risks include mine collapses, explosions, and long-term health problems like lung diseases among workers.
Land Acquisition and Rehabilitation: Securing land for mining projects often leads to disputes, displacement, and the need to resettle and rehabilitate affected communities.
Technological Modernization: Many mines still use outdated techniques. Introducing modern machinery and practices is vital for improving productivity and reducing harm to the environment.
Sustainable Practices: There is a growing need to restore mined areas, replant forests, and adopt eco-friendly methods to make coal mining more sustainable.
Regulatory Compliance: Mining companies must navigate complex laws, environmental norms, and safety standards, which can slow down operations if not managed well.
Social Impact: The displacement of local populations often results in loss of livelihoods and social tensions, making community relations a major challenge.
Economic Viability: Global coal price fluctuations, rising costs, and competition from renewable energy sources impact the profitability of coal mining.

Infrastructure Development: Efficient transport systems are critical for moving coal from mines to power plants and industries, but poor infrastructure in some regions adds to the challenge.

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Coal Mines In India FAQs

Q1: What are the 5 largest coal mines in India?

Ans: The five largest are Jharia, Raniganj, Talcher, Korba, and Neyveli, known for high production and significant contribution to India’s energy sector.

Q2: How many coal mines are there in India?

Ans: India has approximately 450 coal mines, both public (mostly Coal India Ltd) and private, spread across states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal.

Q3: Which state has the largest coal mine in India?

Ans: Jharkhand houses the largest coal mine in India, Jharia, known for its extensive reserves and metallurgical coal production.

Q4: Which city is known as the coal city in India?

Ans: Dhanbad, in Jharkhand, is called the Coal Capital of India, due to its extensive coal mines and mining industry.

Q5: Which is Asia's largest coal mine in India?

Ans: Jharia coalfield in Jharkhand is Asia’s largest coal mine, famous for high-quality metallurgical coal and long-term mining operations.

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018, Objectives, Provisions

December 3, 2025

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 aims to stop economic offenders from escaping India after committing major financial crimes and ensure that their assets can be quickly seized to recover public money.

It strengthens the government’s power to declare someone an FEO and confiscate their properties, even those held through companies or relatives. The Act allows special courts to handle such cases and ensures that offenders cannot use the judicial system unless they return to India.

Fugitive Economic Offender (FEO) Definition

A Fugitive Economic Offender is an individual against whom an arrest warrant has been issued for a scheduled economic offence and who either leaves India to avoid prosecution or refuses to return when summoned. The Act applies only when the amount involved in the offence is ₹100 crore or more. This definition ensures that the law targets major financial criminals rather than minor offenders.

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 Objectives

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 aims to prevent major economic offenders from escaping India and ensure quick recovery of assets involved in high-value financial crimes. The key objectives of this act are:

To stop high-value economic offenders from fleeing India to evade investigation.
To enable swift attachment and confiscation of their properties.
To strengthen asset recovery mechanisms in major financial fraud cases.
To act as a deterrent against money laundering, bank fraud, and financial scams.
To support faster justice by reducing delays caused by absconding offenders.

Provisions of the FEO Act, 2018

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 lays down a structured mechanism to identify fugitive offenders, attach their properties, and enable courts to confiscate assets even in their absence. The key provisions of this act are:

Applies to individuals involved in scheduled economic offences involving ₹100 crore or more.
Enforcement Directorate (ED) can file an application before the Special Court to declare a person an FEO.
ED may provisionally attach properties of the accused for 180 days to prevent disposal.
Special Court under PMLA conducts the FEO declaration hearing and issues final orders.
Once declared an FEO, the court can confiscate all properties, including benami and overseas assets (equivalent value).
Offenders are barred from filing or defending civil claims in India unless they return to face investigation.
The Act covers both movable and immovable assets, including proceeds of crime and corporate properties.
Confiscated properties vest in the Central Government free of all encumbrances.

Role of Enforcement Directorate (ED)

The Enforcement Directorate (ED) is the primary agency responsible for implementing the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 by identifying absconders, tracing their assets, and initiating legal processes to declare them FEOs.

Identifies cases where individuals flee India after committing economic offences above ₹100 crore.
Files applications before the Special Court seeking FEO declaration.
Provisional attachment of movable and immovable properties of the accused for 180 days.
Collects financial evidence and tracks assets both within India and abroad.
Coordinates with foreign agencies, Interpol, and MLAT partners to trace and freeze overseas assets.
Executes confiscation orders passed by the Special Court under the FEO Act.
Ensures that confiscated properties vest with the Central Government.

Differences Between FEO Act and PMLA

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act (FEOA) and the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) both deal with financial crimes, but they serve different purposes and operate through separate mechanisms. The Differences Between FEO Act and PMLA have been tabulated below.

Differences Between FEO Act and PMLA
Aspect	FEO Act, 2018	PMLA, 2002
Purpose	Act against absconding economic offenders	Prevent and punish money laundering
Nature	Civil (confiscation-focused)	Criminal (investigation + prosecution)
Threshold	Applies to offences ₹100 crore+	No monetary threshold
Target	Offenders who flee India	Offenders laundering proceeds of crime
Presence of Accused	Not required for confiscation	Required for criminal trial
Key Action	Declaration as FEO + full property confiscation	Attachment, arrest, trial, and conviction
Property Confiscation	Entire property including benami & equivalent foreign assets	Only proceeds of crime or equivalent assets
Civil Rights	Cannot file/defend civil cases in India	No such restriction

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 Significance

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 is important because it helps the government take quick action against people who cheat Indian banks or commit financial crimes and then escape abroad.

It stops economic offenders from hiding in other countries to escape Indian laws.
The government can take their properties even if they are outside India.
It helps banks and agencies recover money faster.
It creates fear among offenders so they think twice before running away.
It makes India’s financial system more trustworthy.
It shows that the government is strict against big financial scams.
It supports faster action and stronger cases during extradition.

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 Issues

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018, faces several issues that make its implementation challenging. A few of the issues have been discussed below.

Extradition takes a very long time because it depends on foreign countries’ legal systems.
Offenders often file cases in foreign courts, delaying India’s action against them.
Tracing and seizing assets outside India is difficult due to slow information-sharing.
ED and other agencies must provide strong proof that the person fled intentionally, which is hard to establish.
Critics say the Act may be misused against businesspersons during financial disputes.
Coordination between ED, CBI, banks, and the Ministry of External Affairs is slow, affecting speedy action.
Selling seized properties is difficult and time-consuming, and their value may decrease over time.

Way Forward

The Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 can work better with stronger global cooperation, faster legal processes, and improved coordination among agencies.

Strengthen international cooperation so that foreign countries share financial information faster.
Speed up extradition agreements and streamline procedures to bring fugitives back quickly.
Improve coordination between ED, CBI, banks, and the Ministry of External Affairs for faster action.
Use advanced technology and financial intelligence tools to track assets in India and abroad more effectively.
Create special fast-track courts to handle FEO cases and avoid long delays.
Ensure transparency and strict guidelines to prevent misuse of the Act against genuine businesspersons.
Train investigation teams and increase staff capacity to handle complex financial crime cases.
Work with global bodies like FATF to strengthen cross-border asset recovery mechanisms.

Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 FAQs

Q1: What is the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018?

Ans: It is a law that allows the government to confiscate the properties of major economic offenders who flee India to avoid prosecution.

Q2: Who can be declared a Fugitive Economic Offender?

Ans: A person with an arrest warrant for a scheduled offence involving ₹100 crore or more who refuses to return to India.

Q3: Which agency enforces the FEO Act?

Ans: The Enforcement Directorate (ED) is responsible for identifying, attaching, and confiscating assets under the Act.

Q4: Does FEOA require conviction for confiscation?

Ans: No, assets can be confiscated even if the offender is abroad and not convicted.

Q5: What kinds of assets can be seized under the Act?

Ans: Proceeds of crime, benami properties, and domestic or equivalent foreign assets.

Hindu Succession Act 1956, Provisions, Features, Amendment, Criticism

December 3, 2025

The Hindu Succession Act 1956 created a single legal system for property inheritance among Hindus in India. It established clear rules for who inherits property when a person dies (including without will). Recent Supreme Court observations emphasized that inheritance under the Act is shaped by cultural practices, lineage rules, and legislative intent. The Court highlighted that succession is not only about gender justice but about the broader Hindu social structure, where inheritance follows traditional family-based norms.

Hindu Succession Act 1956

The Hindu Succession Act 1956 defines how a Hindu’s property is distributed when they die. It applies to Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists, and creates uniform succession rules across regions. The Act recognizes Class I and Class II heirs and a system of agnates and cognates. The Supreme Court recently upheld its inheritance rules, noting that inherited property often returns to the source family to preserve lineage. The Court stressed that reforms must come from Parliament because inheritance affects the entire society and changes require broad agreement.

Hindu Succession Act Provisions

The Hindu Succession Act provides rules for inheritance classification, rights of heirs, distribution order, and property return to source families based on lineage principles.

Class I heirs inherit equally: sons, daughters, widow, and mother.
Class II heirs inherit only when no Class I heirs exist.
Property goes to agnates and then cognates when no Class I or II heirs survive.
Recognizes both separate property and ancestral property.
Upholds cultural lineage, ensuring inherited property without heirs returns to the source family.
A woman may distribute property freely through a will.
Reform responsibility lies with Parliament, not courts.

Hindu Succession Act Intestate Provisions

The Hindu Succession Act specifies different rules for intestate succession for Hindu men and Hindu women, with clear lineage based prioritization.

A Hindu woman’s property first devolves on her husband and children.
If no husband or children survive, the husband’s heirs inherit.
Only if no husband’s heirs exist does the property pass to her parents.
Property inherited from parents or in-laws returns to that side if she dies without direct heirs.
A Hindu man’s property goes equally to wife, children, and mother.
If these do not exist, the father inherits.
Self-acquired property devolves by statutory order.
Ancestral property follows customary lineage-based principles.

Hindu Succession Act Features

The Hindu Succession Act governs Hindus nationwide, integrates traditional schools of law, and lays out uniform rules for inheritance and devolution.

Applies to Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists
Does not automatically apply to Scheduled Tribes unless notified.
Covers both Mitakshara and Dayabhaga schools; creates uniform inheritance rules.
In Mitakshara, property rights arise at birth; in Dayabhaga, after the father’s death.
Dayabhaga allows male and female coparceners; Mitakshara originally allowed only male coparceners.
Defines coparcenary rights and ancestral property rules.
Creates equality in Class I heir inheritance.
Establishes priority among heirs based on relationship.

Hindu Succession Act Criticism

Despite its progressive design, the Act faces criticism for unequal lineage rules and limited rights for women in certain family structures.

Critics argue inheritance rules reinforce cultural norms over gender equality.
Married women’s property returning to husband’s family is contested.
Unequal treatment in source-based property return is debated.
Scheduled Tribe women remain excluded under Section 2(2).
Practical barriers restrict women's use of coparcenary rights.
Social pressure prevents equal exercise of inheritance claims.
Courts stress that major changes must come through Parliament.
Reform proposals from the Law Commission and NCW remain pending.

Hindu Succession Act Amendments

The amendments under Hindu Succession Act strengthened women’s property rights, modernized coparcenary rules, and aligned inheritance with contemporary constitutional principles. The Hindu Succession Act Amendment 2005 brought changes as:

Granted daughters equal coparcenary rights by birth.
Allowed daughters to demand partition and hold ancestral property as full owners.
Applied to Mitakshara families across India.
Eliminated earlier restrictions on daughters’ property claims.
Recognized daughters’ rights irrespective of marital status.
Reinforced equal inheritance within the joint family system.

Hindu Succession Act UPSC

The Hindu Succession Act 1956 continues to evolve, with judicial and legislative attention focused on balancing cultural norms and gender-sensitive inheritance rules.

Recent Supreme Court rulings reaffirmed cultural lineage as central to inheritance.
The Court noted that property flow must reflect family structure traditions.
Amendments should come legislatively because inheritance affects millions.
Women retain full autonomy through wills despite structural limitations.
Discussions continue on Scheduled Tribe women’s inheritance inclusion (2023).
The 174th Law Commission and National Commission for Women supported equal rights reforms.
Debates focus on balancing gender equity and Hindu family systems.
Future changes must reflect broad social consensus and constitutional values.

Hindu Succession Act FAQs

Q1: What is the Hindu Succession Act?

Ans: The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 governs inheritance and property distribution for Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists when a person dies. It defines heirs, succession order, and property rights.

Q2: What did the 2005 amendment change in the Hindu Succession Act?

Ans: The 2005 amendment granted daughters equal coparcenary rights by birth, allowing them the same rights as sons in ancestral property.

Q3: How does property devolve when a Hindu woman dies intestate?

Ans: Her property goes first to her children and husband. If none exist, it devolves to her husband’s heirs, then her parents’ heirs.

Q4: Are Scheduled Tribes covered under the Hindu Succession Act?

Ans: No, Scheduled Tribes are excluded under Section 2(2) unless the Central Government notifies otherwise.

Q5: What were the Supreme Court’s recent observations on inheritance under Hindu Succession Act?

Ans: The Supreme Court held that inheritance must reflect cultural context, stressed legislative change (not judicial), and noted women can freely distribute property through wills.

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Out, Download PDF @upsc.gov.in

December 3, 2025

The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) has released the UPSC Reserve List 2024 for the Civil Services Examination (CSE). This list includes additional candidates recommended to fill the remaining vacancies in prestigious Central Government services. The UPSC Reserve List 2024 can be accessed on the official website upsc.gov.in. Selected candidates will be appointed to various Group ‘A’ and Group ‘B’ posts across Central Services.

UPSC Reserve List 2024

The UPSC Reserve List 2024 is a backup merit list created under Rule 20(4) and (5) of the Civil Services Examination rules. On April 22, 2025, UPSC declared the main list of 1,009 candidates and kept a reserve list of 230 candidates for possible future appointments, which has now been released. The UPSC has recommended 114 additional candidates from the reserve list to fill unfilled vacancies in the UPSC CSE 2024. These candidates were selected following the rules of the CSE and based on a request from the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT).

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Overview

The comprehensive overview of the UPSC Reserve List 2024 has been tabulated below based on the details provided at the official portal of Union Public Service Commission:

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Overview
Aspect	Description
Exam Name	Civil Services Examination (CSE) 2024
Conducting Body	Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
Date of Final Result	April 22, 2025
Total Candidates Recommended (Main List)	1,009
Total Candidates in Reserve List	230
Total Candidates Recommended (from Consolidated Reserve List 2024)	114
Official Website	upsc.gov.in

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Category Wise

The UPSC has recommended 114 candidates under different categories as part of the reserve list. Below is the detailed category-wise breakup of UPSC Reserve List 2024:

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Category Wise
Category	Number of Candidates
General	94
EWS (Economically Weaker Section)	5
OBC (Other Backward Classes)	13
SC (Scheduled Caste)	1
ST (Scheduled Tribe)	1
Total	114

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Candidates

For the 2024 Civil Services Examination, UPSC selected 1,009 candidates in the main list and kept 230 more candidates in the reserve list. These candidates may get a chance to join services such as IAS, IPS, IFS, or Central Civil Services, depending on vacancy availability.

UPSC Reserve List 2024 Candidates
List Type	Number of Candidates
Main List	1,009
Reserve List	230
Candidates Recommended from Reserve List	114

Download UPSC Reserve List 2024 PDF

Candidates can download the UPSC Reserve List 2024 PDF from the Official Website of UPSC. For the ease of candidates we have provided a direct link to download the Reserve List PDF for the additionally selected candidates under UPSC CSE Exam 2024 here:

Click Here to Download UPSC Reserve List 2024 [Out]

How to Check UPSC Reserve List 2024?

Candidates can check the reserve list easily by visiting the UPSC website. The list is published in the same PDF as the final result. Steps to Check UPSC Reserve List 2024:

Visit the official website at www.upsc.gov.in.
Click on the “Final Results” section.
Find the link titled “Civil Services Examination, 2024- Final Result”.
Download the PDF file.
Scroll to the bottom of the document to view the Reserve List section.

What After UPSC Reserve List 2024?

Once the main list candidates are allotted their services, the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT) checks if any seats remain unfilled. If vacancies exist, UPSC releases an updated list recommending candidates from the reserve list. In 2023, UPSC released a supplementary list after the main list to fill remaining posts. The same may happen for CSE 2024, depending on available vacancies. These additional appointments are announced separately through the UPSC or DoPT websites.

If your name appears in the reserve list:

Keep all certificates and documents updated and ready.
Check UPSC and DoPT websites regularly for updates.
Maintain contact with your registered email ID and mobile number.
Be patient, as appointments from the reserve list depend on future vacancies.

If you are not included in either list, focus on preparing for the next attempt with a detailed analysis of your previous performance.

Why Does UPSC Release a Reserve List?

UPSC maintains a reserve list every year to fill vacancies that remain open after the main result. There are several reasons for this:

Some selected candidates do not join the service.
A few candidates withdraw after getting other job offers.
Certain candidates fail to submit required documents or certificates.
Vacancies arise due to administrative adjustments or resignation of candidates.

UPSC CSE Reserve List 2024

The UPSC CSE Reserve List 2024 reflects the transparency and inclusiveness of India’s top recruitment process. With 230 candidates placed on standby, it ensures that every administrative post is filled efficiently and that no seat is wasted. However 114 of these candidates are now recommended by the UPSC for Central Services. Candidates should stay alert for updates from UPSC or DoPT and keep their documents ready.

UPSC Reserve List 2024 PDF

The UPSC Reserve List 2024 PDF is not just a backup, it ensures fairness in the recruitment process. It allows deserving candidates to get a chance if others drop out. It also helps the government quickly fill vacant administrative posts without conducting a new examination. Thus, for many aspirants, being on the reserve list is still a big opportunity for selection in prestigious services like the IAS, IPS, IFS, and IRS.

Other Related Posts of UPSC 2025
UPSC Syllabus	UPSC Exam Pattern
UPSC Age Limit	IAS Salary
UPSC Exam Date 2026	UPSC Optional Subjects List
UPSC Calendar	UPSC Mains 2025
UPSC Prelims 2026	UPSC Interview
UPSC Result	UPSC Cut Off
UPSC CSAT Syllabus	UPSC Books
UPSC Admit Card	UPSC Previous Year Papers
UPSC Answer Key	IAS vs IPS

UPSC Reserve List 2024 FAQs

Q1: What is the UPSC Reserve List 2024?

Ans: The UPSC Reserve List 2024 includes additional candidates selected below the main list to fill remaining Civil Services vacancies.

Q2: How many candidates are in the UPSC Reserve List 2024?

Ans: There are 230 candidates in the UPSC Reserve List 2024 out of which 114 have been recommended for various Central Government Positions.

Q3: How many candidates have been recommended from the UPSC Reserve List 2024?

Ans: A total of 114 additional Candidates have been selected from the UPSC Reserve List 2024.

Q4: Where can I check the UPSC Reserve List 2024 PDF?

Ans: You can download the UPSC Reserve List 2024 PDF from the official UPSC website at www.upsc.gov.in.

Q5: What happens after the UPSC Reserve List 2024 release?

Ans: If vacancies remain unfilled, UPSC recommends candidates from the reserve list for appointment through the Department of Personnel and Training.

Banking System in India, Types, Structure, Related Concepts

December 3, 2025

The Banking System in India forms the cornerstone of the country’s economic structure. It acts as the principal financial intermediary, channeling funds from savers to borrowers, facilitating capital formation, and ensuring the smooth flow of credit across all sectors of the economy. Beyond its traditional roles of accepting deposits and lending money, the Indian banking system also promotes financial inclusion, supports government policy implementation, and contributes to national development. Understanding the structure, classification, and working of India’s banking system is important for comprehending the broader Indian financial system. In this article, we are going to cover the Banking System in India, its components, regulatory framework, types of banks, and related concepts like Basel Norms, Development Banks, NBFCs and digital banking trends.

Banking System in India

The Banking System in India refers to the network of financial institutions that perform banking and allied functions. These institutions like the commercial banks, cooperative banks, and development banks handle deposits, provide loans, facilitate payments, and offer financial services to individuals, businesses, and governments.

Essentially, banks act as financial intermediaries, transferring surplus funds from households and institutions that save, to those that require funds for investment and consumption. This intermediation promotes productive use of money and stimulates economic activity.

The Indian banking sector not only supports private business and industry but also plays a crucial social role by implementing welfare-oriented schemes like Jan Dhan Yojana, MUDRA, and Priority Sector Lending, which ensure that credit reaches weaker sections of society.

Classification of Banks in India

Banks in India are classified into two main categories:

Scheduled Banks
Non-Scheduled Banks

This classification is based on their inclusion in the Second Schedule of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934

1. Scheduled Banks

Scheduled Banks are those institutions that appear in the Second Schedule of the RBI Act, 1934. Inclusion in the Schedule indicates that the bank fulfills certain conditions prescribed by the RBI and is therefore eligible for various facilities offered by it.

To qualify as a Scheduled Bank, an institution must:

Have a paid-up capital and reserves of at least ₹5 lakh.
Satisfy the RBI that its operations are not conducted in a manner detrimental to the interests of depositors. If a bank fails to maintain these standards, it can be de-listed from the Schedule.

Benefits of Being a Scheduled Bank

Access to borrowings from the RBI at the Bank Rate.
Membership of the Clearing House, enabling efficient settlement of interbank transactions.
Eligibility to rediscount first-class exchange bills with the RBI.
Enhanced public confidence, as inclusion in the Schedule signals stability and reliability.

2. Non-Scheduled Banks

Non-Scheduled Banks are institutions not listed in the Second Schedule of the RBI Act. They are usually small local banks that do not meet the RBI’s prescribed criteria. Though they function under the supervision of the RBI, they are subject to less stringent regulations.

These banks maintain their own cash reserves instead of depositing them with the RBI and usually operate on a smaller scale, focusing on local or regional needs.

Key Differences between Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Banks

The Difference between Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Banks are:

Basis	Scheduled Banks	Non-Scheduled Banks
Inclusion	Listed in the Second Schedule of RBI Act, 1934.	Not listed in the Second Schedule.
Capital Requirement	Minimum paid-up capital of ₹5 lakh.	No specific requirement.
CRR Maintenance	Maintain Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) with RBI.	Maintain CRR with themselves.
Borrowing from RBI	Can borrow funds from RBI.	Can borrow only in emergencies.
Clearing House Membership	Automatic membership.	Not eligible.
Supervision	Strictly regulated by RBI.	Lesser degree of regulation.
Examples	SBI, HDFC Bank, PNB.	Local Area Banks, small UCBs.

Most banks operating in India today fall under the category of Scheduled Banks.

Banking System in India Structure

The structure of the Indian Banking System is multi-layered and includes various institutions catering to different needs ranging from large-scale commercial banks to rural cooperative societies. At the top of this structure is the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), which acts as the regulator and guardian of the entire system.

1. Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

Established in 1935, the Reserve Bank of India is the central bank and monetary authority of the country. It regulates and supervises the functioning of all banks and financial institutions in India.

Functions of RBI

Formulation of monetary policy to ensure price stability and economic growth.
Regulation and supervision of banking operations.
Control of credit and liquidity in the economy.
Issuance and management of currency.
Acting as the banker to the government and banker’s bank.
Maintaining financial stability and promoting economic development. The RBI thus acts as the apex institution of the banking hierarchy in India.

2. Commercial Banks

Commercial Banks are profit-oriented institutions that provide financial services to the general public, businesses, and government. They form the backbone of India’s banking network.

Accept deposits and extend loans.
Provide investment, insurance, and payment services.
Operate on a profit motive while maintaining social obligations.
Regulated by the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.

Types of Commercial Banks

Public Sector Banks: Majority owned by the government (e.g., SBI, Bank of Baroda).
Private Sector Banks: Owned by private entities (e.g., HDFC Bank, Axis Bank).
Foreign Banks: Branches of foreign institutions (e.g., Citi Bank, HSBC).
Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) : Established to serve rural credit needs (e.g., Prathama Bank).

Commercial banks play a major role in mobilizing savings, facilitating trade, and ensuring capital formation in the economy.

3. Cooperative Banks

Cooperative Banks operate on the principle of cooperation, self-help, and mutual benefit. Owned and managed by their members, these banks aim to provide affordable credit, particularly to rural and semi-urban populations.

Structure of Cooperative Banks:

Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS): Operate at the village level.
District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs): Operate at the district level.
State Cooperative Banks (SCBs): Apex institutions at the state level.

Cooperative banks have been instrumental in promoting agricultural finance and rural development in India.

4. Development Banks

Development Banks, also known as Development Financial Institutions (DFIs) or Term-Lending Institutions (TLIs), provide long-term capital for industries and infrastructure projects.

Functions of Development Banks

Provide long-term loans to industries and infrastructure projects.
Promote entrepreneurship and industrialization.
Fill gaps left by commercial banks in providing long-term finance.

Examples

Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI)
Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI)
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
Export-Import Bank of India (EXIM Bank)

Development banks have been important in strengthening India’s industrial and rural sectors.

5. Differentiated Banks

To promote innovation and inclusion, the RBI introduced the concept of Differentiated Banks based on the Nachiket Mor Committee Report (2013).

Types of Differentiated Banks

Payments Banks: Focus on small savings, remittances, and payments; cannot lend. Examples: Paytm Payments Bank, India Post Payments Bank.
Small Finance Banks (SFBs): Provide banking services to small businesses and low-income groups. Examples: AU Small Finance Bank, Ujjivan SFB.

These banks help in advancing the goal of financial inclusion by bringing underserved populations into the formal financial network.

6. Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)

NBFCs are financial institutions that perform similar functions to banks such as providing loans, advances, and investment services but do not possess a full banking license.

NBFCs Characteristics

Cannot accept demand deposits.
Not part of the payment and settlement system.
Do not issue cheques drawn on themselves.
Regulated under the Companies Act, 1956, and supervised by the RBI and other regulators.

NBFCs play an important role in financing small-scale industries, transport operators, and self-employed individuals segments often overlooked by commercial banks.

Difference between Banks and NBFCs

Banks and NBFCs are different in the following ways:

Basis	Banks	NBFCs
Demand Deposits	Can accept	Cannot accept
Cheque Facility	Available	Not available
Deposit Insurance	Covered under DICGC	Not covered
Reserve Ratios	Must maintain CRR, SLR	Not mandatory
Regulatory Act	Banking Regulation Act, 1949	Companies Act, 1956
FDI Limit	74%	100%

NBFCs complement traditional banks by serving niche sectors, thereby expanding financial access.

Banking System in India Basel Norms (Basel Accords)

The Basel Norms are international banking regulations developed by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) under the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), Switzerland. They aim to strengthen the regulation, supervision, and risk management of banks globally.

These norms ensure that banks maintain sufficient capital to absorb losses and remain solvent even during economic stress.

Basel I (1988)

Focused on credit risk.
Introduced the concept of Risk-Weighted Assets (RWA).
Minimum capital adequacy ratio fixed at 8% of RWA.

Basel II (2004)

Broadened the framework to include market risk and operational risk.
Based on three pillars:
1. Minimum Capital Requirement
2. Supervisory Review
3. Market Discipline

Basel III (2010)

Introduced after the 2008 global financial crisis.
Aimed to enhance banks’ ability to absorb shocks.
Focused on capital adequacy, leverage, and liquidity.
Encourages banks to build capital buffers and maintain stronger risk management practices.

Capital-to-Risk Weighted Asset Ratio (CRAR)

The Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) or CRAR ensures that a bank maintains sufficient capital to meet its obligations and absorb potential losses. It is calculated as:

A higher CRAR shares a stronger and more stable bank. In India, the RBI mandates a minimum CRAR of 9%, higher than the global Basel requirement, reflecting the prudential approach of Indian regulators.

Banking System in India Related Concepts

Here are a few terms and concepts related to the Banking System in India:

Domestic Systemically Important Banks (D-SIBs)

D-SIBs are banks that are considered “Too Big to Fail” due to their size, interconnectedness, and importance in the financial system. Their failure could trigger wider instability.

Identified under RBI’s 2014 framework.
Banks with assets exceeding 2% of India’s GDP are classified as D-SIBs.
As of now, SBI, ICICI Bank, and HDFC Bank have been identified as D-SIBs.

These banks are required to maintain additional capital buffers to enhance resilience.

Neobanks

Neobanks are digital-only financial institutions with no physical branches. They leverage technology to offer banking services through mobile applications and websites.

Types in India:

Partnered Neobanks: Collaborate with traditional banks to offer services. (e.g., Jupiter, RazorpayX)
Licensed Neobanks: Hold independent banking licenses (yet limited in India).

Neobanks aim to make banking more accessible, personalized, and cost-effective, especially for the tech-savvy generation.

Banking System in India UPSC

The Banking System in India is a vast, dynamic, and evolving network that underpins the country’s economic development. From the RBI at the apex to rural cooperative societies at the grassroots, every institution contributes to maintaining the flow of credit, ensuring stability, and fostering inclusive growth.

In recent years, the Indian banking sector has embraced digitalization, financial inclusion, and regulatory reforms, ensuring greater transparency and efficiency. Initiatives like Jan Dhan Yojana, UPI, and Digital Rupee signify the sector’s transformation toward a more inclusive, technology-driven future.

As India aspires to become a $5 trillion economy, the banking system will continue to play an important role not just as a financial intermediary but as a driver of sustainable and equitable growth.

Banking System in India FAQs

Q1: What are the 4 types of banks in India?

Ans: The four types of banks in India are Commercial Banks, Cooperative Banks, Development Banks, and Differentiated Banks.

Q2: How many types of banking systems are there in India?

Ans: There are two main types of banking systems in India: Scheduled Banks and Non-Scheduled Banks.

Q3: When was the banking system introduced in India?

Ans: The formal banking system in India began in 1770 with the establishment of the Bank of Hindustan.

Q4: What are the three phases of the banking system?

Ans: The three phases of the Indian banking system are Pre-Independence Phase (before 1947), Post-Independence Phase (1947–1991), and Liberalization Phase (1991 onwards).

Q5: What are the different types of bank accounts?

Ans: The main types of bank accounts are Savings Account, Current Account, Fixed Deposit Account, and Recurring Deposit Account.

Fiscal Policy in India, Objectives, Instruments, Types, Role

December 3, 2025

Fiscal Policy in India forms the bedrock of the nation’s economic governance, guiding the country through various stages of growth, development, and challenges. It acts as a vital instrument in achieving macroeconomic stability, ensuring inclusive development, and addressing socio-economic inequalities. By controlling government expenditure, taxation, and public debt, fiscal policy determines how the state intervenes in the economy to promote sustainable growth and stability. In this article, we are going to cover Fiscal Policy in India, its meaning, objectives, instruments, types and cyclical nature of Fiscal Policy in India along with important concepts that shape India’s economic policy framework.

Fiscal Policy in India

Fiscal Policy refers to the policy decisions of the government concerning public expenditure, taxation, and public borrowing. It is the mechanism through which the government adjusts its spending and taxation levels to influence a nation’s overall economic activity.

The concept is rooted in Keynesian economics, which argues that during periods of economic instability like recessions or inflation government intervention through fiscal measures can help restore balance. For instance, increasing spending or cutting taxes can boost demand during a slowdown, while reducing spending or raising taxes can help cool inflationary pressures.

Thus, Fiscal Policy acts as both a stabilizing and developmental tool, shaping India’s economic trajectory and ensuring that growth translates into social welfare.

Fiscal Policy in India Objectives

The objectives of India’s Fiscal Policy are wide-ranging and interlinked, reflecting both developmental and stabilizing roles:

Mobilization of Resources: To channel financial resources into socially necessary and productive sectors such as infrastructure, education, and health.
Economic Stability: To counter cyclical fluctuations and maintain macroeconomic balance.
Price Stability: To control inflationary and deflationary trends and ensure stable purchasing power.
Sustained Growth Rate: To maintain a consistent and balanced rate of economic growth.
Balance of Payments Equilibrium: To prevent excessive dependence on foreign capital and ensure external stability.
Raising Living Standards: To improve public welfare through employment generation and social development.
Reducing Inequality: To minimize disparities in income and wealth through progressive taxation and redistributive policies.
Encouraging Private Sector Growth: To provide incentives and a conducive environment for private investment and entrepreneurship.

Fiscal Policy in India Instruments

Fiscal Policy operates mainly through three major instruments that includes Public Expenditure, Taxation, and Public Borrowing along with other supplementary measures.

1. Public Expenditure

This includes all government spending on goods, services, infrastructure, and welfare programmes.

Role: By altering expenditure levels, the government can directly affect economic activity.
Example: During slowdowns, higher public spending on rural employment or infrastructure creates jobs and boosts demand.

2. Taxation

Taxation is one of the most powerful fiscal tools that influences disposable income, investment, and savings.

Reducing Taxes: Increases consumption and investment, spurring growth.
Increasing Taxes: Helps curb inflation and reduce excessive demand.

3. Public Borrowing

When expenditures exceed revenues, governments borrow internally (from citizens, banks, etc.) or externally (from foreign institutions).

Purpose: To fund infrastructure, welfare schemes, or deficit financing.
Instruments: Bonds, Treasury Bills, National Savings Certificates, etc.

4. Other Fiscal Measures

Additional tools include:

Price and wage controls
Subsidy reforms
Encouragement of production and exports
Regulation of consumption through duties and levies

Difference between Fiscal Policy and Monetary Policy

Fiscal Policy and Monetary Policy have the following differences:

Aspect	Fiscal Policy	Monetary Policy
Definition	Government’s policy related to expenditure, taxation, and borrowing to influence the economy.	Policy framed by the Central Bank to regulate money supply and interest rates.
Authority	Managed by the Government (Ministry of Finance).	Managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
Objective	To influence overall economic activity and achieve growth and stability.	To control inflation and ensure monetary stability.
Major Tools	Public expenditure, taxation, and borrowing.	Bank Rate, Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), etc.

Both policies work in coordination. Fiscal Policy ensures demand creation and developmental spending, while Monetary Policy maintains liquidity and price stability.

Fiscal Policy in India Types

Depending on economic conditions and objectives, Fiscal Policy can be classified into three types:

1. Expansionary Fiscal Policy

Mechanism: Involves higher government spending or lower taxes to stimulate demand.
Objective: To reduce unemployment and boost GDP growth.
When Used: During recessions or economic slowdowns.
Caution: May lead to inflation if demand exceeds supply.

2. Contractionary (Tight) Fiscal Policy

Mechanism: Reduces spending or increases taxes to lower aggregate demand.
Objective: To control inflation and reduce fiscal deficit.
When Used: During periods of high inflation or overheating economy.
Caution: May increase unemployment temporarily.

3. Neutral Fiscal Policy

Mechanism: Keeps government revenue and expenditure balanced.
Objective: To maintain economic stability without stimulating or restricting growth.
When Used: When the economy is in equilibrium.

Cyclicality of Fiscal Policy

Fiscal Policy often responds to the phases of the business cycle—expansion, peak, contraction, and trough. Its direction of influence gives rise to two types of cyclical behavior:

1. Counter-Cyclical Fiscal Policy

Moves opposite to the business cycle.
During a slowdown, the government increases spending and reduces taxes (expansionary).
During a boom, it cuts spending or raises taxes (contractionary).
Example: India’s fiscal stimulus packages during the 2008 global financial crisis and COVID-19 pandemic.

2. Pro-Cyclical Fiscal Policy

Moves in the same direction as the business cycle.
Expansionary in booms and contractionary during recessions.
Considered risky as it may deepen economic volatility and social distress.

Fiscal Policy in India Key Related Concepts

1. Fiscal Deficit

The Fiscal Deficit is the difference between the government’s total expenditure and total non-borrowed revenue in a financial year.
It is expressed as a percentage of GDP and serves as a key indicator of fiscal health. A high deficit implies greater borrowing, which may increase future debt burden.

2. Fiscal Consolidation

Refers to the process of improving government finances by reducing fiscal deficit through prudent spending, better revenue collection, and structural reforms.
India’s Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act aims to institutionalize fiscal discipline and reduce deficits sustainably.

3. Fiscal Drag

Fiscal Drag occurs when inflation or income growth pushes taxpayers into higher tax brackets without a real increase in purchasing power reducing disposable income and demand.
This phenomenon often occurs under progressive taxation systems.

4. Fiscal Neutrality

When the government’s taxing and spending decisions are designed to have no net effect on overall demand. For example, if new welfare spending is exactly matched by equivalent tax revenue, the fiscal stance remains neutral.

5. Crowding Out Effect

This theory suggests that excessive government borrowing or spending can reduce private investment. When the government borrows heavily, interest rates rise, making it costlier for businesses to borrow and invest.

6. Pump Priming

Pump Priming refers to the government’s deliberate effort to inject funds into a sluggish economy through public expenditure or tax incentives to stimulate growth.mIt was first used during the Great Depression to describe Keynesian-style economic recovery measures.

7. Economic Stimulus

An economic stimulus package involves fiscal or monetary interventions aimed at reviving growth during a slowdown. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, India launched the Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, comprising three tranches of stimulus measures, to support businesses, workers, and vulnerable populations.

Fiscal Policy in India UPSC

Fiscal Policy in India remains the government’s most powerful economic instrument—balancing the dual objectives of growth and stability. It not only helps in managing inflation and unemployment but also plays a transformative role in achieving social equity and sustainable development.

In recent years, India’s fiscal strategy has evolved towards greater transparency, efficiency, and responsibility under frameworks like the FRBM Act, targeted subsidies, and digital reforms. Going forward, a well-calibrated fiscal policy complemented by effective monetary measures will continue to steer India toward inclusive growth, fiscal prudence, and long-term economic resilience.

Also Check Other Posts
Care Economy	Mutual Funds
Alternative Investment Funds	GDP Deflator

Fiscal Policy in India FAQs

Q1: What are the fiscal policies of India?

Ans: Fiscal policies of India are government strategies involving taxation, public expenditure, and borrowing to influence the country’s economy.

Q2: What are the three types of fiscal policy?

Ans: The three types are Expansionary, Contractionary (Tight), and Neutral fiscal policies.

Q3: What is fiscal policy?

Ans: Fiscal policy is the government’s use of spending, taxation, and borrowing to manage and influence economic activity.

Q4: What is monetary policy?

Ans: Monetary policy is the central bank’s regulation of money supply and interest rates to control inflation and stabilize the economy.

Q5: What are the objectives of fiscal policy?

Ans: The objectives include promoting economic growth, maintaining price stability, ensuring employment, reducing income inequality, and managing public resources efficiently.

Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 & 2017

December 3, 2025

The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 and 2017 are aimed at protecting and managing India’s wetlands in a sustainable way. They define what wetlands are, list activities that are prohibited or regulated, and set up authorities to monitor and manage these areas. The 2017 Rules strengthened the 2010 framework by including state-level authorities, expert committees, and a digital wetland inventory.

Together, these rules help conserve biodiversity, maintain water resources, and involve local communities in wetland protection.

What is a Wetland?

A wetland is an area where water is the primary factor influencing the environment and the plants and animals living there. It occurs where the water table is at or near the land surface or where the land is submerged under water, either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands are now recognised as distinct ecosystems with unique ecological functions, including water purification, flood control, biodiversity support, and groundwater recharge.

Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 Provisions

The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 were the first comprehensive framework in India for protecting wetlands under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. They aimed to regulate human activities and conserve wetland ecosystems.

Defined wetlands to include marshes, fens, peatlands, lakes, reservoirs, tanks, backwaters, lagoons, estuaries, and man-made wetlands up to a depth of 6 meters, including their catchment areas.
Prohibited activities: reclamation of wetlands, industrialization, dumping of hazardous substances, solid waste, and activities harmful to wetland ecology.
Regulated activities: withdrawal of water, harvesting of resources, dredging, etc., requiring prior approval from authorities.
Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority (CWRA) established to monitor activities, identify new wetlands, and evaluate state submissions.
State governments required to submit a brief document on wetlands for potential protection under the rules.
Upon approval, wetlands could be notified as “Protected Wetlands.”
Appeals mechanism available through the National Green Tribunal for decisions made by the authority

Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 Limitations

The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 had several limitations that affected their effectiveness:

Livelihood and Water Security Not Addressed: They did not consider wetlands critical for the livelihoods and domestic water supply of dependent populations.
Exclusion of Smaller Wetlands: Many small wetlands, jheels, tanks, and rural/urban water bodies performing important ecological and socio-economic functions were not included.
Lack of Local Authorities: The rules did not mandate the creation of state or district-level Wetlands Regulatory Authorities, limiting local participation and governance.
No Community Representation: The Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority (CWRA) lacked members from local communities, farmers, or fishing associations, reducing stakeholder involvement.
Limited Enforcement Mechanism: Monitoring and enforcement were largely centralized, making it difficult to address local threats effectively.

Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 Provisions

The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 aim to strengthen wetland protection in India by decentralizing authority, involving experts, and regulating activities to ensure sustainable use.

Wetlands defined as lands between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with water at or near the surface.
Establishment of State Wetlands Authority in each state/UT headed by Environment Minister.
Experts in ecology, hydrology, fisheries, and socioeconomics to be included in state committees.
Preparation of a comprehensive list of permitted, regulated, and prohibited activities for wetlands.
Replacement of CWRA with a Central Advisory Committee to guide policies and Ramsar site nominations.
Creation of a digital wetland inventory, updated every ten years.
Prohibition of activities like industrial expansion, conversion for non-wetland use, hazardous waste disposal, and untreated effluent discharge.
State governments are empowered to implement local protection, while the central government retains monitoring authority.

National Wetland Committee (NWC)

The National Wetland Committee (NWC) is a high-level advisory body constituted by the Government of India to oversee the conservation, management, and sustainable use of wetlands across the country.

It plays a pivotal role in implementing India’s wetland policies in line with the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 & 2017 and the commitments under the Ramsar Convention.

Functions and Features of NWC:

Policy Advisory: Advises the Central Government on formulating and implementing policies, programs, and strategies for wetland conservation.
Ramsar Site Designation: Recommends wetlands of international importance for notification under the Ramsar Convention and ensures compliance with global standards.
Scientific Guidance: Provides inputs based on wetland ecology, hydrology, fisheries, biodiversity, and socio-economic studies for informed decision-making.
Coordination with States and UTs: Works closely with State Wetlands Authorities to ensure consistent and effective implementation of wetland rules at local levels.
Capacity Building & Awareness: Suggests measures to educate stakeholders, local communities, and policymakers about the ecological and socio-economic importance of wetlands.
Monitoring & Evaluation: Tracks the status and health of wetlands, assesses the effectiveness of conservation measures, and recommends improvements.
International Collaboration: Facilitates partnerships with international agencies and organisations for technical support, research, and sustainable management practices.
Reporting: Provides periodic reports to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) on wetland conservation progress.

Case Studies of Wetland Management in India

India has witnessed several successful wetland conservation projects that combine government initiatives, scientific management, and community participation.

1. Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan

Type: Saltwater lake and India’s largest inland salt lake.
Issues: Encroachment, illegal salt mining, and pollution affecting biodiversity.
Management Measures:
- Declared a Ramsar site in 1990.
- Implementation of strict regulations under Wetlands Rules 2010.
- Monitoring of illegal activities and restoration of degraded habitats.
Outcome: Stabilization of migratory bird populations, especially flamingos, and improved water quality.

2. Chilika Lake, Odisha

Type: Brackish water lagoon, India’s largest coastal wetland.
Issues: Siltation, overfishing, and pollution affecting fish and bird species.
Management Measures:
- Community-based co-management with local fisherfolk.
- Restoration of water channels and control of invasive species.
- Declared a Ramsar site in 1981.
Outcome: Increase in fish catch, improved biodiversity, and enhanced ecotourism.

3. Vembanad-Kol Wetlands, Kerala

Type: Largest Ramsar site in Kerala, including lakes, lagoons, and canals.
Issues: Industrial pollution, urban encroachment, and habitat degradation.
Management Measures:
- Implementation of state-level wetland authority programs under 2017 Rules.
- Promotion of sustainable tourism and eco-friendly aquaculture.
Outcome: Improved water quality, restored bird habitats, and regulated human activities.

4. Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan

Type: Freshwater marsh and UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Issues: Water shortage, invasive species, and fluctuating wetland health.
Management Measures:
- Restoration of natural hydrology through canal and dam management.
- Active involvement of local communities in bird conservation programs.
- Strict enforcement of Wetlands Rules 2010.
Outcome: Revival of migratory bird populations and enhanced ecotourism.

5. East Kolkata Wetlands, West Bengal

Type: Urban wetland complex used for natural sewage treatment and fish farming.
Issues: Urbanization, encroachment, and pollution threats.
Management Measures:
- Recognized as a Ramsar site in 2002.
- Integrated urban planning with wetland protection.
- Promotion of traditional aquaculture and wastewater recycling.
Outcome: Sustainable fish production, wastewater treatment, and biodiversity conservation.

Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 & 2017 FAQs

Q1: What is the main purpose of Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules?

Ans: To protect and manage wetlands sustainably while supporting biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Q2: When were the Wetlands Rules first introduced?

Ans: In 2010, under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.

Q3: What is the key difference between the 2010 and 2017 Rules?

Ans: The 2017 Rules introduced state-level authorities, wider community participation, and a digital wetland inventory.

Q4: How many Ramsar sites are there in India?

Ans: India has 94 wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.

Q5: Which activities are prohibited under Wetlands Rules 2017?

Ans: Conversion to non-wetland use, industrial expansion, dumping of waste, and discharge of untreated effluents.

Government Budgeting, Meaning, Types, Components, Facts

December 3, 2025

Government Budgeting is the process by which the government plans, allocates and monitors the public fund. The process involves estimating revenues from taxes, fees, borrowings and planning the expenditures required to achieve policy objectives within a fixed fiscal period, generally one year.

Government Budgeting in India

The Government Budgeting in India is a comprehensive exercise undertaken by both the Central and the state levels. For the discussion, the focus is on the union budget, that is the annual financial statement of the Central Government.

Union Budget of India

The Constitution of India has the following provisions when it comes to the Union Budget:

According to Article 112 of the Indian Constitution, the Union Budget refers to the Annual Financial Statement of the Central Government. This statement provides details of estimated receipts and expenditures for the financial year.
The Union Budget can be sub divided into three categories:
1. Budget Estimates (BE): Projections for the upcoming fiscal year.
2. Revised Estimates (RE): Updated estimates for the current fiscal year.
3. Provisional Actuals (PA): Actual receipts and expenditures of the previous fiscal year.

Union Budget of India Important Facts

The Union Budget is presented in the Parliament on 1st February every year since 2017-18.
Before this, the budget was always presented in the last week of February.
The Railway Budget, earlier presented separately since 1924 (Acworth Committee recommendation), was merged with the General Budget in 2017–18 (Bibek Debroy Committee).
The Nodal Agency managing the Union Budget is the Budget Division of the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance.

Government Budgeting Stages in India

Government Budgeting in India is divided into four phases:

Budget Formulation: Preparation of estimates of receipts and expenditures.
Budget Enactment: Legislative approval through Finance Bill & Appropriation Bill.
Budget Execution: Collection of revenues and spending as per approvals.
Legislative Review: Post-budget audits and scrutiny by Parliament.

Procedure of Union Budget Enactment

The Union Budget is passed in the Parliament by by following procedure:

The President fixes the date of the budget presentation.
The Budget is laid down in the Lok Sabha by the Union Finance Minister, followed by laying it before the Rajya Sabha.
The Budget is then put up for debate on the basis of principles and priorities without voting.
The Standing Committees examine Demands for Grants in detail and submit reports.
Voting on Demands for Grants (Lok Sabha only):
- Lok Sabha votes on expenditure demands, converting them into Grants.
- Rajya Sabha can only discuss, not vote.
- Cut Motions:
  - Policy Cut Motion – reduce demand to ₹1 (policy disapproval).
  - Economy Cut Motion – reduce demand by a specific amount (suggest savings).
  - Token Cut Motion – reduce demand by ₹100 (raise a grievance).
The Appropriation Bill is passed after grants are approved. This bill authorises withdrawals from the Consolidated Funds of India.
The Finance Bill legalises tax proposals and revenue measures.
Finally with the Presidential assent to Appropriation and Finance Acts, the Budget is finally enforceable.

Government Budget Components

The Government Budget is sub-divided into two main components- Revenue Budget and Capital Budget

1. Revenue Budget

The Revenue Budget details the government’s revenue receipts and revenue expenditure.

(a) Revenue Receipts

Income received by the government that is not repayable.

Tax Revenue includes:
- Direct Taxes: e.g., Income Tax, Corporation Tax
- Indirect Taxes: e.g., Customs Duties, Excise Duties, Service Tax, GST
- Other Direct Taxes: Wealth Tax, Gift Tax, etc.
Non-Tax Revenue
- Interest receipts on loans
- Dividends & profits from government investments
- Fees & service charges
- Spectrum revenue
- Grants from foreign countries/institutions

(b) Revenue Expenditure

Revenue Expenditure neither creates assets nor generates future returns.
Examples: Salaries, pensions, subsidies, interest payments, grants to states/UTs, and daily functioning of government departments.

2. Capital Budget

The Capital Budget reflects the assets and liabilities of the government and funds required for long-term development.

(a) Capital Receipts

Funds that either create liabilities or reduce assets.

Debt-Creating: Fresh loans and borrowings
Non-Debt Creating: Recovery of loans, disinvestment proceeds

(b) Capital Expenditure

Capital Expenditure is the spending that leads to creation of assets or investments.
Examples: Infrastructure (roads, schools, hospitals), equity in PSUs, loans to states/UTs, and repayment of loan principal.

Budget Types

The Union Budget is of the following types:

Balanced Budget – Receipts = Expenditure (rare in practice).
Surplus Budget – Receipts > Expenditure (used to control inflation).
Deficit Budget – Expenditure > Receipts (used during recession/depression).

Budget Deficits

The Deficits in Budget is of the following types:

Budget Deficit = Total Expenditure – Total Receipts (rarely used now).
Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts (indicates non-asset spending).
Effective Revenue Deficit (ERD) = Revenue Deficit – Grants for Capital Assets (introduced in 2012–13).
Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Capital Receipts).
Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit – Interest Payments.
Monetized Deficit = Borrowings from RBI + Cash drawdown (leads to increase in money supply).

Government Budgeting Types

Government Budgeting is of the following types:

Line-Item Budgeting : Lists expenditures by categories
Performance Budgeting : Links spending to measurable performance.
Zero-Based Budgeting : Introduced in 1987-88 and every program reviewed afresh from "zero" each year.
Outcome Budgeting : Introduced in 2005 and consolidated in 2017-18, it focuses on results achieved rather than inputs.
Gender Budgeting : introduced in 2005-06, it examines budgets from a gender perspective to promote equality.

Government Budgeting FAQs

Q1: What does the government budget mean?

Ans: A government budget is an annual financial statement of estimated revenue and expenditure for a fiscal year.

Q2: What are the types of government budgets?

Ans: The three types are Balanced Budget, Surplus Budget, and Deficit Budget.

Q3: What are the 4 types of budgeting?

Ans: The four types are Line-Item Budgeting, Performance Budgeting, Zero-Based Budgeting, and Outcome Budgeting.

Q4: What is the revenue deficit?

Ans: Revenue deficit is the excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts.

Q5: How do you calculate the fiscal deficit?

Ans: Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Capital Receipts).

Inclusive Growth, Meaning, Need, Features, Factors Affecting

December 3, 2025

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines Inclusive Growth as both the process and the result of ensuring that all groups of people are able to participate in economic growth and share its benefits equally. It emphasizes that growth must not be limited to a few, but should expand opportunities for everyone, especially the marginalized.

This idea directly connects with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10, which seeks to reduce inequality within and among countries. SDG 10 highlights the importance of providing equal opportunities and addressing unequal outcomes by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies, and practices. It also calls for proactive steps through legislation, reforms, and social measures to promote fairness and equity in development.

Inclusive Growth

Inclusive Growth ensures that economic growth benefits all sections of society, reducing poverty and inequality. It is not only about the pace of growth but also about its pattern, how it creates opportunities and distributes benefits. The goal is to expand productive employment rather than merely redistribute income.

Inclusiveness means equal access to markets, resources, and a fair regulatory environment for both individuals and businesses. Growth strategies must be modified to each country’s unique socio-economic conditions. Market forces largely drive inclusive growth, but government intervention is vital to provide support, regulation, and infrastructure.

Focus remains on improving productivity alongside job creation, ensuring long-term and sustainable development.

Inclusive Growth Need

Reduce Poverty and Inequality: Rapid growth alone has not guaranteed poverty reduction; inclusiveness ensures benefits reach marginalized groups.
Balanced Regional Development: Disparities across states and rural-urban divides call for growth that spreads evenly.
Social Justice and Equity: Ensures equal access to opportunities, resources, and markets, upholding constitutional values.
Human Development: Better education, healthcare, nutrition, and skill development raise overall productivity.
Employment Generation: Moves beyond income redistribution to create quality jobs, especially in agriculture and informal sectors.
Sustainable Growth: Focus on environmentally sound and socially inclusive policies avoids long-term risks.
Political and Social Stability: Reduces unrest by bringing disadvantaged groups into the growth process.

Inclusive Growth Features

Equitable Opportunities: Ensures access to resources and markets for all, regardless of socio-economic background.
Reducing Inequality: Seeks to narrow income and wealth gaps, promoting social balance and stability.
Social Safety Nets: Strengthens support systems for vulnerable groups during crises or economic transitions.
Education and Skill Development: Focuses on quality education and training to enhance employability and productivity.
Employment Generation: Prioritizes creation of decent and diverse jobs, especially for marginalized communities.
Infrastructure Expansion: Improves healthcare, roads, sanitation, and housing to raise living standards.
Gender Equality: Promotes women’s participation and empowerment across sectors.
Rural-Urban Linkages: Encourages balanced development to reduce distress migration.
Sustainability: Integrates ecological concerns into growth strategies.
Participatory Approach: Involves all stakeholders, government, business, and civil society in shaping policies.

Factors Affecting Inclusive Growth

Inequality:
- Inequalities in society go beyond individual differences; they are sustained by socio-economic and political structures.
- Rapid globalization has widened these inequities, creating fresh challenges for inclusion.
- Marginalized groups such as minorities, women, the disabled, and the poor remain excluded unless specific equity-focused measures are taken.
Social Exclusion
- Exclusion is rooted in social structures that deny certain groups full participation in economic and social life.
- Even developed economies face exclusion, proving that growth alone doesn’t guarantee inclusion.
- Marginalization limits opportunities and deepens disadvantage.
Poverty
- Poverty is multidimensional, covering not just income but health, education, and dignity.
- The poor face systemic barriers in decision-making and access to resources.
- Inclusion is necessary to enhance their capabilities, productivity, and incomes.
Disparities
- Regional, gender, caste, and class disparities remain pervasive.
- Natural factors (climate, geography), socio-cultural norms, and government policies all shape these gaps.
- Addressing these disparities is crucial for balanced and equitable growth.
Displacement
- Forced displacements due to projects, conflicts, or disasters disrupt livelihoods and culture.
- They result in economic loss, social suffering, and resistance movements, slowing inclusive development.

Inclusive Growth Policy Measures

Constitutional Provisions
- Article 15: Prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
- Article 16: Guarantees equality of opportunity in public employment.
- 16(4): Allows reservation in promotion for SCs and STs.
- 16(5): Permits religious/denominational institutions to appoint officeholders from specific faiths.
- 16(6): Provides for 10% reservation in jobs/education for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
National Rehabilitation Policy
- Designed to protect and rehabilitate displaced persons due to development projects.
- Focuses on compensation, livelihood support, and social security for affected families.
Women Empowerment Measures
- Institutions like the National Commission for Women (NCW) and the National Council for Empowerment of Women safeguard women’s rights.
- 33% reservation in local self-government bodies ensures grassroots political participation.
Reservation Policies
- SCs, STs, and OBCs enjoy reservation in education and public sector employment.
- Reserved seats in Parliament and State Assemblies promote political inclusion.
- Minority Commissions address welfare and rights of religious minorities.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
- Launched in 2005 to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to rural households.
- Ensures 33% participation of women in the workforce.
- Focuses on irrigation and development works benefiting SCs and STs.

Measures to Promote Inclusive Growth in India

Inclusive Growth requires a holistic approach that touches all key dimensions of development, education, healthcare, employment, infrastructure, and social equality. Below are some major strategies:

Education and Skill Development
- Expand access to quality education for all sections of society.
- Improve the functioning of government schools and promote vocational training centers.
- Provide scholarships and financial aid for underprivileged students to ensure equity in higher education.
Healthcare Accessibility
- Ensure affordable healthcare services for all citizens, especially the marginalized.
- Strengthen healthcare infrastructure in rural and remote areas.
- Expand coverage of health insurance schemes to reduce out-of-pocket expenses.
Poverty Alleviation
- Design targeted poverty reduction programs for economically weaker sections.
- Promote direct cash transfers, microfinance support, and livelihood schemes.
- Focus on sustainable employment generation to reduce dependence on subsidies.
Rural Development
- Invest in agricultural infrastructure, irrigation, and rural industries.
- Encourage sustainable farming practices and promote rural entrepreneurship.
- Provide easy credit and financial support to farmers and rural enterprises.
Women Empowerment
- Promote gender equality through education, skill training, and entrepreneurship opportunities.
- Guarantee equal access to healthcare, legal aid, and jobs for women.
- Implement women-focused welfare programs to reduce gender disparities.
Infrastructure Development
- Expand transport, electricity, digital connectivity, and sanitation networks across the country.
- Reduce regional disparities by focusing on backward and underdeveloped regions.
- Use infrastructure as a driver of economic activity and job creation.
Inclusive Governance
- Encourage citizen participation in policymaking and strengthen transparency.
- Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governments.
- Involve marginalized communities directly in the decision-making process.
Private Sector Engagement
- Promote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives focusing on education, healthcare, and rural development.
- Encourage businesses to invest in social sectors alongside profit-making activities.
- Promote public-private partnerships for inclusive projects.
Sensitization and Awareness
- Conduct campaigns, workshops, and programs to address biases and stereotypes.
- Promote awareness of the importance of inclusivity and equal opportunity.
- Encourage a culture of social acceptance and equity across communities.

Inclusive Growth FAQs

Q1: What are the three pillars of inclusive growth?

Ans: The three pillars are economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability, ensuring prosperity reaches all sections while safeguarding resources for future generations.

Q2: What is the meaning of inclusion for growth?

Ans: Inclusion for growth means providing equal access to opportunities, resources, and benefits of development so marginalized groups also participate and share economic progress.

Q3: What do you mean by exclusive growth?

Ans: Exclusive growth benefits only certain sections of society, creating inequality, leaving vulnerable groups behind, and widening social, economic, and regional disparities in development outcomes.

Q4: What is the concept of inclusive growth?

Ans: Inclusive growth emphasizes equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, and access, ensuring sustainable development where every individual contributes to and benefits from overall progress.

Q5: What are the three fundamental pillars of SDG?

Ans: The three pillars are economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection, forming the foundation of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals for global well-being.

Chipko Movement, History, Causes, Impact, Key Figures

December 3, 2025

The Chipko Movement was an environmental movement that got its name from the Hindi word "chipko," meaning "to embrace," because villagers, most women, hugged trees to stop them from being cut down. Women were at its core, making it a powerful example of eco-feminism in action made this movement stand out. Their peaceful resistance showed how non-violent protest could be a strong force for protecting forests and preserving the environment.

Chipko Movement

The Chipko Movement, also known as Chipko Andolan or the “hug the tree” movement, began in 1973 at the foothills of the Himalayas. It was led by environmental activist Sunderlal Bahuguna and started in the Chamoli district of Uttar Pradesh (now part of Uttarakhand).

This movement was a non-violent protest by rural villagers, especially women who physically embraced trees to prevent them from being cut down by contractors. The goal was to protect the forests of the Himalayan region from commercial deforestation. Women, who depended heavily on forests for fuel, fodder, and water, became the face of the resistance. Chipko Movement was guided by Gandhian principles of non-violence and satyagraha, the movement spread rapidly through the Himalayas.

Chipko Movement Origin

The Chipko Movement began in 1973 in the Garhwal region of present-day Uttarakhand, then part of Uttar Pradesh. The spark came when the government allowed a sports goods company to cut down trees in forests that had been cared for and used by local communities for generations. When the villagers protested, their request was ignored. So they decided to act. Under the leadership of local organizations like the Dasoli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS), people began hugging trees forcing the loggers to stop. This simple It inspired villages across the region to rise in defense of their forests.

Who Started the Chipko Movement?

The Chipko Movement was led by Chandi Prasad Bhatt, a Gandhian social activist and founder of DGSS. But another name deeply associated with Chipko is Sunderlal Bahuguna, who later popularized the movement nationwide and even globally. His 5,000-km long foot march across the Himalayas spread awareness about deforestation and ecological degradation. In 1974, the movement saw one of its most powerful moments, when Gaura Devi, a village woman in Reni, led a group of women to confront loggers face to face. Their courage turned the tide and made the movement a symbol of women-led environmental resistance.

Chipko Movement Key Figures

Chandi Prasad Bhatt: Organised local communities and set up the grassroots structure of the movement.
Sunderlal Bahuguna: Gave the movement a national voice, linking it to broader environmental issues.
Gaura Devi: Led the legendary Reni village protest that put women at the center of the movement.
Dhoom Singh Negi: Another important member of DGSS who helped organize resistance efforts.

Chipko Movement Causes

Massive deforestation in the Uttarakhand hills during the 20th century disrupted the local ecosystem and economy.
Government policies favoured commercial logging over the needs of the local population, leading to growing resentment.
Repeated appeals by villagers were ignored, leaving them with no institutional support to protect their forests.
Deforestation led to an imbalance in the local ecology, less rainfall, soil erosion, poor crop yields, and drying water sources.
Scarcity of water and firewood became a daily struggle, especially for women who managed household needs.
Malnutrition and poverty worsened, particularly among marginalized forest-dependent communities.
Lack of environmental awareness among policymakers and mainstream society deepened the crisis.

Chipko Movement Impact

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi imposed a 15-year ban on green felling in Himalayan forests. This was a direct result of Chipko’s pressure in 1980
The Chipko Movement brought forest conservation to the national conversation. It was no longer just a rural issue, it became a question of national policy and global interest.
Women were no longer seen as passive, they were leaders, strategists, and protectors of the environment.
The Chipko Movement showed that decentralized, community-led movements could succeed without political backing or violence. It inspired similar campaigns across India and even in other countries.
The Chipko Movement was covered in international media, discussed in global policy circles, and studied in universities as a model of nonviolent environmental activism.

Other Major Movements

Narmada Bachao Andolan was initiated by Medha Patkar to protect dams on the sides of the Narmada River to safeguard the environmental degradation as well as the displacement of people living in that area.

Silent Valley Movement was launched in Kerala, this movement rejected a proposed hydroelectric project that would have submerged the Silent Valley rainforest

Inspired by the Chipko Movement, the Appiko Movement began in the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Locals hugged trees to prevent them from being felled, demanding a halt to deforestation and calling for reforestation efforts.

Save the Western Ghats March campaign focused on the ecosystem of the Western Ghats. Activists and environmentalists organized a long march across the region, highlighting its importance and demanding sustainable development policies and stronger environmental safeguards to protect one of India's richest biodiversity zones.

Chipko Movement FAQs

Q1: When did the Chipko Movement start?

Ans: It began in 1973 in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand.

Q2: Who led the Chipko Movement?

Ans: Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna were key leaders. Gaura Devi played a crucial role in women’s participation.

Q3: What was the method of protest?

Ans: Villagers hugged trees to prevent them from being cut down, a nonviolent, Gandhian method.

Q4: What was the outcome?

Ans: The government imposed a ban on green felling in Himalayan forests, and new forest policies recognized community rights.

Q5: Why is the Chipko Movement important today?

Ans: It set a precedent for environmental activism, local governance, and sustainability, lessons still relevant in the climate crisis era.

Himalayan Region in India, Formation, Types, Significance

December 3, 2025

The Himalayas are fold mountains that were formed due to the convergence of two tectonic plates. Acting as a dividing range between the Tibetan Plateau in the north and India in the south, the Himalayas constitute one of the 5 physiographic divisions of India. The mountains also act as a barrier guarding India’s frontiers.

Formation of Himalayas

The Himalayas were formed several years ago due to the convergence of the Indo-Australian Tectonic Plate with Eurasian Tectonic Plate. The evolution of the Himalayas is as follows:

The Pangea Landscape was surrounded by the Panthalassa waterbody about 250 million years ago. Later, about 150 years later, the Pangea subcontinent further broke into pieces into further two parts:
Laurasia and Angaraland: The northern part was called Angaraland or Laurasia. It consists of present day North America, Europe and Asia.
The South part is called Gondawanaland and consists of Africa, Australia, Antarctica and South America.
The Tethys Sea in between Dondwanaland and Angaraland, was created by the division of Pangea.
Millions of years ago, Gondwanaland and Angaraland began breaking apart into smaller landmasses. The Indo-Australian Plate (now India and Australia) separated from Gondwanaland, while the Eurasian Plate (comprising Europe and Northern Asia) emerged from Angaraland.
Driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, the Indo-Australian Plate drifted northward, gradually colliding with the Eurasian Plate across the Tethys Sea. As they converged, the Tethys Sea shrank, and its seabed sediments were compressed and pushed upward, forming folds.
Over time, these rising folds gave birth to the Himalayas, a process that continues even today. The collision of these plates still causes the Himalayas to rise by about 5 mm per year, shaping the world’s highest mountain range.

Types of Himalayas

Himalayas happen to be one of the youngest mountain ranges in the words and are divided into four different types according to their geological and geographical characteristics:

Trans- Himalayas: they are on the north of Great Himalayas and consist of arid landscapes and high plateaus
Greater Himalayas (Himadri): this is the most prominent himalayan range, consisting of the Mount Everest and kanchenjunga
Lesser Himalayas (Himachal): includes Shimla and Darjeeling and rugged terrains
Shivalik Hills are the youngest range lying on the low-altitude foothills
The Himalayas act as a natural barrier and are important for balancing Indian climates, water resources and biodiversity.

Longitudinal Division of Himalayas

According to the longitudinal division, the Himalayas can be divided into 3 divisions:

The Trans-Himalayas

The Trans-Himalayas lie north of the Great Himalayas, stretching 1,000 km from east to west.
Their average elevation is around 3,000 meters above sea level.
The major ranges include the Karakoram Range, Ladakh Range, and Zaskar Range.

Karakoram Range

The northernmost Trans-Himalayan range in India, forming a natural boundary with Afghanistan and China.
It spans 110-130 km in width and houses some of the world’s highest peaks and largest glaciers.
K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen), at 8,611m, is the second-highest peak in the world.
Major glaciers include the Siachen Glacier and Remo Glacier.

Ladakh Range

A southeastern extension of the Karakoram Range.
Runs from Shyok River in North Kashmir to the Indo-Tibetan border.
The Deosai Mountains in POK and the Kailash Range in Tibet are often considered part of this range.

Zaskar Range

Runs parallel to the Great Himalayas, extending southeast from the Suru River to the Upper Karnali River.
Kamet Peak (25,446 ft) is the highest peak in this range.

The Himalayan Ranges

The Himalayan Ranges are divided into different ranges like Himavan, Himadri, Shivalik Range etc. Being the youngest mountains, the Himalayas consist of uplifted Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks.The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by Karakoram and Hindu Kush Ranges on the North by the Tibetan Plateau and Indo-Gangetic Plains on south.

The mountains range over 2,400 km from Indus Gorge In west to Brahmaputra Gorge in the east.

1. The Greater Himalayas (Himadri/Inner Himalayas/Central Himalayas)

Composed of Archaean rocks like granite, gneiss, and schist.
Orientation changes across regions:
- Southeast across northern Pakistan, India, and Nepal.
- Eastward across Sikkim and Bhutan.
- Northeast across northern Arunachal Pradesh.
Home to several of the world’s highest peaks, including:
- Nanga Parbat, Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Namcha Barwa.
The slopes are steep in the north and gentler in the south.

2. The Middle Himalayas (Lesser/Lowe Himalayas)

Elevation: 3,500 to 5,000 meters | Width: 60 to 80 km.
Major ranges: Nag Tibba, Mahabharat Range, Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Mussoorie Range.
Rivers like Jhelum and Chenab pass through this range.
Kashmir Valley lies between Pir Panjal and Zanskar Range.
Famous hill stations: Shimla, Chail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Nainital, Almora.
Karewas (fluvioglacial deposits) are found between the Greater and Middle Himalayas.

3. The Outer Himalayas (Shiwalik Hills)

Southernmost Himalayan range, lying between the Middle Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Rises abruptly from the plains of the Indus and Ganges rivers.
Churia Range is the portion of Shiwaliks in Nepal.
Wider in the west, narrower in the east.
Known for the formation of Doons and Duars:
- Created by rivers depositing fertile alluvial soils after cutting through the Shiwaliks.
- Doons (western India) & Duars (eastern India) are important for tea cultivation.

4. The Eastern Hills (Purvanchal)

Formed by a southward bend of the Himalayas at the Dihang Gorge (Syntaxial Bend).
Extends from Arunachal Pradesh to Mizoram, forming India’s border with Myanmar.
Major ranges:
- Patkai Bum – Along the Arunachal Pradesh-Myanmar border.
- Naga Hills – South of Patkai Bum, forms a watershed with Myanmar.
- Manipur Hills – South of Naga Hills, separated by Barail Range.
- Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills) – Southernmost range of Purvanchal.

Himalayan Mountains Significance

The importance of Himalayas is as follows:

Climatic Influence: The Himalayas shape India’s climate by blocking cold Siberian winds and triggering monsoonal rainfall through their altitude and orientation.
Natural Defense: Acting as a formidable barrier, they have historically protected India from invasions and external threats.
Water Source: These mountains sustain major Indian rivers, supporting agriculture and daily life across northern India.
Forest Wealth: The region is rich in forests, providing fuelwood and raw materials for various industries.
Agriculture: While large plains are scarce, terraced farming on slopes supports cultivation.
Mineral Resources: The Himalayas contain valuable minerals like copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, and gemstones.
Hydroelectric Potential: Rugged terrain and fast-flowing rivers make the region ideal for hydroelectric power generation.

Beyond their geographical importance, the Himalayas face critical ecological challenges, including climate change, deforestation, and unregulated tourism. Ensuring their sustainability is vital not only for India but for global environmental balance. A sustainable approach is the way forward.

Himalayan Region of India FAQs

Q1: Where is the Himalayan region?

Ans: The Himalayan region stretches across northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet, forming a natural border between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.

Q2: What are the 4 Himalayan ranges?

Ans: The four Himalayan ranges are Trans-Himalayas, Greater Himalayas (Himadri), Lesser Himalayas (Middle Himalayas), and Shiwalik (Outer Himalayas).

Q3: What is the Himalayan region Class 9?

Ans: The Himalayan region is a vast mountain system in northern India, consisting of parallel ranges that influence climate, biodiversity, and river systems.

Q4: What are the 5 divisions of the Himalayas?

Ans: The five divisions of the Himalayas are Punjab Himalayas, Kumaon Himalayas, Nepal Himalayas, Assam Himalayas, and Eastern Hills (Purvanchal).

Q5: What are the 11 Himalayan states in India?

Ans: The 11 Himalayan states in India are Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya.

Rio Earth Summit 1992, Background, Objectives, Features, Importance

December 3, 2025

The Rio Earth Summit 1992 also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, marked a turning point in the history of international environmental diplomacy. In this conference, the global community came together not just to debate about environmental issues in isolation but to situate them within a larger framework of human development, economic growth and social equity. Also known as the Earth Summit, the conference laid the foundation for integrating environmental concerns into the developmental policies of nations and gave shape to the idea of sustainable development. In this article, we are going to cover Rio Earth Summit 1992, background, objectives and features.

Rio Earth Summit 1992

The Rio Summit 1992, or UNCED, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3 to 14 June 1992. It was one of the largest gatherings of heads of state and government representatives at that time, involving leaders and officials from 178 countries, as well as representatives from international organisations and thousands of NGOs.

The Secretary-General of the Conference was Maurice Strong, who had earlier played a key role in the Stockholm Conference of 1972. He famously called Rio a “historic moment for humanity,” as it signified the global recognition that economic development and environmental protection are inseparable.
Unlike earlier summits that focused narrowly on environmental concerns, the Earth Summit adopted a broad and holistic approach, recognising that development, poverty eradication, and environmental protection must go hand in hand.

Rio Earth Summit 1992 Background

The history of the Rio Summit can be traced back to the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden. That conference was the first major global attempt to place environmental concerns on the international agenda. While Stockholm raised awareness, it did not lead to substantial binding commitments.

By the late 1980s, growing challenges such as climate change, ozone depletion, deforestation, desertification, and biodiversity loss pushed the world towards recognising the urgent need for collective action. The publication of the Brundtland Commission Report, “Our Common Future” (1987), which introduced the concept of sustainable development,defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” further laid the intellectual groundwork for Rio.

Thus, the Rio Summit of 1992 was conceived as a platform to address the linkages between environment and development, to reconcile economic aspirations with ecological sustainability, and to set the tone for global environmental governance in the 21st century.

Rio Earth Summit 1992 Objectives

The Rio Earth Summit 1992 was not just about a a single issue but sought to provide a comprehensive framework for global cooperation. Its primary objectives included:

Addressing urgent environmental issues such as climate change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss.
Promoting sustainable development as the guiding framework for future policies.
Drafting international agreements to tackle global environmental challenges.
Establishing norms and principles for integrating environmental concerns into development planning.
Strengthening the role of NGOs and civil society in environmental governance.

Rio Earth Summit 1992 Features

The Rio Earth Summit 1992 has the following features:

Participation of 178 nations, making it one of the largest multilateral conferences of its time.
Adoption of legally binding treaties such as the UNFCCC and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Introduction of soft law instruments like the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21, which though non-binding, influenced global policymaking.
Recognition of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), acknowledging that while all states share responsibility for environmental protection, the obligations of developed and developing countries differ.
Active involvement of NGOs, civil society groups, and indigenous communities, reflecting a participatory approach to global governance.

Rio Earth Summit 1992 Outcomes

Governments across the world adopted various initiatives in order to support environment conservation. These included:

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

The Rio Declaration outlined 27 principles to guide sustainable development.

It reaffirmed the centrality of human beings in development (Principle 1).
It emphasised the principle of sovereign rights of states over natural resources while also stressing their responsibility to prevent environmental harm (Principle 2).
It introduced the principle of intergenerational equity, ensuring resources for future generations (Principle 3).
It highlighted the role of poverty eradication, women, youth, and indigenous knowledge in sustainable development.
It reinforced the principle of CBDR, placing a greater onus on developed countries to lead climate and sustainability efforts.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 was an action plan for sustainable development in the 21st century. Though non-binding, it became a reference point for national and local policies.

It had four sections:
1. Social and Economic Dimensions
2. Conservation and Management of Resources
3. Strengthening the Role of Major Groups
4. Means of Implementation
It emphasised the role of local governments, encapsulated in the phrase “Think Globally, Act Locally.”
Follow-up conferences such as Rio+5 (1997) and Rio+10 (Johannesburg, 2002) assessed its progress.

Forest Principles

Forest Principles also called the Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles, this document laid out guidelines for the sustainable management of forests.

It recognised the sovereign right of states over their forest resources.
It sought a balance between developmental needs and conservation.
Although non-binding, it became an important reference for forest policies worldwide.

Environmental Treaties

The Summit opened for signature two major treaties:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Aimed at stabilising greenhouse gas concentrations and laid the foundation for later agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Focused on the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources.

Rio Earth Summit 1992 Importance

The Rio Summit was a landmark because it:

Brought sustainable development into mainstream global discourse.
Established a balance between economic, social, and environmental objectives.
Strengthened the idea of global environmental governance.
Highlighted the importance of inclusive participation by NGOs and civil society.
Institutionalised the concept of CBDR, shaping future negotiations.

Environmental Conventions and Protocols

Various Environmental Conventions and Protocols have been taken up for protection of the environment. These conventions and protocols include:

International Environmental Conventions

These are legally binding agreements between states to address global or regional environmental challenges. They are essential because:

They harmonise laws and standards across borders.
They prevent a “race to the bottom” in environmental regulations.
They create a framework for collective action.

The Kyoto Protocol (1997)

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted under the UNFCCC framework.
Entered into force in 2005.
Imposed legally binding emission reduction targets on developed countries.
Phase I (2005–2012): aimed at a 5% reduction in emissions.
Phase II (2013–2020): aimed at an 18% reduction.
Laid the groundwork for later negotiations culminating in the Paris Agreement (2015).

Importance for India

For India, the Rio Summit was important due to several reasons. This included:

It provided a platform to articulate the developmental concerns of the Global South.
India supported the principle of CBDR, highlighting the historical responsibility of developed countries.
It enabled India to secure commitments for technology transfer and financial support from developed nations.
It influenced domestic policies such as the Environment Protection Act (1986) and later initiatives on climate change.

Also Check Other Posts
Coastal Regulation Zone	Global Plastic Treaty
Nitrogen Cycle	Carbon Cycle

Rio Earth Summit 1992 FAQs

Q1: What happened in 1992 Earth Summit in Rio?

Ans: In 1992, the Earth Summit in Rio brought together 178 nations to discuss sustainable development and environmental protection.

Q2: What are the major features of Rio Earth Summit 1992?

Ans: The Rio Summit featured the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, Forest Principles, and treaties on climate change and biodiversity.

Q3: What were the outcomes of the Rio summit?

Ans: The summit produced Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration, Forest Principles, UNFCCC, and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Q4: What was the Kyoto Protocol?

Ans: The Kyoto Protocol (1997) was a treaty under UNFCCC binding developed nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Q5: What was Agenda 21?

Ans: Agenda 21 was a non-binding global action plan for sustainable development adopted at the Rio Summit.

Parliamentary Form of Government, History, Advantages, Disadvantages

December 3, 2025

A Parliamentary Form of Government is a form of democracy in which the political party that wins the most seats in a national election forms the ruling government. In this system, the executive is drawn from the legislature and is accountable to it. India follows a parliamentary system similar to that of the United Kingdom.

In a parliamentary system, there is a close relationship between the executive and legislative branches, with the executive being dependent on the confidence of the legislature. This arrangement ensures greater accountability and makes the Parliament the central institution of governance.

Parliamentary Form of Government History

Since ancient times, councils of headmen, whose decisions were guided by village elders, existed in tribal societies. These early consultative bodies gradually evolved into modern parliamentary institutions. In 1188, King Alfonso IX of León (Spain) convened the Cortes of León, considered one of Europe’s first parliaments. A proto-parliamentary system also emerged during the Dutch Revolt (1581), when the States-General assumed power from King Philip II of Spain. The modern parliamentary framework developed in the United Kingdom (1707-1800) and Sweden (1721-1772), gaining broader acceptance across Europe after World War I.

Adoption in the Indian Constitution: India adopted the parliamentary system from Britain after thorough deliberations. During the Constituent Assembly debates, different models including Presidential and Parliamentary systems were discussed. The parliamentary model was preferred for its capacity to provide strong leadership while ensuring accountability to the elected legislature.
Notable Opinions

- Professor K. T. Shah emphasized that parliamentary government connects the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary effectively.
- Shri K. Hanumanthaiya argued that the parliamentary system was better suited to India’s needs than a Presidential system.

Parliamentary Form of Government Features

Real and Nominal Executives: The President acts as the formal or nominal executive, while the Prime Minister serves as the actual (de facto) executive. In this arrangement, the President represents the State, whereas the Prime Minister runs the government’s day-to-day affairs.
Dual Membership: The executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) is drawn from the legislature (Parliament). Members of Parliament elect the Prime Minister and other cabinet ministers, linking the executive and legislative branches closely.
Collective Responsibility: The Council of Ministers is collectively accountable to the legislature. This principle ensures that all ministers share responsibility for government policies and decisions, even if individual ministers are directly responsible for their departments.
Secret Procedure: Cabinet discussions and deliberations are conducted in private and are not disclosed publicly, allowing for open and candid decision-making among ministers.
Leadership under the Prime Minister: The Prime Minister heads the government and exercises leadership over the Council of Ministers, guiding policy and administration.
Majority Party Rule: The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party that holds a majority in the lower house of the legislature, ensuring stability and alignment between the executive and legislative branches.
Bicameral Legislature: Most parliamentary democracies have a bicameral legislature, consisting of two chambers, typically an upper house and a lower house, which provide checks and balances on lawmaking.
Political Homogeneity: Members of the Council of Ministers usually share similar political ideologies, as they belong to the same party. In coalition governments, ministers are bound by coalition agreements to maintain unity.
No Fixed Term: The government’s tenure depends on maintaining the confidence of the lower house. If a motion of no-confidence succeeds, the Council of Ministers must resign, triggering elections and the formation of a new government.

Parliamentary Form of Government Constitutional Provision

The Indian Constitution contains specific provisions that establish and support the parliamentary system of governance at both the central and state levels. The following table summarizes the key articles, their scope, and the way they define the roles, responsibilities, and accountability of the executive in relation to the legislature.

Parliamentary Form of Government Constitutional Provision
Article	Level	Provision	Key Features	Accountability
74	Central	Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President	President acts on advice of the Cabinet headed by PM; advice can be reconsidered but must be adopted	Not subject to judicial review
75	Central	Appointment and responsibility of the Council of Ministers	President appoints PM; PM recommends other ministers; ministers hold office during President’s pleasure	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha
163	State	State Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor	Governor acts on advice of Council headed by CM; discretionary powers in certain matters	Not subject to judicial review
164	State	Appointment and responsibility of State Ministers	Governor appoints CM; CM recommends other ministers; ministers hold office during Governor’s pleasure	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to State Legislative Assembly

Parliamentary Form of Government Advantages

The Parliamentary Form of Government Advantages that contribute to effective governance and political stability. Its structure ensures cooperation between branches, accountability of the executive, prevention of despotism, and broad representation of diverse interests. The key merits are summarized below.

Parliamentary Form of Government Advantages
Merit	Description
Cooperation Between Legislative and Executive Branches	The parliamentary system fosters close coordination between the legislature and the executive, ensuring smooth policy-making and implementation.
Responsible Government	Ministers are accountable to Parliament, and their actions are scrutinized through tools such as question periods, debates, adjournment motions, and no-confidence motions.
Prevents Despotism	Executive power is vested in a council of ministers rather than a single individual, decentralizing authority and reducing the risk of authoritarianism.
Wide Representation	The council of ministers represents diverse regions, communities, and interests, enabling the government to reflect the country’s varied demographic and cultural composition.

Parliamentary Form of Government Disadvantages

While the Parliamentary Form of Government has several advantages, it is not without shortcomings. Certain structural and political factors can lead to instability, inefficiency, and limited accountability. The key demerits are summarized below.

Parliamentary Form of Government Disadvantages
Demerit	Description
No Separation of Powers	When the ruling party has a strong majority, the legislature may struggle to check the executive. Anti-defection laws further restrict MPs from voting independently, reducing legislative oversight.
Unqualified Lawmakers	Legislators often aim to join the executive rather than focus on lawmaking, resulting in a lack of expertise in drafting effective laws.
Instability	Governments depend on maintaining a parliamentary majority. Coalition governments can be short-lived and unstable, forcing the administration to prioritize staying in power over public welfare.
Ministers	Ministers are typically chosen from the ruling party, limiting the inclusion of subject-matter experts in governance.
Failure to Make Quick Decisions	The absence of fixed tenure can delay significant long-term policy decisions, as the Council of Ministers often prioritizes political considerations.
Party Politics	Parliamentary systems can accentuate party interests over national concerns, leading to partisan decision-making.
Bureaucratic Control	Civil servants wield significant influence over ministers and policy, yet they are not directly accountable to the legislature.

Parliamentary Form of Government vs Presidential Form of Government

The Parliamentary Form of Government and Presidential Form of Government are two prominent forms of democratic governance. While both aim to uphold democracy, they differ significantly in structure, powers, and functioning. The table below highlights the key Differences Between the Parliamentary Form of Government and the Presidential Form of Government in India.

Parliamentary Form of Government vs Presidential Form of Government
Feature	Parliamentary Form of Government	Presidential Form of Government
Head of State	President (formal executive)	President (both head of state and government)
Head of Government	Prime Minister (real executive)	President
Executive-Legislature Relationship	Executive is drawn from the legislature and is accountable to it	Executive and legislature are separate; President is not responsible to legislature
Collective Responsibility	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the legislature	No concept of collective responsibility; President acts independently
Tenure	Depends on parliamentary confidence; no fixed term for government	Fixed tenure for the President and government officials
Decision-Making	Cabinet decisions are made collectively	President can make independent decisions
Stability	Can be unstable if no clear parliamentary majority	Generally more stable due to fixed tenure
Political Homogeneity	Ministers usually belong to the majority party or coalition	Cabinet may include members from different political affiliations if allowed
Removal of Executive	By parliamentary vote of no-confidence	Impeachment through constitutional procedure
Role of Legislature	Strong oversight and accountability of executive	Legislature and executive function independently

Also Check Other Posts
Important Articles of Indian Constitution	9th Schedule
Schedules of Indian Constitution	Anti Defection Law
5th Schedule	Preamble of the Indian Constitution
6th Schedule

Parliamentary Form of Government FAQs

Q1: Which is the best definition of a parliamentary form of government?

Ans: A parliamentary government is a system where the executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) is accountable to the legislature and derives authority from it.

Q2: Which country is a parliamentary form of government?

Ans: Countries like India, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and Japan follow a parliamentary system, where the executive is responsible to the legislature.

Q3: What is the difference between parliamentary and presidential government?

Ans: In parliamentary systems, the executive is accountable to the legislature; in presidential systems, the executive is independent and directly elected by the people.

Q4: Why is India a parliamentary form of government?

Ans: India adopted a parliamentary system to ensure accountability of the executive, collective decision-making, and flexibility in governance, modeled on the British system.

Q5: What are the two types of parliamentary form of government?

Ans: The two types are Westminster (British) model, where the head of state is ceremonial, and European (continental) model, with more active head-of-state powers.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Background, Objectives

December 3, 2025

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed on 17 December 1992 by the United States, Canada, and Mexico, and came into effect on 1 January 1994. It created a trilateral free trade zone in North America, aimed at fostering economic integration across the three countries. NAFTA removed most tariffs and trade barriers, facilitating easier movement of goods and services within the region.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Background

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has its roots in the late 20th century, during a period when global trade liberalization was gaining momentum. In the 1980s, both the United States and Canada were exploring ways to expand economic ties with Mexico.

1988: Canada and the United States signed the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA), setting a precedent for deeper regional trade integration.
Late 1980s - Early 1990s: Mexico entered discussions with the U.S. and Canada to create a trilateral agreement that would lower trade barriers, encourage investment, and modernize industries.

The formal NAFTA negotiations were launched in August 1991 and concluded with the signing of the agreement on 17 December 1992. After ratification by all three countries, NAFTA came into effect on 1 January 1994, establishing a free trade area encompassing over 400 million people and creating one of the largest regional trade blocs in the world.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Objectives

The main goals of North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) were:

Promote Free Trade: Eliminate tariffs, quotas, and restrictive trade practices among the three member countries.
Boost Investment and Economic Growth: Encourage foreign direct investment (FDI) and support industrial development, particularly in Mexico.
Enhance Competitiveness: Enable member countries to leverage comparative advantages and modernize their industries.
Lower Consumer Prices: Allow consumers to access imported goods at lower costs through tariff reductions.
Strengthen Regional Integration: Foster cooperation in trade, industry, and policy coordination among the three nations.

Member Countries of NAFTA

NAFTA consisted of three member countries: the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Together, they formed a trilateral free trade bloc in North America, aimed at promoting trade, investment, and economic integration.

USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement) vs NAFTA

The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which replaced NAFTA in 2020, modernized trade rules for the 21st century. It strengthened labor and environmental standards, updated digital trade and intellectual property regulations, and introduced stricter rules of origin for automobiles.

USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement) vs NAFTA
Feature	NAFTA	USMCA
Implementation Year	1994	2020
Labor Protections	Weak, side agreements	Stronger, enforceable rights and wage rules
Rules of Origin (Automobiles)	62.5% North American content	75% North American content + wage requirements
Digital Trade & IP	Minimal coverage	Comprehensive digital trade and intellectual property chapters
Dispute Resolution	Broad investor-state mechanisms	Modified, limited ISDS and stronger enforcement
Review Mechanism	No periodic review	Mandatory periodic review clauses

Challenges and Criticisms of NAFTA

Job Losses in Developed Countries: Many manufacturing jobs in the U.S. and Canada shifted to Mexico due to lower labor costs, causing unemployment in certain sectors.
Wage Suppression: Workers in higher-cost countries experienced stagnant wages and reduced bargaining power.
Impact on Mexican Farmers: Small farmers and local producers in Mexico struggled to compete with cheaper agricultural imports from the U.S., leading to rural poverty and migration.
Weak Labor and Environmental Protections: The agreement’s side agreements were often criticized for poor enforcement, allowing exploitation of workers and environmental degradation.
Unequal Distribution of Benefits: Large corporations benefited more than workers, small businesses, and vulnerable communities.

Way Forward

The experience of NAFTA offers important lessons for future trade agreements:

Trade agreements should ensure benefits reach workers, small businesses, and rural communities, not just large corporations.
Labor and environmental standards must be enforceable rather than merely advisory.
Future agreements should address digital trade, e-commerce, and evolving supply chains.
Countries should avoid over-reliance on a single market and build diversified, resilient trade networks.
Agreements should include regular review mechanisms to update provisions according to economic and geopolitical changes.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) FAQs

Q1: Which countries were part of NAFTA?

Ans: The United States, Canada, and Mexico.

Q2: When did NAFTA come into effect and when was it replaced?

Ans: NAFTA came into effect on 1 January 1994 and was replaced by USMCA on 1 July 2020.

Q3: What were the main benefits of NAFTA?

Ans: Increased trade and investment, industrial growth, lower consumer prices, and stronger regional economic integration.

Q4: What were the main criticisms of NAFTA?

Ans: Job losses in certain sectors, wage stagnation, weak labor and environmental protections, and unequal distribution of benefits.

Q5: How does USMCA differ from NAFTA?

Ans: USMCA strengthened labor and environmental protections, introduced stricter rules of origin, modernized digital trade and intellectual property regulations, and added periodic review mechanisms.

Plate Tectonics Theory, Types, Diagram, Significance, Divisions

December 3, 2025

Plate tectonics is a geographical theory that covers the lithosphere, the outer layer of Earth and its division into large pieces that are known as tectonic plates. Tectonic plates move slowly beneath the Earth’s surface and are responsible for the formation of mountains, volcanoes and other geographical features that form and change over time. In this article, we are going to cover all about Plate Tectonic Theory.

Plate Tectonics Theory

A tectonic plate is a slab of solid rock that keeps shifting and causes changes in the lithosphere, that is the outermost layer of Earth. Tectonic plates are not static and move slowly over the asthenosphere, a semi-molten, ductile layer below the lithosphere that allows movement.

Tectonic Plates Types

Tectonic Plates are of the following types:

Continental Plates: Consists of granitic rocks, light but thicker
Oceanic Plates: Consists of basaltic rocks, dense but thin
Mixed Pates: Include both continental and oceanic crust

A tectonic plate can be categorised as continental or oceanic depending on the dominant type of crust that it contains. Example-

Pacific Plate- Oceanic Plate
Eurasian Plate- Continental Plate

Plate Tectonics Theory Significance

The Plate Tectonics Theory was given by Alfred Weneger in the mid 20th century. Plate- Tectonics is accepted as the most reasonable theory for large-scale Earth processes. The theory explains-

The origin and breakup of oceans and continents
Formation of mountains due to collision of plates
Occurrence of earthquakes due to fault lines
Eruption of volcanoes at subduction zones and mid-ocean ridges
This helps in understanding the dynamic surface of Earth

Plate Tectonics Major and Minor Divisions

The lithosphere layer of Earth is divided into seven major and minor plates:

Major Tectonic Plates:

Pacific Plate
Eurasian Plate
North American Plate
South American Plate
African Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
Antarctic Plate

Minor Tectonic Plates:

Cocos Plate – Between Central America & Pacific Plate
Nazca Plate – Between South America & Pacific Plate
Arabian Plate – Covers much of the Middle East
Philippine Plate – Between Asia & Pacific
Caroline Plate – North of New Guinea
Fuji Plate – Northeast of Australia

Plate Tectonics Diagram

The following diagram below explains the Theory of Plate Tectonics:

Forces Driving Plate Tectonics Movement

Plate Tectonics movement is caused by the energy of heat in the Earth’s interior. These forces include:

Asthenosphere Flow: Movement of tectonic plates due to convection currents in the semi-fluid asthenosphere.
Heat sources include radioactive decay of elements (uranium, thorium, potassium) and heat residual from Earth’s formation.
Convection Cells: Hot mantle material rises, spreads, cools and sinks leading to circular flow that pushes and pulls plates.
This idea, proposed by Arthur Holmes (1930s), laid the foundation for Harry Hess’ theory of seafloor spreading in the 1960s.

Plate Tectonics Boundaries

Plate Tectonics boundaries can be classified into three types:

Divergent Boundaries (Constructive)

Plates move apart, and new crust forms from rising magma.
Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge (North American Plate separating from Eurasian Plate).

Convergent Boundaries (Destructive)

Plates collide, leading to subduction or mountain-building.
- Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence: One oceanic plate subducts beneath the other Volcanic island arcs (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia).
- Oceanic–Continental Convergence: Denser oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate Volcanic mountains (e.g., Andes).
- Continental–Continental Convergence: Both plates collide Fold mountains (e.g., Himalayas, Alps).

Transform Boundaries (Conservative)

Plates slide past each other horizontally → causes earthquakes.
Example: San Andreas Fault in California.

Plate Tectonics and Continental Evolution

Alfred Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift (1912) says that all continents were once a part of a supercontinent that is Pangaea.
Over the years, through the studying of seafloor spreading and paleomagnetism, it was confirmed that continents were separated by tectonic plates.
Continents move constantly, collide, break apart and reshape the globe.
Example: The Indian subcontinent drifted from near Antarctica and collided with Asia, forming the Himalayas.

Plate Tectonics Theory FAQs

Q1: What is plate tectonic theory?

Ans: The plate tectonic theory explains the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere, shaping continents, oceans, mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

Q2: Who proposed the plate tectonic theory?

Ans: The plate tectonic theory was developed in the 1960s, building on Alfred Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis and Harry Hess’s seafloor spreading concept.

Q3: What is the 3 plate tectonic theory?

Ans: The three types of plate boundaries in plate tectonic theory are divergent (plates move apart), convergent (plates collide), and transform (plates slide past each other).

Q4: How many types of plate tectonics are there?

Ans: There are three main types of plate tectonic boundaries—divergent, convergent, and transform.

Q5: What are the transform boundaries of Plate tectonics?

Ans: Transform boundaries are places where two plates slide past each other horizontally, neither creating nor destroying crust, e.g., San Andreas Fault in California.

Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme (PM-WANI)

December 3, 2025

The Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface (PM-WANI) scheme is a government initiative launched in December 2020 by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) which aims to enhance public internet access across India by setting up a large network of Wi-Fi hotspots, particularly in rural areas, to promote digital inclusion, empowerment and promote economic growth as well.

Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme Objectives

To overcome the digital divide by increasing internet connectivity, especially in remote and rural regions.
To empower individuals and businesses to participate in the digital economy through affordable internet access.
To encourage local entrepreneurs by enabling shopkeepers and individuals to become Public Data Office (PDO) operators.

Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme Components

Public Data Office (PDO): Local entrepreneurs (e.g., kirana stores or shops) who set up Wi-Fi hotspots and sell internet services to users.

Public Data Office Aggregator (PDOA): Entities that assist PDOs in registration, billing, and network management.

App Provider: Develops mobile applications for users to locate and access PM-WANI hotspots.

Central Registry: Maintains records of all stakeholders and ensures smooth ecosystem operation.

Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme Benefits

Reduces dependence on expensive mobile data plans.
Provides cost-effective internet access through a pay-per-use model.
Bridges the urban-rural digital divide.
Improves access to government services, education, and healthcare.
Encourages local entrepreneurship by allowing individuals to set up PDOs.
Facilitates skill development and online education, enhancing employability.

Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme Challenges

Public Wi-Fi networks are prone to data breaches and cyberattacks due to multiple users at a time.
High traffic on public networks can lead to bandwidth overuse, reducing internet speed.
With India offering some of the cheapest mobile data globally, the demand for public Wi-Fi might face challenges.

Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme FAQs

Q1: What is the prime minister's free Wi-Fi scheme?

Ans: the prime minister's free Wi-Fi scheme aims to enhance public internet access across India by setting up a large network of Wi-Fi hotspots, particularly in rural areas, to promote digital inclusion, empowerment and promote economic growth as well.

Q2: What is the name of PM Modi WIFI network?

Ans: Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme

Q3: What is the cost of a PM Wani device?

Ans: For 500 users the cost is Rs. 500.

Q4: How much is PM wani per day?

Ans: Rs 6 plan: 1GB data for 1 day.

Q5: Does the government give free Wi-Fi?

Ans: Yes, under the Prime Minister Wi-Fi Access Network Interface Scheme.

Operation Sagar Bandhu in Sri Lanka, Features, Cyclone Ditwah

December 3, 2025

Operation Sagar Bandhu is India’s rapid humanitarian assistance and disaster relief mission launched for Sri Lanka after widespread destruction and numerous loss of lives. The operation is guided by India's Neighbourhood First Policy and Vision MAHASAGAR. The operation involved NDRF, Indian Air Force and Navy in this mission.

Operation Sagar Bandhu

In the Operation Sagar Bandhu, the NDRF has deployed two expert teams consisting of trained rescuers and canines from the Hindon Airbase, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh through an Indian Air Force IL-76 aircraft. The contingent carried inflatable boats, hydraulic cutters, breaching tools, communication equipment, medical kits, etc. The operation has enhanced the rescue capacity of Sri Lanka amid Cyclone Ditwah’s impact across coastal and densely populated regions.

Operation Sagar Bandhu Features

The Operation Sagar Bandhu involved delivery of multi-dimensional humanitarian aid by the Indian Air Force and Indian Navy to support the cyclone affected areas of Sri Lanka. It has been carried out in the following way:

Transportation of 12 tonnes of tents, tarpaulins, blankets, hygiene kits and ready to eat meals through the C-130J aircraft.
INS Vikrant and INS Udaygiri delivered 4.5 tonnes of dry rations, 2 tonnes of fresh rations and essential commodities.
Deployment of 2 specialised teams consisting 80 trained rescuers and 4 canines through IL-76 aircraft.

Cyclone Ditwah

Cyclone Ditwah is intensifying in the southwestern Bay of Bengal. As per the meteorological reports, it is moving northward at the speed of 8 kmph. The cyclone was located 430 km south of Chennai at 02:30 AM IST (Saturday, Nov 29 2025) which resulted in widespread rainfall across Chennai and neighbouring districts.

In Sri Lanka, the cyclone has impacted destructively causing several deaths. Along with humanitarian aid, India is simultaneously maintaining strong domestic preparedness by deploying 14 NDRF teams across Tamil Nadu (Villupuram, Chengalpattu, Tiruvallur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, and Mayiladuthurai districts) and Puducherry. Along with this, India is continuously focusing on the monitoring through IMD, NDMA, MEA and State Governments collaborative approach.

Operation Sagar Bandhu FAQs

Q1: What is Operation Sagar Bandhu?

Ans: Operation Sagar Bandhu is India’s rapid humanitarian relief mission launched to assist Sri Lanka after Cyclone Ditwah caused severe destruction and casualties.

Q2: Which agencies participated in Operation Sagar Bandhu 2025?

Ans: The operation involved coordinated action by the NDRF, Indian Air Force and Indian Navy, ensuring quick rescue, relief and supply delivery.

Q3: What key features define Operation Sagar Bandhu?

Ans: Its major features include deployment of expert NDRF teams, airlifting of relief materials, and naval delivery of essential rations and emergency supplies.

Q4: How did India support Sri Lanka during Cyclone Ditwah?

Ans: India sent tents, blankets, hygiene kits, food supplies, specialised rescue teams, and naval support to strengthen Sri Lanka’s immediate disaster response.

Q5: How is India preparing domestically for Cyclone Ditwah?

Ans: India has deployed multiple NDRF teams across Tamil Nadu and Puducherry and is continuously monitoring the cyclone through IMD, NDMA and state authorities.

Mountain Ranges in India, List, Map, Key Features, Details

December 3, 2025

India is home to some of the most magnificent and ancient mountain ranges in the world. These Mountain Ranges in India define the country's geography, influence its climate, shape its river systems, and play a key role in cultural and spiritual traditions. From the towering Himalayas in the north to the scenic Nilgiris in the south, each range tells a story of geological evolution and natural beauty.

In this detailed guide, we will understand the major Mountain Ranges in India, their location, formation, highest peaks, and unique geographical features.

Mountain Ranges in India

India is a land of many beautiful mountain ranges that cover almost every part of the country. From the high Himalayas in the north to the green hills of the Western and Eastern Ghats in the south, these ranges add to India’s natural beauty. They also play an important role in climate, rivers, and rich wildlife. The details of all the important Mountain Ranges in India has been shared below.

1. The Himalayas

The Himalayas are among the most prominent and youngest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed by the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate millions of years ago. Stretching over 2,500 km from west to east, they form a natural barrier between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.

Length: ~2,500 km
Width: 160-400 km
Highest Peak: Mount Everest (8,848.86 meters)
Spread Across: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Pakistan
Borders: Karakoram & Hindu Kush (NW), Tibetan Plateau (N), Indo-Gangetic Plain (S)

The Himalayas are divided into three main parallel ranges (from north to south):

Greater Himalayas (Himadri)
Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)
Outer Himalayas (Shivalik)

I. The Greater Himalayas (Himadri)

The Greater Himalayas, also known as Himadri or the Inner Himalayas, form the northernmost and highest range of the Himalayan system. This range has an average elevation of around 6,000 meters, containing many of the world’s tallest peaks such as Mount Everest (8,849 m), Kanchenjunga (8,598 m), and Nanga Parbat. It is the permanent snow-covered zone and the origin of major glaciers like Gangotri and Satopanth, which give rise to sacred rivers such as the Ganga and Yamuna.

II. Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)

The Lesser Himalayas, also known as the Himachal Range or Middle Himalayas, lie to the south of the Himadri. They have an average elevation ranging from 3,700 to 4,500 meters and consist of rugged terrain with deep valleys and forested slopes. Major mountain ranges like the Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, and Nag Tibba belong to this region. It is home to several popular hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, and Dharamshala, making it a prominent zone for tourism and habitation.

III. Outer Himalayas (Shivalik)

The Outer Himalayas, also known as the Shivalik Hills, form the southernmost and youngest range of the Himalayan system. They stretch for about 2,400 km from the Indus Gorge in the northwest to the Brahmaputra valley in the east, with an average height of 1,500-2,000 meters. The range is composed mainly of loose sediments and gravel, making it prone to erosion. It features fertile Doon and Duar valleys (like Dehradun), and is known by local names such as Dafla Hills, Dundwa Range, and Churia Hills in different regions.

2. The Karakoram Range

The Karakoram Range, located in the northern region of India (Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir), is one of the most rugged and high-altitude mountain systems in the world. Stretching across India, Pakistan, and China, it features some of the highest peaks on Earth, including K2 (8,611 meters), the second-highest peak in the world. The range is also home to vast glaciers like the Siachen Glacier, which is the longest glacier outside the polar regions.

Location: Northern India (Ladakh & J&K), extending into Pakistan and China
Highest Peak: K2 (8,611 m), world’s second-highest mountain
Major Glaciers: Siachen, Baltoro, Biafo, and Hispar
Importance: Acts as a natural barrier and holds great strategic and defense significance for India

3. The Purvanchal Range

The Purvanchal Range, also known as the Eastern Hills, is an extension of the Himalayas located in northeastern India, curving southward beyond the Dihang River. It runs along the borders of Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Assam, forming a scenic landscape of lush hills and dense forests. The region is known for its rich biodiversity, humid climate, and tribal culture, making it an ecological hotspot. These ranges also play a key role in preventing soil erosion and maintaining the stability of the northeastern terrain.

Location: Northeastern India (Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura)
Highest Peak: Dapha Bum (4,570 m)
Major Hills: Patkai, Naga, Mizo, and Manipur Hills
Significance: Rich in biodiversity, cultural diversity, and ecological importance

4. The Aravalli Range

The Aravalli Range, one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, stretches for about 700 km from Delhi and Haryana through Rajasthan to Gujarat. Formed during the Precambrian era, it is a residual mountain range that has been heavily eroded over millions of years. Despite its age, the Aravallis play a vital role in blocking the expansion of the Thar Desert, supporting biodiversity, and maintaining ecological balance in northwestern India. The famous Mount Abu hill station and Guru Shikhar (1,722 m), its highest peak, lie within this range.

Location: Extends across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat
Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar (1,722 m) in Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Type: Ancient fold (residual) mountains
Significance: Prevents desert spread, rich in minerals, and hosts historical sites

5. The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills, run parallel to the western coast of India for about 1,600 km from Gujarat to Kerala. This mountain range is one of the eight biodiversity hotspots in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It plays a major role in influencing the Indian monsoon, maintaining ecological balance, and supporting diverse flora and fauna. The region is home to scenic hill stations like Munnar, Wayanad, and Mahabaleshwar, as well as Anamudi (2,695 m), the highest peak in South India.

Location: Extends through Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu
Highest Peak: Anamudi (2,695 m), Kerala
Local Names: Sahyadri (Maharashtra), Nilgiri, Anaimalai, and Cardamom Hills (South)
Significance: Regulates monsoon, rich biodiversity, UNESCO World Heritage Site

6. The Eastern Ghats

The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous and eroded mountain range running along the eastern coast of India from Odisha to Tamil Nadu. Unlike the Western Ghats, they are not continuous and are intersected by major east-flowing rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. These ancient hills are rich in minerals, forests, and biodiversity, playing a crucial role in the ecology and agriculture of eastern India. The Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m) in Andhra Pradesh is the highest point in the Eastern Ghats.

Location: Extends through Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu
Highest Peak: Jindhagada Peak or Arma Konda or Sitamma Konda(1,690 m), Andhra Pradesh
Major Hills: Javadi, Nallamala, Palkonda, Seshachalam, and Shevaroy Hills
Significance: Source of east-flowing rivers, rich in minerals and forest resources

7. The Vindhya Range

The Vindhya Range is a discontinuous chain of hills and plateaus located in central India, extending across Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Bihar and Chhattisgarh. It runs almost parallel to the Narmada River and forms a natural boundary between North and South India. The range holds great mythological and cultural significance, being mentioned in many ancient Hindu scriptures as the southern limit of the Aryavarta region. Its terrain consists of rocky ridges and forested plateaus, rich in minerals and wildlife.

Location: Central India - Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh
Highest Peak: Sad-Bhawna Shikhar (752 m)
Type: Discontinuous and ancient mountain range
Significance: Marks the boundary between North and South India; rich in mineral and cultural heritage

8. The Satpura Range

The Satpura Range lies to the south of the Vindhya Range and extends through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh. It consists of a series of flat-topped plateaus and rugged hills, with an average elevation of 600-900 meters. The range is known for its dense forests, rich biodiversity, and significant role in separating the Narmada and Tapi river valleys. Its highest peak, Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh, is also the highest point in Central India.

Location: Extends through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh
Highest Peak: Dhupgarh (1,350 m), near Pachmarhi
Type: Relict (eroded) mountain range formed by plateaus
Significance: Source of major rivers, rich in forests and wildlife sanctuaries like Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

9. The Nilgiri Hills

The Nilgiri Hills, meaning “Blue Mountains,” are located at the junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka, forming part of the Western Ghats. These hills are known for their rolling tea gardens, pleasant climate, and rich biodiversity. The Doddabetta Peak (2,637 m) is the highest point in the Nilgiri range and one of the highest in South India. The Nilgiris also serve as a meeting point of the Eastern and Western Ghats, making them a vital ecological and geographical link in southern India.

Location: Junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka
Highest Peak: Doddabetta (2,637 m), Tamil Nadu
Known For: Tea plantations, scenic beauty, and biodiversity
Significance: Connects Eastern and Western Ghats; major hill stations like Ooty and Coonoor

Mountain Ranges in India Map

The Mountain Ranges in India Map clearly shows how these ranges are spread across the country, shaping its geography and climate. In the north, the Himalayas and Karakoram dominate, while the Aravalli, Vindhya, and Satpura ranges define central India’s terrain. The Western and Eastern Ghats run along the peninsular coasts, and the Purvanchal hills mark the country’s eastern frontier. Together, these ranges form the backbone of India’s physical landscape.

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List of Mountain Ranges in India

India has many famous mountain ranges that make the country rich in natural beauty. From the great Himalayas in the north to the green Ghats in the south, each range is special in its own way. They are home to rivers, forests, and many beautiful places to visit. All the Important mountain ranges of India have been shared below.

Mountain Ranges in North India (North to South)

The Mountain Ranges in North India are dominated by some of the world’s highest and most majestic mountain ranges, including the Himalayas and the Karakoram. Stretching from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh, these ranges form a natural barrier against cold winds from Central Asia and play a vital role in shaping India’s climate, rivers, and biodiversity.

Mountain Ranges in North India (North to South)
Mountain Range	Location/State
Saltoro Mountains	Ladakh
Karakoram Range	Ladakh
Deosai Mountain	Jammu & Kashmir
Ladakh Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Zanskar Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Pir Panjal Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Zabarwan Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Dhauladhar Range	Himachal Pradesh
Kishtwar Himalaya	Jammu & Kashmir
Garhwal Himalaya	Uttarakhand
Dundwa Range	Northern Uttar Pradesh

Mountain Ranges in Central India (West to East)

The Mountain Ranges in Central India are mostly folded and eroded hills, rich in minerals and dense forests. Stretching from Rajasthan in the west to Jharkhand in the east, they play a key role in influencing local climate, drainage patterns, and biodiversity.

Mountain Ranges in Central India (West to East)
Mountain Range	Location/State
Aravalli Range	Rajasthan to Haryana
Vindhya Range	Madhya Pradesh to Uttar Pradesh
Satpura Range	Madhya Pradesh to Maharashtra
Maikal Range	Madhya Pradesh to Chhattisgarh
Rajmahal Hills	Jharkhand

Mountain Ranges in North East India (North to South)

The Mountain Ranges in North East India are part of the Eastern Himalayas and Patkai hills, forming a natural boundary with Myanmar and China. These ranges are rich in biodiversity, covered with dense forests, and home to many tribal communities. The region includes significant ranges like Patkai, Naga, Mizo, Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills, known for their scenic beauty and cultural diversity.

Mountain Ranges in Central India (West to East)
Mountain Range	Location (State/Region)	Highest Peak	Approx. Height (m)
Patkai Range	Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland	Mount Saramati	3,841 m
Naga Hills	Nagaland	Mount Saramati	3,841 m
Khasi Hills	Meghalaya	Lum Shyllong	1,965 m
Jaintia Hills	Meghalaya	Smit Peak	1,700 m
Garo Hills	Meghalaya	Nokrek Peak	1,412 m
Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills)	Mizoram	Blue Mountain (Phawngpui)	2,157 m

Western Ghats Mountains (North to South)

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Range, run parallel to India’s western coast from Gujarat to Kerala. These mountains form one of the world’s eight biodiversity hotspots, known for their lush forests, waterfalls, and diverse wildlife. Here is the list of Western Ghats Mountains (North to South).

Western Ghats Mountains (North to South)
Mountain Range	States
Satmala Hills	Maharashtra
Ajanta Hills	Maharashtra
Harishchandra Range	Maharashtra
Balaghat Range	Maharashtra
Kudremukh	Karnataka
Baba Budan Hills	Karnataka
Nilgiri Mountains	Tamil Nadu
Akamala Machad Hills	Kerala
Anaimalai Hills	Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Palani Hills	Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Cardamom Hills	Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Varushnad Hills	Tamil Nadu

Eastern Ghats Mountains (North to South)

The Eastern Ghats run parallel to India’s eastern coast, extending from Odisha in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. These discontinuous and ancient hill ranges are lower than the Western Ghats and are rich in minerals, forests, and scenic river valleys like those of the Godavari and Krishna.

Eastern Ghats Mountains (North to South)
Mountain Range	States
Nayagarh Hills	Odisha
Bastar Plateau	Chhattisgarh
Nallamala Hills	Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Erramala Hills	Andhra Pradesh
Velikonda Range	Andhra Pradesh
Palkonda Range	Andhra Pradesh
Seshachalam Hills	Andhra Pradesh
Nagari Hills	Andhra Pradesh
Javedi Hills	Tamil Nadu
Melagiri Range	Tamil Nadu
Shevaroy Hills	Tamil Nadu
Pachaimalai Hills	Tamil Nadu
Sirumalai Hills	Tamil Nadu

Mountain Peaks in India FAQs

Q1: Which is the oldest mountain range in India?

Ans: The Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India and one of the oldest geological formations in the world, dating back to around 2.5 billion years.

Q2: Which is the highest mountain range in India?

Ans: The Greater Himalayas (Himadri) is the highest mountain range in India, containing peaks like Mount Everest (on the border) and Kanchenjunga (within India).

Q3: Which mountain range separates Northern and Southern India?

Ans: The Vindhya Range acts as a natural divide between North and South India, influencing both geography and climate.

Q4: What are the 7 major mountain ranges of India?

Ans: The 7 major mountain ranges in India are the Himalayas, Karakoram, Aravalli, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Vindhya, and Satpura ranges.

Q5: Which is the 2nd highest peak in India?

Ans: Nanda Devi is the second-highest peak in India at 7,816 meters.

Cyclone Ditwah, Origin, Naming, IMD Forecast, Impact

December 3, 2025

Cyclone Ditwah is the latest tropical cyclone to form over the Southwest Bay of Bengal in November 2025. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has issued multiple alerts for Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh as the system continues to intensify.

The article below discusses the origin, naming, IMD Forecast and Impact of Cyclone Ditwah.

Cyclone Ditwah Origin

Cyclone Ditwah originated from a well-marked low-pressure area over the Southwest Bay of Bengal on 26 November 2025.

Key developing factors include:

Warm Sea Surface Temperatures (28-30°C): essential energy source for cyclogenesis.
Low Vertical Wind Shear (10-15 knots): enabling vertical development of clouds.
Moisture-rich monsoonal winds feed the system.
The system intensified from a low-pressure system to a depression to a deep depression and finally converted into a cyclonic storm within 24-36 hours.

Cyclone Ditwah Naming

“Ditwah” is a name given by Yemen, as per the WMO-ESCAP (World Meteorological Organization & UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific) cyclone naming list.
The name refers to Detwah Lagoon, an ecologically significant coastal waterbody located in the Socotra Archipelago.
Names are assigned sequentially from a pre-approved list contributed by 13 member countries, which includes Bangladesh, India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Cyclone Ditwah IMD Forecast

According to the latest IMD bulletins:

The system is likely to move north-northwestwards towards the Tamil Nadu-Puducherry-South Andhra Pradesh coast.
Expected peak wind speeds: 70-90 km/h, with possible higher gusts near the centre.
Landfall prediction: Around 30 November 2025, depending on its track and intensification.
IMD has issued:
- Red Alert for heavy to very heavy rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu & Puducherry.
- Orange Alert for South Andhra Pradesh districts.
- Fishermen Warning: Total suspension of fishing in the Southwest and West-Central Bay of Bengal.
- Sea Condition: Very rough to high.

Cyclone Ditwah and Operation Sagar Bandhu

India has expressed heartfelt condolences to the people of Sri Lanka affected by Cyclone Ditwah and wished for their safety and quick recovery.

To support emergency needs, India has urgently dispatched relief materials and HADR assistance under Operation Sagar Bandhu. Guided by the Neighbourhood First policy and Vision MAHASAGAR, India remains committed to helping Sri Lanka during this crisis.

Why Cyclones Mostly Form in the Bay of Bengal

The Bay of Bengal is a major cyclogenesis zone, especially in the post-monsoon months (October–December).

Reasons include:

Higher Sea Surface Temperatures than the Arabian Sea due to weaker heat dissipation.
Freshwater influx from major rivers (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy) creating layered warm water, ideal for cyclone formation.
Low vertical wind shear in the region.
Favourable Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) phases enhancing convection.
Geographical funnel-shape, amplifying wind convergence.
Warm ocean eddies that energize depressions.

Because of these factors, nearly 75% of North Indian Ocean cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal.

Cyclone Ditwah Impact

Cyclone Ditwah Impact on Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has already faced widespread flooding, landslides, and severe storm damage.
As per early reports: 120+ deaths, dozens injured, and significant displacement.
Transport routes, bridges, and communication lines were disrupted in multiple districts.

Cyclone Ditwah Expected Impact on India

Heavy to extremely heavy rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh.
Urban flooding likely in Chennai, Cuddalore, and Puducherry.
Strong winds may uproot trees, disrupt power supply, and damage kutcha structures.
Agricultural losses possible in paddy fields, banana crops, and coastal fisheries.
High waves & storm surge threatening low-lying coastal belts.

Cyclone Ditwah FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Ditwah?

Ans: A tropical cyclone that formed over the Southwest Bay of Bengal in and is moving towards the South Indian coast.

Q2: Who named the cyclone “Ditwah”?

Ans: Yemen. The name refers to Detwah Lagoon in the Socotra Archipelago.

Q3: Which states in India will be affected?

Ans: Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh are expected to see heavy rainfall, strong winds, and rough seas.

Q4: Why do more cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal?

Ans: Due to warm sea temperatures, low wind shear, humid monsoonal winds, riverine freshwater layers, and favourable geography.

Q5: Will Cyclone Ditwah impact North India?

Ans: No major impact expected. Only minor temperature or wind changes may occur depending on the system’s movement.

Green Revolution in India, History, Impact, Advantages

December 3, 2025

The Green Revolution brought a major shift in the agriculture sector during the 1960s and 70s, especially in countries like India. It introduced high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, improved irrigation, and machines like tractors. This helped in increasing the food production and reduced dependence on imports. Regions like Punjab and Haryana saw huge gains in production. Poorer farmers who weren’t financially stable were deprived of the benefits and over time, the heavy use of chemicals damaged soil and water though the Green Revolution helped prevent famines and made India self-sufficient in grains.

Green Revolution In India

The Green Revolution was a turning point for agriculture in many developing countries, especially during the 1960s and 70s. It focused on increasing food production using high-yielding seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and modern irrigation techniques. Tractors and other machines also replaced traditional farming tools in several regions.

The Green Revolution Objectives were to avoid food shortages and make countries less dependent on imports. This initiative helped to increase the food production and reduce hunger crisis, it also created gaps, small farmers couldn’t always afford the new methods, and the overuse of chemicals harmed the environment and the soil.

Green Revolution In India History

The Green Revolution in India was introduced during the 1960s when food scarcity had become a serious national concern. To tackle this, scientists introduced high-yielding seeds for crops like wheat and rice, which were first developed in places like Mexico and the Philippines.

Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the Father of Green Revolution played a key role in bringing these changes to India, with support from Norman Borlaug. Farmers in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh quickly adopted the new methods using chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and better irrigation. It helped India achieve food security, but over time, problems like soil damage and water overuse also came to light.

Green Revolution in India Components

Several key factors laid the foundation for the Green Revolution in India which includes:

High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs): The revolution focused on the use of HYV seeds mainly for wheat and rice. These were dwarf, high-output varieties that produced 2 to 3 times more than traditional crops. But they weren’t low-maintenance. These seeds needed more water, more fertiliser, and more protection from pests.

Irrigation Facilities: In 1960, only about 30 million hectares of land in India were irrigated. Expanding irrigation was essential to support the water-intensive HYVs.

Credit and Financing: Farmers couldn’t afford modern seeds, fertilisers, or machinery on their own. A strong rural credit system, including co-operative banks and microfinance institutions, became important to fund the shift.

Commercialisation of Agriculture: For the first time, farming became market-driven. With the government introducing Minimum Support Prices (MSP), farmers now had guaranteed returns. This changed their approach from growing just enough for survival to growing for profit.

Farm Mechanisation: New technology like tractors, threshers, and harvesters became part of the farming landscape. Mechanisation saved time, reduced labour costs, and made large-scale farming feasible.

Command Area Development Programme (CADP) - 1974: The CADP pushed for infrastructure development in irrigated areas. It had two parts:

On-farm development like levelling land, building water channels, and preparing the soil.

Off-farm development, by improving the infrastructure such as roads, markets, and rural transport to move produce efficiently.

Chemical Fertilisers and Pesticides: Indian soils, especially in intensively farmed regions, lacked sufficient nitrogen. To address this, NPK (Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium) fertilisers were recommended in a 4:2:1 ratio. Alongside, insecticides and herbicides were used to protect crops.

Also Read: Blue Revolution

Green Revolution in India Phases

The Green Revolution evolved in phases, each responding to the needs and challenges of the time. It started as a response to food shortages and gradually expanded to tackle regional differences, ecological concerns, and the diversification of agriculture.

Phase I (1965-66 to 1980)

India's first phase of the Green Revolution was driven by an urgent need for food security. The country was heavily dependent on food imports, and the threat of famine was high. This phase focused on wheat production and was largely limited to regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, where irrigation and infrastructure were already in place, and natural hazards were minimal.

Programs like the Intensive Agriculture Development Program (IADP) and Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP) were launched. But the real game-changer was the High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) program introduced in 1965-66. By 1980, food grain production had around 100 million tonnes, up from just 33 MT in 1965 and 25 MT in 1950.

Phase II (1980-1991)

With wheat production stable, attention turned to rice production during the 6th and 7th Five-Year Plans. This phase aimed to replicate the success of Phase I in wetter regions like West Bengal, Bihar, Eastern UP, Assam, and coastal areas with over 100 cm of rainfall.

While areas like the Krishna-Godavari delta, Cauvery basin, and parts of West Bengal saw progress, the impact was uneven. In Bihar, only a few regions like Bhojpur benefitted.

Phase III (1991-2003)

By the 1990s, the revolution aimed to reach India's semi-arid and dryland regions. Crops like cotton, oilseeds, pulses, and millets were targeted under the 8th and 9th Five-Year Plans.

Efforts like the Integrated Watershed Management Programme tried to improve water usage in dry areas. A few regions like the Narmada-Tapi doab, Tungabhadra basin, and Bhima-Krishna basin showed success but overall, the results were limited.

Green Revolution in India Impact

The Green Revolution may have solved India’s immediate food crisis, but it came with long-term impact. It mostly benefited a few regions like Punjab, Haryana, and western UP, leaving other parts of the country behind. Rich farmers grew richer; small ones lost land and became labourers. Heavy use of chemicals damaged soil and water, and mechanisation reduced rural jobs.

Economic Impact

The Green Revolution increased social and economic differences. As some regions like Punjab and western UP prospered, others like eastern UP and Bihar were left behind. This growth created interpersonal, inter-regional, and interstate disparities. People in high-yield areas earned more, invested more, and pulled further ahead. Meanwhile, farmers in left-out zones struggled to compete.

In regions including Punjab and Bihar during 1960, both had similar crop output. By 1990, Punjab was miles ahead by utilising early access to HYVs, irrigation, and capital. On the other hand, many small farmers took informal credit to keep up, falling into debt cycles.

Social Impact

Rural landlessness increased as small and marginal farmers, unable to purchase new technology instruments, sold their land. Many ended up working as agricultural labourers in wealthy owner’s fields. That shift increased poverty, worsened health conditions, and made rural communities more vulnerable.

Machines including tractors, harvesters, and threshers contributed to utilise less human capital needed in the field, so the lands became efficient yet the employment level declined Rural unemployment increased especially among the unskilled.

Ecological Impact

Initially soil degradation was a serious problem, the push for higher yields led to farming practices that ignored the land’s natural limits. Over-irrigation, poor drainage, and heavy chemical use resulted in salinisation, alkalisation, and the formation of unproductive soils like reh and kallar especially in regions like Punjab and Haryana.

Waterlogging became another side-effect. Excessive canal irrigation, without proper drainage systems which damaged soil structure over time. The chemical overload by the utilisation of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, and weedicides poisoned the soil. Over time, soil microbes died off, fertility declined, and the land became dependent on chemical inputs to stay productive.

Rivers, ponds, tanks, and reservoirs in the Green Revolution started showing signs of pollution. There was large-scale deforestation. Forests in the Punjab, Tarai, and Bhabhar zones were cleared to make way for farmland. This wiped out biodiversity and weakened ecological balance in those regions.

Green Revolution in India Advantages

The Green Revolution helped in tackling the chronic food shortage during a time of rapid population growth in India.
Eliminated recurring famines and brought food security to millions allowing farmers to generate surplus production, which led to agricultural commercialisation.
The government improved rural infrastructure including roads, irrigation, storage which became essential support systems for the producers.
The Green Revolution made India self-sufficient in food grain production which reduced the import dependence, freeing up funds for poverty alleviation schemes like IRDP and Tribal Area Development.
Rising farm wages increased rural cash flow which helped in promoting the agro and food-processing industries. It also enabled land reforms like land consolidation and ceiling implementation.

Green Revolution in India Disadvantages

Overuse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides degraded soil health and polluted water bodies like rivers and canals through disposals of the chemicals.
Intensive irrigation practices led to groundwater depletion and even the surface water sources such as wells.
Majorly wealthy farmers with the benefits of the initiatives introduced by the government with land and capital, leaving small and marginal farmers behind.
Economic inequality in rural areas increased, with resource-rich regions advancing while others stagnated.
Crop diversity declined due to the focus on a few high-yield varieties, increasing vulnerability to pests and diseases.

Green Revolution in India FAQs

Q1: Who is the Father of the Green Revolution in India?

Ans: Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, supported by Norman Borlaug’s work on wheat HYVs, led the efforts.

Q2: What crops were central to the Green Revolution?

Ans: Primarily wheat and rice; later phases included jowar, bajra, maize, and dryland crops like pulses and oilseeds.

Q3: Why did the Green Revolution succeed only in parts of India?

Ans: Failure to implement irrigation, credit and land reforms limited adoption in rain‑fed and eastern regions.

Q4: What is meant by monoculture in this context?

Ans: Growing the same crop (wheat or rice) repeatedly over large areas leading to biodiversity loss and increased vulnerability to pests.

Q5: Can India feed itself indefinitely with Green Revolution methods?

Ans: Not sustainably. Groundwater depletion, soil degradation, and climate stress mean that India needs a new, eco‑sensitive model often called Green Revolution 2.0 or Evergreen Revolution.

Right to Freedom, Article 19 to 22, Provisions, Exceptions, Case Laws

December 3, 2025

The Right to Freedom is one of the most fundamental human rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India. Enshrined under Articles 19 to 22 of Part III, it forms the foundation of India’s democratic framework. This right ensures that citizens can express themselves, move freely, and live without undue restrictions by the State. The framers of the Constitution, guided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), incorporated these freedoms to protect individual liberty while maintaining public order and national security.

Right to Freedom in the Indian Constitution

The Right to Freedom provides a balance between individual liberty and state control. While it ensures the protection of civil liberties, it also allows reasonable restrictions to maintain harmony and sovereignty. The six freedoms under Article 19(1) are available only to Indian citizens, whereas Articles 20 to 22 extend certain rights to all persons, including non-citizens. These freedoms form the basis of India’s democratic participation, personal dignity, and constitutional governance.

Right to Freedom Constitutional Provisions

The Right to Freedom is one of the most significant parts of the Fundamental Rights guaranteed under Articles 19 to 22 of the Indian Constitution. It ensures civil liberty for individuals so that democratic governance can function effectively. Below is a detailed explanation of each article, based directly on the constitutional text and authoritative legal interpretation.

Right to Freedom Article 19

“Protection of Certain Rights Regarding Freedom of Speech, etc.”

Article 19(1) guarantees six essential freedoms to Indian citizens, forming the foundation of individual liberty and democracy. Although the earlier version consisted of seven essential freedoms under this section which has been reduced to six after omission of Right to Property through the 44th Amendment Act 1978.

These rights include:

Freedom of speech and expression- The right to express opinions freely through any medium.
Freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms- The right to hold meetings and processions peacefully.
Freedom to form associations or unions- The right to organize groups for political, social, or economic purposes.
Freedom to move freely throughout India- Citizens can travel anywhere within the country without restriction.
Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India- Citizens can live in any state or region they choose.
Freedom to practice any profession, or carry on any occupation, trade, or business- The right to work and pursue lawful employment.

Reasonable Restrictions:

The Constitution allows the State to impose restrictions on these freedoms under clauses (2) to (6) of Article 19 for reasons such as:

Sovereignty and integrity of India
Security of the State
Public order, decency, or morality
Contempt of court or defamation
Friendly relations with foreign States
Protection of Scheduled Tribes or public interest

For example, freedom of speech may be restricted to prevent hate speech or incitement to violence, and freedom of trade may require professional qualifications or licenses.

Right to Freedom Article 20

“Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences”

Article 20 protects individuals from arbitrary and unfair criminal prosecution. It is applicable to both citizens and non-citizens and cannot be suspended even during an emergency.

It provides three key safeguards which ensure that criminal justice in India upholds fairness and due process:

Protection against ex post facto laws- No one can be punished for an act that was not an offence when committed.
Protection against double jeopardy- No individual can be tried or punished twice for the same offence.
Protection against self-incrimination- An accused person cannot be compelled to testify against themselves.

Right to Freedom Article 21

“Protection of Life and Personal Liberty”

Article 21 states:

“No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”

This article guarantees the right to life and personal liberty to all persons, citizens and non-citizens alike. Initially, it was narrowly interpreted, but later the Supreme Court of India has expanded its interpretation to include a wide range of rights essential to human dignity. Key inclusions under Article 21 (as per judicial interpretation):

Right to privacy (Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India, 2017)
Right to a clean environment (Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar, 1991)
Right to shelter (Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation, 1985)
Right to education (Mohini Jain vs. State of Karnataka, 1992)
Right to die with dignity (Common Cause vs. Union of India

Right to Freedom Article 21A

“Right to Education”

Added by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, Article 21A guarantees the right to free and compulsory education for all children aged 6 to 14 years.

Key features:

It obligates the State to provide education in a manner determined by law.
It ensures that every child has access to elementary education, promoting equality and literacy.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE), 2009 operationalizes this right.

According to the Ministry of Education (2024), over 200 million children have benefited from RTE provisions since its implementation.

Right to Freedom Article 22

“Protection Against Arrest and Detention in Certain Cases”

Article 22 provides rights related to arrest, detention, and preventive detention. It ensures that no one is deprived of liberty without due legal process.

Rights under Article 22(1) & (2):

Every person who is arrested must be informed of the reasons for arrest.
The person must be allowed to consult a lawyer of their choice.
The person must be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
No one can be detained beyond 24 hours without magistrate approval.

Exceptions under Article 22(3): These protections do not apply to:

Enemy aliens
Persons detained under preventive detention laws

Preventive Detention:

Allows detention to prevent future threats to public order or national security.
A person cannot be detained beyond three months unless approved by an Advisory Board of High Court judges.
Parliament can prescribe longer detention under special laws like the National Security Act (1980) or UAPA (1967).

Key Safeguards:

Grounds of detention must be communicated to the detainee.
The detainee must be given a chance to make a representation.
Sensitive facts may be withheld if disclosure is against public interest.

According to NCRB (2021) data, India recorded more than 12,000 preventive detentions, highlighting ongoing debates over balancing security with liberty.

Right to Freedom Case Laws

The landmark judgements and case laws that shaped the structure of the Right to Freedom under the Constitution of India are:

Romesh Thappar vs. State of Madras (1950): The Supreme Court ruled that freedom of speech and expression is the foundation of democracy.
A.K. Gopalan vs. State of Madras (1950): The Court upheld preventive detention and interpreted personal liberty narrowly, separating Articles 19 and 21. This view was later expanded in Maneka Gandhi (1978).
Kharak Singh vs. State of U.P. (1963): The Court invalidated police surveillance practices and, through Justice Subba Rao’s dissent, laid the groundwork for recognizing the right to privacy as part of personal liberty.
Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India (1978): The Court held that the “procedure established by law” must be fair, just, and reasonable, expanding the scope of Article 21.
Bijoe Emmanuel vs. State of Kerala (1986): Upheld the right to freedom of expression by protecting students who refused to sing the national anthem on religious grounds.

Right to Freedom and National Security

Post-independence, India faced several internal and external security challenges. The Preventive Detention Act, 1950, and later the National Security Act (1980), allowed preemptive measures against threats. While necessary, these laws are often criticized for misuse. The Judiciary has emphasized, preventive detention should be used only as a last resort, ensuring transparency and periodic review.

Right to Freedom and Digital India

With the expansion of digital spaces, the right to freedom now extends to digital expression. Article 19(1)(a) covers online speech, and the Supreme Court’s 2015 judgment in Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, protecting freedom of expression online. However, concerns about surveillance, fake news, and internet shutdowns continue to test the balance between liberty and regulation.

According to Access Now's "Lives on hold: internet shutdowns in 2024" report, India had 84 internet shutdowns, the highest among democratic nations, raising serious concerns about digital rights and constitutional freedoms.

Right to Freedom and Media

The freedom of the press, though not explicitly mentioned, has been interpreted as part of Article 19(1)(a). The media plays a vital role in strengthening democracy by ensuring transparency and accountability. According to the World Press Freedom Index 2025 by Reporters Without Borders, India ranked 151 out of 180 countries, showing concerns about media freedom and autonomy.

Right to Freedom and Economic Liberty

Economic freedom, an aspect of personal liberty, is protected under Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution, granting citizens the right to pursue any profession or trade. In State of Gujarat vs. Mirzapur Moti Kureshi (2005), the Supreme Court upheld that reasonable restrictions on economic activities for public welfare are constitutionally valid. Reforms such as Ease of Doing Business and Startup India have further strengthened this freedom by reducing barriers to entrepreneurship.

Right to Freedom Challenges

Various Challenges to the Right to Freedom has been discussed below:

Misuse of Sedition Law:
- Section 152 of BNS (124A of IPC) is often misused to curb dissent.
- Way Forward: Review and redefine sedition law per the Supreme Court’s directive.
Preventive Detention Abuse:
- Arbitrary arrests continue.
- Way Forward: Periodic judicial review and oversight.
Internet Shutdowns:
- Affect access to information and livelihood.
- Way Forward: Formulate strict guidelines for digital restrictions.
Media Pressure:
- Threats to journalistic independence persist.
- Way Forward: Strengthen press councils and editorial autonomy.
Defamation and Censorship:
- Legal cases often suppress free speech.
- Way Forward: Adopt a balanced defamation law in line with global best practices.

Right to Freedom Global Perspective

The Right to Freedom aligns with international covenants such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 19) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), to which India is a signatory. The Indian judiciary has consistently upheld these global norms, integrating them into national jurisprudence.

Right to Freedom UPSC

The Right to Freedom in India embodies the essence of democracy, empowering individuals to think, speak, and act freely within the bounds of law. While the Constitution provides robust protection, evolving social, digital, and security dynamics continue to challenge its implementation. Strengthening institutional accountability, promoting legal literacy, and ensuring judicial independence are essential to uphold the spirit of freedom envisioned by the framers of the Constitution.

Right to Freedom FAQs

Q1: What is the Right to Freedom in the Indian Constitution?

Ans: The Right to Freedom, covered under Articles 19 to 22, guarantees citizens essential liberties like speech, movement, assembly, and protection against arbitrary arrest.

Q2: Which article gives freedom of speech and expression in India?

Ans: Article 19(1)(a) provides the right to freedom of speech and expression, subject to reasonable restrictions like public order and decency.

Q3: What protection does Article 20 offer to individuals?

Ans: Article 20 protects individuals from double punishment, retrospective criminal laws, and self-incrimination during prosecution.

Q4: What is the difference between Article 21 and Article 21A?

Ans: Article 21 ensures the right to life and personal liberty, while Article 21A guarantees free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14 years.

Q5: What are the rights of an arrested person under Article 22?

Ans: Under Article 22, an arrested person must be informed of the reasons for arrest, allowed legal aid, and produced before a magistrate within 24 hours.

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), Definition, Components, Initiatives

December 3, 2025

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) is a set of open, interoperable, and scalable digital systems that enable citizens, businesses, and governments to access services efficiently. Its key components in India include Aadhaar (digital ID), UPI (digital payments), DigiLocker (document storage), CoWIN and eSanjeevani (digital health), Account Aggregator framework, UMANG, and GeM.

Major DPI initiatives like PMJDY, UPI, India Stack, and CoWIN have transformed financial inclusion, public service delivery, and healthcare access. Together, these platforms form the backbone of India’s digital economy and inclusive development efforts.

What is Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)?

DPI is a set of foundational digital systems and standards that are reusable across programs and sectors. Examples of foundational blocks are: unique digital identity, instant payment rails, secure data-sharing frameworks, digital document vaults, and open APIs that allow public and private services to plug in and interoperate. The World Bank, UN agencies and major foundations describe DPI as infrastructure analogous to roads or power. This enabler lowers the cost of delivering public and private services and widens access.

Components of Digital Public Infrastructure

Digital Public Infrastructure generally consists of three core layers: Digital Identity, Digital Payments, and Data Exchange, along with supporting platforms such as digital document systems, authentication tools, and open APIs.

Digital Identity Systems: These are secure and unique digital identification frameworks that allow citizens to authenticate themselves across multiple services. Example: Aadhaar in India.
Digital Payment Systems: This component provides real-time, low-cost, and interoperable digital payment rails. It supports seamless transactions for individuals, businesses, and government bodies, helping transition economies toward cashless systems. Example: India’s UPI
Consent-Based Data Sharing Frameworks: These systems allow individuals to securely share their personal data with full consent and transparency. Example: India’s Account Aggregator Framework
Digital Document and Verification Platforms: These platforms store, issue, and verify digital documents such as certificates, licences, and government-issued IDs. Example: India’s DigiLocker
e-KYC and Digital Onboarding Systems: These systems verify user identity digitally, enabling instant onboarding for services like banking, telecom, and digital platforms.
Open APIs and Interoperability Frameworks: These are standardised digital interfaces that allow different systems, public and private to connect, exchange information, and build new services on top of existing digital rails. Examples include India Stack APIs, API Setu.

Digital Public Infrastructure Evolution

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) evolved from individual e-government projects to holistic, horizontal platforms that multiple programs reuse.

Siloed services (pre-2010s): separate portals and databases with limited interoperability.
Platform thinking (2010s): India pioneered large foundational projects: Aadhaar (digital identity) and open API thinking (India Stack).
Scale & network effects (2015–2025): layering payments (UPI), drawers for documents (DigiLocker), health platforms (CoWIN), and data-sharing frameworks (Account Aggregator) turned components into an ecosystem that firms and governments can build on.
Global DPI discourse (2020s): multilateral institutions (World Bank, UN, Gates Foundation) have adopted DPI as a development priority and produced guidance on governance, inclusion and risk mitigation.

Major Digital Public Infrastructure Initiatives in India

Aadhaar (Digital ID): India’s unique biometric-based digital identity programme. As of mid-2024, around 138.34 crore Aadhaar numbers have been issued.
Unified Payments Interface (UPI): By October 2025, UPI reached a record ₹27.28 lakh crore in monthly transaction value and over 20 lakh crore+ annual transactions, making it one of the world’s fastest-growing payment systems.
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): India’s financial inclusion backbone with 52+ crore Jan Dhan bank accounts by 2024–25. Over 56% accounts belong to women, and deposits crossed ₹2 lakh crore, strengthening digital payments and DBT.
DigiLocker (Digital Document Wallet): India’s digital document wallet, with 37+ crore users and billions of issued documents such as Aadhaar, driving licences, and academic certificates stored and verified digitally.
Health & Public-Service Platforms: CoWIN / eSanjeevani / Aarogya Setu
- - CoWIN enabled over 220+ crore vaccination registrations and certificates, proving India’s real-time DPI capability.
  - eSanjeevani delivered 18+ crore telemedicine consultations, expanding rural healthcare access.
  - Aarogya Setu supported COVID risk-tracking with 200M+ downloads.
Account Aggregator (AA) framework (Consent-Based Data Sharing): A newer DPI layer enabling secure, consent-driven sharing of financial data, helping individuals and MSMEs access credit and financial services more easily.

DPI-Backbone Platforms: API Setu, UMANG and Government e‑Marketplace (GeM):

- API Setu provides open APIs and interoperability, enabling public and private services to build on common digital rails.
- UMANG App: A single interface for accessing 1,700+ government services from 200+ departments, simplifying citizen access to public services.
- Government e-Marketplace (GeM): India’s digital procurement platform with over ₹4 lakh crore+ in Gross Merchandise Value (GMV) by 2024–25 and 1.5+ crore sellers and buyers, ensuring transparent government procurement.
- FASTag (Digital Toll Collection): Implemented across national highways, FASTag accounts for 96%+ of toll payments, enabling cashless, contactless tolling nationwide.

How DPI Supports Inclusive Development

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) has been a key driver in making India’s public services, financial systems, and economic opportunities more inclusive, bridging gaps across geography, income, and social status.

Financial Inclusion: Aadhaar-based e-KYC and PMJDY have brought millions into the formal financial system. Over 52 crore Jan Dhan accounts exist, with 56% held by women, enabling direct benefit transfers and banking access for low-income households.
Low-Cost, Universal Payments: UPI allows instant, interoperable payments across banks and apps. By October 2025, it processed ₹27.28 lakh crore in transactions monthly, helping small merchants, rural users, and micro-entrepreneurs participate in the digital economy.
Access to Public Services: Platforms like UMANG provide 1,700+ government services on a single app, while DigiLocker, with 37+ crore users, ensures citizens can store and verify important documents digitally, reducing bureaucratic hurdles.
Healthcare & Welfare Delivery: eSanjeevani has delivered over 18 crore telemedicine consultations, and CoWIN issued 220+ crore vaccine certificates, extending healthcare to rural and remote populations.
Empowerment through Data Sharing: The Account Aggregator (AA) framework allows secure, consent-based sharing of financial data, helping MSMEs and low-income individuals access credit and government schemes efficiently.
Bridging Social Gaps: DPI ensures that women, rural populations, persons with disabilities, and other marginalized groups can access education, healthcare, financial services, and welfare benefits, promoting social inclusion and equity.

Global Recognition of India’s DPI Model

G20 Recognition: India’s G20 presidency highlighted the importance of DPIs, with the declaration citing UPI as a model for developing nations.
International Organizations: The UN prioritized DPI in its Global Digital Compact, and the World Bank praised India’s DPI for enhancing financial inclusion and government services.
Global Adoption: Countries like Armenia, Sierra Leone, Suriname, and Antigua & Barbuda signed MoUs to adopt India Stack at no cost; MOSIP is being used by nine developing nations for national ID systems.
Interest from Developed Nations: France, Germany, and Japan are evaluating platforms like UPI for potential integration into their digital ecosystems.
Demonstrated Impact: India’s DPI has successfully supported large-scale services, including UPI financial transactions and the CoWIN vaccination program during COVID-19.

Challenges in Implementing Digital Public Infrastructure

Digital Divide and Connectivity Gaps

- Despite progress, over 25% of India’s population still lacks reliable internet access, mainly in rural and remote areas.
- Unequal access to smartphones, digital literacy, and broadband hampers equitable participation in DPI-enabled services.

Data Privacy and Security Concerns

- Large-scale digital systems like Aadhaar, UPI, and DigiLocker involve sensitive personal and financial data.
- Risks include identity theft, data breaches, and misuse of information; robust security frameworks are essential to maintain trust.

Interoperability and System Integration

- India’s DPI ecosystem comprises multiple platforms (Aadhaar, UPI, DigiLocker, CoWIN, UMANG, etc.), which must seamlessly interoperate.
- Integration across central, state, and private-sector systems remains challenging, especially with legacy IT infrastructure.

Awareness and Digital Literacy

- Many users, particularly in rural areas, remain unaware of DPI services or lack the skills to use them.
- According to a 2024 survey, only 45–50% of rural adults feel confident using digital platforms for banking or government services.

Regulatory and Governance Challenges

- Rapid technological innovation often outpaces policy and regulation.
- Ensuring data protection, standardisation, accountability, and ethical use of AI or analytics within DPI frameworks is complex.

Financial and Infrastructure Constraints

- Implementing and maintaining nationwide DPI requires significant investment in IT infrastructure, cybersecurity, and support services.
- Smaller states or resource-limited regions may struggle to sustain such investments without central assistance.

Way Forward

Expand broadband and mobile networks to cover the remaining 25% of the population without reliable internet.
Promote affordable smartphones and devices to increase participation in DPI services.
Strengthen cybersecurity frameworks and regulatory policies like the Digital Personal Data Protection Act to protect sensitive data.
Conduct large-scale awareness campaigns and digital literacy programs, targeting rural areas, women, and marginalized groups.
Ensure seamless integration and interoperability of platforms like UMANG, GeM, CoWIN, and UPI using open APIs.
Share India’s DPI experience globally via initiatives like Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository (GDPIR) and support adoption by developing countries.

Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) FAQs

Q1: What is Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)?

Ans: DPI is a set of open, interoperable digital systems that enable citizens, businesses, and governments to access services efficiently.

Q2: What are the main components of DPI in India?

Ans: Key components include Aadhaar, UPI, DigiLocker, CoWIN, eSanjeevani, Aarogya Setu, Account Aggregator Framework, UMANG, and GeM.

Q3: How does DPI support financial inclusion?

Ans: DPI enables citizens to open bank accounts, receive subsidies, and access credit, including over 52 crore Jan Dhan accounts.

Q4: How does DPI promote social inclusion?

Ans: DPI provides access to education, healthcare, financial services, and government benefits for rural, marginalized, and differently-abled populations.

Q5: What global recognition has India’s DPI received?

Ans: India’s DPI, including India Stack and UPI, is being adopted by countries like Armenia, Sierra Leone, Suriname, and acknowledged by France, Germany, and Japan.

UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network

December 3, 2025

UNESCO's Creative Cities Network Latest News

Recently, Lucknow has officially joined the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) under the Gastronomy category during the 43rd Session of the UNESCO General Conference.

About UNESCO Creative Cities Network

It was created in 2004 to promote cooperation among cities that have identified creativity as a strategic factor for sustainable urban development.
It was launched to promote UNESCO’s goals of cultural diversity and strengthen resilience to threats such as climate change, rising inequality, and rapid urbanisation.
The network covers seven creative fields: crafts and folk arts, media arts, film, design, gastronomy, literature and music.
Aim of UCCN: The network is aimed at leveraging the creative, social, and economic potential of cultural industries.
Indian Cities in the UCCN: Kozhikode (Literature) and Gwalior (Music) Jaipur (Crafts and Folk Arts), Varanasi (Music), Chennai (Music), Mumbai (Film), Hyderabad (Gastronomy), Lucknow (Gastronomy), and Srinagar (Crafts and Folk Arts).

Objectives of the UCCN

It allows member cities to recognise creativity as an essential component of urban development, notably through partnerships involving the public and private sectors and civil society.
It envisages developing hubs of creativity, innovation and broadening opportunities for creators and professionals in the cultural sector.
These cities have to achieve the UN agenda of sustainable development.

Source: TH

UNESCO Creative Cities Network FAQs

Q1: When was the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) established?

Ans: 2004

Q2: What is the primary objective of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN)?

Ans: To foster cooperation among cities that prioritize creativity in their urban development.

Presidents of India, List from 1950 to 2025, Tenure, Key Facts

December 3, 2025

List of President of India from 1950 to 2025: Draupadi Murmu serves as the 15th President of India, marking a historic moment as the first tribal woman to hold this esteemed position. Her candidacy received substantial backing from various political groups, particularly the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). From the beginning, her victory over Yashwant Sinha, the opposition-backed candidate, was widely anticipated.

President of India

The President of India is the constitutional head of the country and symbolises the unity and integrity of the nation. Article 52 of the Indian Constitution states that "there shall be a President of India." While the President is the head of state, their role is largely ceremonial, with executive powers exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. The President acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and performs functions like assenting to bills, appointing key officials, and representing India in international agreements.

Since India's independence, several leaders have served as the President of India. The first President, Dr Rajendra Prasad, played a vital role in shaping the office's legacy. The current President of India is Droupadi Murmu, who made history by being the first tribal woman to hold the position. She succeeded Shri Ram Nath Kovind after his term ended.

List of Presidents of India from 1950 to 2025

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India, serving from 1950 to 1962, while Droupadi Murmu is the current President, having assumed office in 2022. Below is the List of all 15 Presidents of India from 1950 to 2025:

All Presidents of India from 1950 to 2025
Name	Starting date	Ending date	Profiles
Dr. Rajendra Prasad	January 26th, 1950	May 13th, 1962	He was the first President of republic of India.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan	May 13th, 1962	May 13th, 1967	He was the 2nd President of India.
Dr.the Zakir Hussain	May 13th, 1967	May 3rd, 1969	He was the 3rd President of India.
Varahagiri Venkata Giri	May 3rd, 1969	July 20th, 1969	He was acting President because of Hussain’s death.
Mohammad Hidayatullah	July 20th, 1969	August 24th, 1969	He was acting President till Giri’s presidency.
Varahagiri Venkata Giri	August 24th, 1969	August 24th, 1974	He was the 4th President of India.
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed	August 24th, 1974	February 11th, 1977	He was the 5th President of India.
Basappa Danappa Jatti	February 11th, 1977	July 25th, 1977	He was a chief minister of the Mysore but got elected as President, After the death of Ahmed.
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy	July 25th, 1977	July 25th, 1982	Reddy was the 6th President of India unopposed.
Giani Zail Singh	July 25th, 1982	July 25th, 1987	He was the 7th President of India and was also a member of the Congress party.
Ramaswamy Venkataraman	July 25th, 1987	July 25th, 1992	He was the 8th President of India. He was also a lawyer and a professional politician.
Shankar Dayal Sharma	July 25th, 1992	July 25th, 1997	He was the 9th President of India, and he was also a member of the National Congress party of India.
Kocheril Raman Narayanan	July 25th, 1997	July 25th, 2002	He was the 10th President of India and the best diplomat in India.
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam	July 25th, 2002	July 25th, 2007	He was the 11th President of India, and he was a great scientist. He worked in ISRO and DRDO organizations.
Pratibha Patil	July 25th, 2007	July 25th, 2012	She was the 12th President of India, and she was the first woman to be President.
Pranab Mukherjee	July 25th, 2012	July 25th, 2017	He was the 13th President of India, and he was also a senior leader of the National Congress party.
Shri Ram Nath Kovind	July 25th, 2017	July 21st, 2022	He was the 14th President of India, and he was also ex-governor Of Bihar.
Droupadi Murmu	July 21st, 2022	Working	She is the 15th President of India and was a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party

List of Presidents of India 2025

Dr. Rajendra Prasad
- First President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad served two full terms and played an important role in the freedom movement.
- He also presided over the Constituent Assembly and was honoured with the Bharat Ratna in 1962 for his contributions to nation-building.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
- A renowned philosopher and academic, Dr. Radhakrishnan was Second President of India.
- His birthday is celebrated as Teacher’s Day in India, and he was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954.
Dr. Zakir Husain
- The First Muslim President of India, Dr. Zakir Husain was an educationist who passed away while in office.
- He co-founded Jamia Millia Islamia University and is remembered for his commitment to modern education.
V. V. Giri
- V.V. Giri was the only President elected as an independent candidate and had earlier served as Vice President.
- He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1975.
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
- Fifth President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, is remembered for declaring the Emergency under Article 352.
- He was the second Indian President to die in office, after Dr. Zakir Husain.
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy
- The Sixth President of India, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, was the youngest to assume office and the only one elected unopposed.
- He also served as the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh and later as Lok Sabha Speaker.
Giani Zail Singh
- Giani Zail Singh served as President during tough period in Indian history, including Operation Blue Star.
- He was also Chief Minister of Punjab and known for exercising the pocket veto power during his term.
R. Venkataraman
- R. Venkataraman served as President from 1987 to 1992 and was earlier Vice President and Defence Minister of India.
- A freedom fighter, he was known for his legal insights and received global honours including the Soviet Land Prize.
Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma
- Before his presidency, Dr. Sharma served as Bhopal’s Chief Minister and as Vice President of India.
- He received the ‘Living Legend of Law’ award and was respected for his legal and academic contributions.
K. R. Narayanan
- K.R. Narayanan was First Dalit President of India and a distinguished diplomat in the Indian Foreign Service.
- He was the first Indian President to vote in a general election while in office.
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
- Known as the “Missile Man of India,” Dr. Kalam was a scientist and the first scientist to become President.
- He played an important role in India’s 1998 nuclear tests and inspired millions through his speeches and books.
Smt. Pratibha Patil
- Smt. Pratibha Patil was First Woman President of India and served as Governor of Rajasthan before her presidency.
- She made history by becoming the first woman head of state to fly a Sukhoi fighter jet.
Pranab Mukherjee
- Pranab Mukherjee held key ministries and was known as the “man for all seasons” in Indian politics.
- He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2008 and earned wide respect across political lines.
Ram Nath Kovind
- Ram Nath Kovind, a lawyer and former Governor of Bihar, served as India’s 14th President from 2017.
- He focused on social justice, and during his tenure, he advocated for transparency and inclusive governance.
Droupadi Murmu
- Droupadi Murmu became First Tribal President of India and second female President in 2022.
- A former Jharkhand Governor, she is known for her dedication to tribal welfare and grassroots leadership.

President of India Eligibility Criteria

Article 58 of the Indian Constitution provides a clear framework regarding the qualifications required for an individual to be eligible for the esteemed position of the President of India. The key qualifications are as follows:

Citizenship

The candidate must be a citizen of India. This requirement emphasizes the importance of national allegiance and ensures that the President has a clear interest in the country's welfare.

Age Requirement

The individual must be at least 35 years of age at the time of the election. This criteria ensures that the candidate possesses the maturity and experience required for such a critical role.

Parliamentary Qualification

The candidate should be eligible for election as a member of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament. This means they must meet all the qualifications set under Article 84 of the Constitution, which includes factors such as citizenship, age, and other specified qualifications.

No Office of Profit

The candidate must not hold any office of profit under the Union Government, State Government, or any local or public authority. However, exceptions include positions such as President, Vice President, Governor of a State, or Minister for the Union or State. This provision ensures that the President remains neutral and does not have conflicts of interest arising from other official roles.

President of India Powers

The President of India is the head of the legislature, executive, and judiciary.
The President serves a five-year term but can resign at any time or be removed through impeachment.
The President can continue in office beyond the five-year term until a successor takes over.
The President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of Members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
Members of the Electoral College use preferential voting with single transferable votes.

President of India Important Points

The President of India is the ceremonial head of the state within the parliamentary system of government. Although the President represents the nation at the national and international levels, they do not have the executive power. Instead, the real executive authority rests with the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. The President serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces.

The President is elected through an electoral college consisting of:

Elected members from both Houses of Parliament.
Elected members from the legislative assemblies of the states.
Elected members from the Legislative Assemblies of Delhi and Puducherry (following the 70th Amendment Act of 1992).
The term of office for the President is five years, with the possibility of re-election. There is no limit on the number of terms a President can serve.

In the event of a breach of the Constitution, the President can be removed from office through an impeachment process, which may be initiated in either House of Parliament.

In the absence of the President due to death, resignation, impeachment, or other reasons, the Vice President of India assumes the role of Acting President. If the position of the Vice President is also vacant, the Chief Justice of India steps in as the Acting President until a new President is elected.

President of India Facts

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the inaugural President of India, serving for two consecutive terms. He holds the distinction of being the longest-serving President in the country's history.
V.V. Giri stepped in as an interim President after the passing of Dr. Zakir Husain. He remains unique in holding the position of both President and Acting President at the same time.
India has had three Acting Presidents, in addition to the fourteen Presidents who served full terms.
Both Dr. Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed tragically passed away while in office, marking significant moments in India's presidential history.
The President of India holds a ceremonial position within the government, with executive powers vested in the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
Unlike most democracies, the President of India is elected by the members of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies, not directly by the citizens.
In 2007, Pratibha Patil made history by becoming the first woman President of India.

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Presidents of India FAQs

Q1: Who elects the President of India?

Ans: The President is elected by an Electoral College.

Q2: What is the term of the office of the President?

Ans: The President shall hold office for a term of 5 years.

Q3: Who conducts the election of President of India?

Ans: The Election Commission of India conducts the election of the President of India.

Q4: Who was the first President of India?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the First President of India.

Q5: Who is the present president of India?

Ans: Droupadi Murmu is the present president of India.

Article 13 of Indian Constitution, Interpretation, Significance

December 3, 2025

Article 13 comes under Part III of the Constitution of India. The article is a foundational pillar that helps protect the fundamental rights of citizens of India. It says that any existing or future laws that violate these rights should be considered void to the extent of the violation. This article helps establish the supremacy of the Constitution and also makes sure that no authority including the executive and executive can surpass the fundamental rights of individuals. In this article, we are going to cover Article 13 of the Constitution of India, its interpretation and its significance.

Article 13 of the Constitution of India

The Constitution of India has stated the following about Article 13:

Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights

All laws in force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this Constitution, in so far as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.
The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by this Part, and any law made in contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void.
In this article:
- (a) "Law" includes any Ordinance, order, bye-law, rule, regulation, notification, custom, or usage having in the territory of India the force of law;
- (b) "Laws in force" includes laws passed or made by a Legislature or other competent authority in the territory of India before the commencement of this Constitution and not previously repealed, notwithstanding that any such law or any part thereof may not be then in operation either at all or in particular areas.
Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made under Article 368.

Article 13 of Constitution of India Interpretation

Article 13 of Indian Constitution can be interpreted in the following manner

Article 13(1) says that any laws that are existing even before the Constitution was constituted, and are now in conflict with fundamental rights will now become invalid in case of any conflict.
Article 13(2) of the Indian Constitution says that the state is not allowed to make laws that violate the fundamental rights of citizens of India. Such laws will be considered to be void in case of violation.
Article 13(3) of the Indian Constitution particularly defines “Law” in the form of legal instruments and customs.
Article 13(4) of the Indian Constitution states that the constitutional amendments under Article 368 does not come under the provisions mentioned under Article 13.

Article 13 of the Indian Constitution Important Cases

Article 13 has always been in shaping India’s constitutional framework by ensuring that laws violating fundamental rights are struck down. Key Supreme Court judgments interpreting Article 13 include:

Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973): Establishing the Basic Structure Doctrine, limiting Parliament’s power to amend core constitutional principles, including fundamental rights.
I.C. Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967): Ruled that Parliament cannot amend fundamental rights, treating amendments as “law” under Article 13.
Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980): Reaffirmed the Basic Structure Doctrine and held limited amending power as a basic feature.
L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997): Declared judicial review as a basic feature; tribunals cannot exclude High Court or Supreme Court jurisdiction.

Article 13 of the Indian Constitution Significance

Article 13 of the Constitution of India is important in the following manners:

Make sure that the fundamental rights of citizens are protected by declaring any law that violates it void.
Gives the power to the courts to review and nullify any unconstitutional laws.
Article 13(1) of the constitution can remove any pre-constitutional law that violates the fundamental rights.
Article 13(2) of the Constitution of India makes sure that the state does not make any laws that violate the constitution in the future.
Article 13(4) of the Const
Article 13 ensures all laws, whether past or present, must respect fundamental rights, and when read with Article 12 (defining "State"), it empowers citizens to hold the State accountable.

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Article 13 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What did Article 13 say?

Ans: Article 13 declares that any law violating fundamental rights shall be void and empowers courts to strike them down.

Q2: Is the word minority not defined in the Constitution of India?

Ans: Yes, the Constitution does not define "minority"; it leaves the term open to interpretation by the courts and legislature.

Q3: What is the main object of Article 13?

Ans: The main objective of Article 13 is to protect fundamental rights by invalidating laws that contravene them.

Q4: What is the Article 13 summary?

Ans: Article 13 ensures judicial review of laws, declaring pre- and post-Constitution laws void if they infringe fundamental rights.

Q5: What is the Article 13 agreement?

Ans: There is no "Article 13 agreement" in the Constitution; the term may refer to legal interpretations or applications of Article 13, but it is not an official constitutional clause.

Neighbouring Countries of India, List, Capital, Physical Features

December 3, 2025

Neighbouring Countries of India: India, a prominent South Asian nation, stands out as one of the largest countries in the world. Positioned in both the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, India ranks as the seventh-largest globally by land area. India's land boundaries extend to approximately 15,106.7 kilometers, encompassing a coastline of around 7,516.6 kilometers. This extensive border area offers unique access to neighboring countries, connecting India with cultures, economies, and ecosystems that enhance its regional significance.

Neighbouring Countries of India

India shares over 15,106.7 kilometers of land borders with six countries: Pakistan to the west, China and Nepal to the north, Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. This geographical spread makes India a central player in South Asian geopolitics.

In addition to its land borders, India has a coastline stretching 7,516.6 kilometers, providing it with direct access to the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean. This coastal expanse connects India to international waters, giving it a strategic marine position that supports trade routes linking the Middle East, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Important ports like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata facilitate extensive trade and cultural exchange, solidifying India's role in the global economy.

Neighbouring Countries of India Overview

India shares its borders with nine countries: seven land borders (Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Afghanistan) and two maritime borders (Sri Lanka and the Maldives). This geographical knowledge is vital for competitive exams, especially in the General Awareness section.

Neighbouring Countries of India Overview
Total Neighbouring Countries Of India	9
Neighbouring Countries Of India	Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives and MyanmarTotal
Total Land Border Of India	15,106.7 k.m.
Total Length Of Indian Coastline	7516.6 km

List of Neighbouring Countries of India With Capital

India shares its borders with 9 countries, each with distinct geographical, cultural, and economic ties. Below is a List of Neighbouring Countries of India With Capital the capital, border length, and bordering states.

List of Neighbouring Countries of India With Capital
Country	Capital	Border Length	Bordering States
Afghanistan	Kabul	106 Km	Ladakh (PoK)
Bangladesh	Dhaka	4096.7 Km	West Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Assam
Bhutan	Thimphu	699 Km	West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh & Assam
China	Beijing	3488 Km	Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
Myanmar	Naypyidaw, Yangon	1643 Km	Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur
Nepal	Kathmandu	1751 Km	Bihar, Uttarakhand, UP, Sikkim and West Bengal
Pakistan	Islamabad	3323 Km	Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Sri Lanka	Colombo (Commercial), Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (Legislative)	Sea Border	It is separated to India by Gulf of Mannar
Maldives	Male	Sea Border	It lies in the south-west part of India Ocean below the Lakshadweep Island

Neighbouring Countries of India Physical Features

India shares its land and maritime boundaries with several countries, each having distinct physical features that influence geopolitics, trade, and regional cooperation. India shares land borders with seven countries and maritime boundaries with two. The Neighbouring Countries of India Physical Features has been discussed in the table below:

Neighbouring Countries of India Physical Features
Country	Geographical & Climatic Features	Energy & Natural Resources	India’s Strategic Interests
Afghanistan	Mountainous terrain influences cold winters and seismic activity due to tectonic plate location.	Rich in minerals and water but lacks infrastructure in remote regions.	Acts as a corridor for India to Central Asia, enhancing connectivity and economic cooperation.
Bangladesh	Dense river network vital for agriculture, but vulnerable to monsoons and floods; seismic risk exists.	Investing in solar energy to meet growing demands; high population strains resources.	Important trade partner in textiles and agriculture; collaboration on river management is crucial.
Bhutan	High-altitude mountainous country; experiences cold winters and occasional earthquakes.	Major hydropower potential; rivers are tapped for electricity generation.	India imports hydropower from Bhutan, vital for energy supply in northeastern states.
China	Geographically diverse, with deserts, tropical zones, and the Tibetan Plateau; earthquake-prone zones.	Global leader in renewable and nuclear energy production.	Trade ties benefit India in goods and tech, though geopolitical relations are complex and sensitive.
Myanmar	Tropical climate with intense monsoons; situated near earthquake fault lines.	Exploring geothermal and wind energy; rich in river-based water resources.	Strategic for India’s Act East policy; access to ports strengthens trade and regional integration.
Nepal	Dominated by the Himalayas; experiences altitude-driven cold weather and frequent quakes.	Excellent hydropower potential; solar energy initiatives are rising in remote areas.	Access to Nepal’s rivers for electricity benefits India’s northern power grid and water-sharing cooperation.
Pakistan	Diverse terrain with deserts and fertile plains; northern areas face high seismic activity.	Water-stressed despite major rivers; exploring wind and solar solutions.	Cooperation essential for managing shared rivers like the Indus; has energy and climate impact implications.
Sri Lanka	Island nation with tropical monsoons; affected by Indian Ocean climate and tsunami risk.	Expanding use of solar energy; coastal ecosystems critical for livelihood.	Strategic location aids India in maritime security, trade routes, and regional diplomacy.
Maldives	The low-lying island nation, highly threatened by sea-level rise, has a tropical marine climate.	Depends largely on solar energy; rich marine biodiversity in coral reefs.	Important for India’s maritime diplomacy and security in the Indian Ocean; enhances regional influence.

9 Neighbouring Countries of India

India shares its borders with nine neighbouring countries, including Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Among them, seven share land borders: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Afghanistan, while Sri Lanka and the Maldives are India’s maritime neighbours. These countries together reflect India’s vast geopolitical landscape, cultural diversity, and regional influence.

1. Pakistan

Pakistan lies to the northwest of India, sharing a 3,323 km long border. The two countries were part of undivided British India until 1947. Key border crossings include Wagah (Punjab) and Attari (Amritsar). While relations have been politically strained, they share strong cultural and linguistic links.

2. China

China borders India to the north and northeast with a border length of 3,488 km. The boundary passes through Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Both countries are ancient civilizations and major Asian powers. However, the border areas like Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh remain disputed.

3. Nepal

Nepal lies to the north of India, bordered by Bihar, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, sharing an open border of 1,770 km. Citizens of both countries can travel and work freely across borders. The two nations share deep cultural, linguistic, and religious ties. Mount Everest and the Himalayas further connect their geography and tourism.

4. Bhutan

Bhutan is a landlocked Himalayan kingdom situated to the northeast of India, sharing a 699 km border. It touches Indian states like Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and West Bengal. Relations between India and Bhutan are marked by friendship, trust, and cooperation. India assists Bhutan in defense, trade, and hydropower development.

5. Bangladesh

Bangladesh lies to the east of India and shares the longest international border with India, about 4,096 km. It borders West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. The two countries share strong historical and cultural bonds, with Bengali as a common language. India supported Bangladesh’s independence movement in 1971.

6. Myanmar (Burma)

Myanmar shares a 1,643 km border with India, touching Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. It acts as India’s gateway to Southeast Asia under the “Act East Policy.” The Moreh–Tamu border point facilitates trade and cross-border cooperation. India and Myanmar also collaborate in defense and counter-insurgency operations.

7. Afghanistan

Afghanistan shares a 106 km border with India, though it currently lies in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). Historically, India and Afghanistan had strong trade and cultural connections through the Silk Route. India has helped rebuild Afghanistan through infrastructure and education projects. The region is strategically vital for South Asian geopolitics.

8. Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is India’s southern maritime neighbor, separated by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. The shortest distance between them is around 30 km through Adam’s Bridge (Rama’s Bridge). The two nations share close historical, cultural, and religious ties, especially through Buddhism and Hinduism. Trade and tourism link both economies strongly.

9. Maldives

The Maldives lies to the southwest of India in the Indian Ocean, about 700 km from the Lakshadweep Islands. Though separated by sea, it is a key maritime neighbor of India. The two countries maintain friendly ties focused on security, trade, and tourism. India often assists the Maldives in disaster relief and defense cooperation.

Neighbouring Countries of India Facts

India-China Relations

India and China share a historical bond that spans thousands of years, marked by significant cultural and trade exchanges. In modern times, the two nations signed the Panchsheel Agreement in 1954, emphasizing mutual respect and peaceful coexistence. However, the relationship has been marred by a border conflict in 1962, which has led to long-standing disputes over territorial boundaries.

India-Pakistan Relations

The relationship between India and Pakistan is deeply rooted in a shared history, marked by the partition of British India in 1947. Despite cultural and historical similarities, the two nations have faced tensions, especially after conflicts such as the 1965 war and the Kargil conflict in 1999. Diplomatic channels remain open, with a focus on reducing tensions and fostering stability in the region.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Established in 1985, SAARC was formed with the goal of promoting regional cooperation and advancing economic, social, and cultural development across South Asia. Comprising eight member states, including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, SAARC aims to create a unified approach to addressing regional challenges such as poverty, education, and climate change. The organization has played a significant role in fostering peace and collaboration, though political disagreements have sometimes hindered its full potential.

India-Bangladesh Relations

India's support for Bangladesh's independence in 1971 laid the foundation for a strong bilateral relationship. Since then, India and Bangladesh have developed close ties in political, economic, and cultural spheres. Both countries share a commitment to regional peace and stability, with cooperation in areas like trade, water-sharing agreements, and counterterrorism.

India-Sri Lanka Relations

India and Sri Lanka have long standing historical and cultural ties that have shaped their bilateral relationship. The two nations share deep connections through religion, language, and trade. While challenges related to the Indian-origin Tamil population in Sri Lanka have occasionally strained relations, both countries continue to maintain positive political and economic ties. Cooperation in areas such as defense, trade, and infrastructure development has strengthened the partnership, with efforts focused on resolving issues diplomatically.

Neighbouring Countries of India FAQs

Q1: How many neighbouring countries of India?

Ans: There are 9 neighbouring countries of India.

Q2: Which country has the longest boundary with India?

Ans: Bangladesh has the longest boundary with India.

Q3: Which country has the shortest boundary with India?

Ans: Afghanistan has the shortest boundary with India.

Q4: How many states share boundaries with China?

Ans: China shares a boundary with 5 Indian states.

Q5: How many states share boundary with Bangladesh?

Ans: Bangladesh share boundary with 5 Indian states.

Difference between National Anthem and National Song

December 3, 2025

The ‘Azad Hind’ team decided “Jana Gana Mana” as India’s National Anthem and “Vande Mataram” as the National Song, representing the country’s culture/history. Check out Difference between National Anthem and National Song in the article below.

The terms National Anthem and National Song are often mentioned together, leading many to overlook confusions in the differences between them. However, for UPSC CSE aspirants, understanding these distinctions is essential as they can be relevant to questions on Indian polity, history, or culture. So, to make that easier for you we have created an elaborated Difference between National Anthem and National Song for your ease, which includes not only the difference but other important facts that an aspiring candidate should know.

Difference between National Anthem and National Song

In most countries, the topic Difference between National Anthem and National Song is a bit confusing as they don’t have the National Song separately and usually mix up the terms as well. In the table below, we have highlighted the major Difference between National Anthem and National Song for your reference.

Difference between National Anthem and National Song
National Anthem	National Song
A National Anthem reflects the history and culture of the country.	A country’s population will strongly relate to a National Song due to many different factors.
A National Anthem will have a particular pronunciation, specific tune and specified timings which must be adhered to by those singing it.	A National Song will have different variations depending on language and other cultural factors.
The National Anthem of India is the “Jana Gana Mana” composed by Rabindranath Tagore in 1911.	The National Song is “Vande Mataram” composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in the 1870.
As per Article 51A of the Constitution of India, honouring the National Anthem is one of the fundamental duties of a citizen of India.	The National Song does not have such constitutional privileges where honouring it is listed as a fundamental duty of a citizen of India.
The Parliament of India has exercised its right to make the singing of the National Anthem mandatory on select occasions.	The National Song is held in equal reverence to the national anthem, but it is not mandatory to sing it at any given occasion.
The custom of officially adopting patriotic hymns as national anthems became a trend during the 19th century.	At the time, National Songs that were widely known and sung by the majority population of a country were at times adopted as the National Anthem. An example of this is the “La Marseillaise”, written in 1792 by Claude Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle. It was composed during the initial years of the French Revolution as a means to inspire the population.

Meaning of National Anthem

In India’s democracy, the true ruler is not a king or a government, but the people—the citizens who form the backbone of this vibrant nation. Rabindranath Tagore, in his masterpiece Jana Gana Mana, beautifully expresses this sentiment, invoking Kala (Time) as the destiny maker of India, symbolising the collective will of its people.

This national anthem is more than just a song; it is a tribute to India’s unity, diversity, and shared heritage. It tunes the nation to move forward and still stay united, celebrating the cultural and geographical richness of regions like Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Bengal, and the Dravidian heartlands. The anthem's words honour the sacred rivers, mighty mountains, and the unbreakable spirit of the land. It acknowledges the courage of soldiers guarding the borders and the efforts of farmers sustaining the nation. Tagore’s words remind us that India’s strength lies in its citizens—those shaping the nation’s future.

Key Features of Jana Gana Mana

Title: Jana Gana Mana
Composer and Lyricist: Rabindranath Tagore
Musical Scale: Based on Raag Alhiya Bilawal, blending classical melody with universal appeal.
Date of Composition: December 11, 1911
First Performance: December 27, 1911, at the Indian National Congress session in Kolkata.
Adopted as National Anthem: January 24, 1950
Duration: 52 seconds, embodying profound meaning in brevity.
Original Language: Bengali (Bharoto Bhagyo Bidhata)
Theme: Unity in Diversity

About the National Song

"Vande Mataram," written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in a blend of Sanskrit and Bengali, is the National Song of India. First featured in his novel Anand Math in 1882, with its tune composed by Yadunath Bhattacharya, it became a symbol of patriotism during India’s freedom struggle.

Adopted as the national song by the Congress in 1905 and officially recognized in 1950, its powerful verses inspired unity and resistance during movements like Bengal’s partition and Gandhi’s non-cooperation. Even today, it evokes pride and devotion during national celebrations. Globally, it gained recognition when ranked second in a 2003 BBC poll of the world's greatest songs, reflecting its enduring legacy as a unifying anthem for India.

Why is Jana Gana Mana the National Anthem but not Vande Mataram?

In 1941, after escaping to Berlin, Subhas Chandra Bose formed a group of Indians determined to challenge British rule. During a meeting on November 2, 1941, the ‘Azad Hind’ team decided that “Jana Gana Mana” would be India’s National Anthem and “Jai Hind” its greeting, as these represented the country’s culture and history.

There was debate over "Vande Mataram," which was opposed by Abid Hasan for being difficult for the masses to sing. Bose, however, believed "Jana Gana Mana" better represented India’s diverse regions. Months later, Bose introduced the 55-second version of the anthem at the inauguration of the German-Indian Society, where both Indian and German National Anthems were played by the Chamber Orchestra of Radio Hamburg.

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Difference between National Anthem and National Song FAQs

Q1: Which is the National Song and National Anthem of India?

Ans: The National Anthem of India is Jana Gana Mana, composed by Rabindranath Tagore. The National Song of India is Vande Mataram which was written by Bankimchandra Chatterji.

Q2: When was the National Anthem written?

Ans: The National Anthem of India is the “Jana Gana Mana” which was composed by Rabindranath Tagore in 1911.

Q3: What is the difference between Rashtra Geet and Rashtra Gaan?

Ans: The meaning of the word 'Rashtra' is Nation. Rashtra Gaan is the National Anthem and Rashtra Geet is the National Song

Q4: Why does India have both national songs and national anthems?

Ans: National anthem and national song both refer to patriotic songs that describe the culture and pride associated with the country.

Why Do We Need a Constitution? Importance and Purpose

December 3, 2025

Why do we need a constitution? A Constitution is a document that helps in protecting individual rights, set up a framework for governance of the country, uphold the rule of law and provide stability, promote citizen participation and safeguard against tyranny. The constitution guarantees fundamental freedom, structure of the government and rules that govern the society. The constitution is the law of the land helping in establishing the rules of the society. It helps in avoiding the abuse of power, promotes justice and equality and allows citizens to take part in decision-making. In this article, we are going to cover all about why we need a constitution.

Why Do We Need a Constitution?

A Constitution gives a foundational blueprint for a nation’s governance, defines the distribution of power, provides a protection of fundamental rights and guiding principles of the state. It makes sure of accountability, helps avoid abuse of authority, and frames a collective force for national identity, fostering stability and democracy. Its importance lies in establishing the structure that shapes the functioning of the government. It also helps set the powers and responsibilities of different branches, helps set the mechanism for citizen participation and provides transparency and accountability.

Constitution of India Historical Importance

The Constitution of India is shaped on the basis of history of historical events, and the vision of its leaders. The making of the Constitution of India can be traced back to the following historical importance:

British Colonial Rule and Early Demands
India came under British control in the 18th century, ushering in far-reaching political, social, and economic changes under a centralized administration. This governance system deeply influenced the lives of Indians.
By the 19th century, Indian intellectuals and reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale began demanding greater representation in governance. The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked a turning point, initially seeking reforms within the British framework but later transforming into a movement for self-rule and independence.
Struggle for Independence and the Constituent Assembly
Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership brought non-violent civil disobedience to the forefront, mobilizing millions and uniting the country against British rule. As the independence movement strengthened, the demand for a Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution became central to the vision of self-governance.
The Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 proposed the creation of such an assembly. Formed later that year, it included representatives from across regions and communities, with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as President and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
Drafting and Adoption of the Constitution
The Drafting Committee, under Ambedkar’s leadership, sought to embed justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity into the constitutional framework. Drawing from global inspirations, such as the French Revolution, the British parliamentary system, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Assembly engaged in extensive debates on citizenship, fundamental rights, governance structure, and centre–state relations. After nearly three years of deliberations, the Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, marking India’s transformation into a sovereign republic.

Constitution Importance and Purpose

A Constitution lays down the structure and guidelines for the country. It has the following purpose and significance:

Protects Fundamental Rights and Liberties: The Constitution helps protect the fundamental rights and liberties of the citizens of the country. The Constitution is like a protecting shield against the abuse of power, and provides a legal framework to seek redress in case of violations.
Separation of Powers: The Constitution helps separate the power of government into separate branches that are the executive, legislative and the Judiciary. This separation of power helps in decentralisation of power instead of concentrating it into the hands of a single entity and avoids tyranny and authoritarianism.
Set up a system of Checks and Balances : The setting up of a system of checks and balances allows every branch of government to have an oversight of the functioning of others, making sure accountability is maintained and power doesn't get concentrated in the hands of one.
Gives Stability and Predictability: The Constitution lays down the fundamental outline, principles and rules that governs a nation, provides a framework for decision making as well as policy implementation. This stability provides confidence among citizens, investors and international partners.
Social Cohesion and National Identity: The Constitution includes provisions that recognise and protect the rights of all communities belonging to any ethnicity, cultural and religious background.
Improves Democracy and popular participation: A constitution sets up a framework of democratic governance, including election procedure, representative and citizen participation. This facilitates active involvement in the decision-making process.
Constitution as the Blueprint for Governance: Serving as the guiding framework, a constitution outlines the structure of government, the powers and limits of each branch, and the processes for policy-making and implementation.
Safeguarding Minority Rights: In societies where majority dominance can threaten vulnerable groups, the constitution acts as a shield for minority rights. It guarantees equality, inclusivity, and non-discrimination, protecting the dignity and freedoms of all individuals, regardless of identity or belief.
A Living Document for Change: Far from being static, a constitution is designed to evolve. Through its amendment provisions, it adapts to new challenges and reflects social progress. This flexibility ensures it remains relevant to the aspirations and needs of its citizens over time.

Why Do We Need a Constitution FAQs

Q1: Why do we need a constitution?

Ans: To provide a legal framework that defines governance, protects rights, and upholds the rule of law.

Q2: What are the benefits of having a constitution?

Ans: It ensures stability, safeguards liberties, prevents abuse of power, and promotes democratic governance.

Q3: What is the difference between a written and non-written constitution?

Ans: A written constitution is formally codified in a single document, while a non-written constitution is based on customs, precedents, and laws without a single codified text.

Q4: How does a constitution ensure accountability?

Ans: By defining powers, setting limits, and establishing checks and balances among government institutions.

Q5: What is the purpose of a constitution?

Ans: To outline the structure of government, protect citizens’ rights, and guide the nation’s political and legal system.

Exercise Trishul, Purpose, Location, Participation, Drills, Response

December 3, 2025

Exercise Trishul is a major tri-services military drill conducted by the Indian Armed Forces to test and validate inter-service coordination between the Army, Navy and Air Force across land, air, sea and cyber domains. It reflects India’s strategic posture of "JAI", i.e., 'Jointness, Atmanirbharta (self-reliance) and Innovation'. Recent versions of the exercise have included network-centric warfare, amphibious operations and high-altitude preparedness.

Exercise Trishul

Exercise Trishul, also referred to by the internal codename "Mahagurjar", is conducted by the tri-services of India (Army, Navy, Air Force) under the aegis of the Ministry of Defence. Its purpose is to enhance jointness, validate theatre logistics, and reinforce multi-domain combat readiness. Methods include network-centric warfare, amphibious landings, desert & creek manoeuvres, ISR & EW integration. Notable sub-exercises include “Agni Drishti” (network-centric sensor-to-shooter integration) and “Trinetra” (spectrum dominance, counter-drone & multi-domain coordination). The exercise is currently underway, scheduled from October 30 to November 10, 2025.

Exercise Trishul Purpose

The exercise is being held as a major readiness drill to test India’s tri-services coordination across land, air, sea, cyber and space domains under realistic threat scenarios. It also serves as a clear deterrence signal to adversaries along the western border and demonstrates India’s shift toward integrated theatre operations.

Exercise Trishul Location

The drill spans multiple terrains: the marshy Sir Creek sector in Gujarat, the Rann of Kutch, desert zones in Rajasthan, and the Saurashtra coast for amphibious operations. It integrates land manoeuvres, air operations and naval assets across west-coast and creek sectors, thereby mapping a multi-domain theatre of operations.

Exercise Trishul Participation

This Exercise is a Tri-Service Military Exercise, i.e., it involves the participation of the Army, Navy and Airforce together. Under this exercise, the Indian Army has deployed over 20,000 personnel along with T-90S/ Arjun tanks and howitzers. The Air Force is fielding Rafale and Su-30MKI fighters, transport/ refuellers such as IL-78, and UAVs. The Navy has positioned frigates and destroyers along the Saurashtra/ Gujarat coast to conduct amphibious and maritime drills.

Sir Creek Dispute

The Sir Creek Dispute involves a 96-kilometre tidal estuary between India’s Gujarat (Rann of Kutch) and Pakistan’s Sindh province, critical for determining maritime boundaries and Exclusive Economic Zones in the Arabian Sea. Its unresolved status makes the region strategically sensitive. Exercise Trishul, conducted near this area, reinforces India’s operational readiness and coastal defence capabilities, signaling deterrence while ensuring protection of maritime interests and oil exploration rights in adjoining waters. It also enhances tri-service coordination in disputed border terrains.

NOTAM

Ahead of the exercise, India issued a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) restricting civil flights over large parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat during 30 Oct-10 Nov 2025, while Pakistan also issued airspace restrictions over its central and southern routes (28-29 Oct 2025) in response. This reflects aerial domain coordination and signalling associated with the drill.

Exercise Trishul Objectives

The main aims of Exercise Trishul include:

Testing tri-services synergy: how well the Army, Navy and Air Force work in concert under theatre command structures.
Validating theatre logistics: the supply, movement, maintenance and sustainment of forces across vast geographic zones including deserts, maritime and air.
Exercising multi-domain operations: linking land, sea, air, space, cyber and electromagnetic spectrum operations into a unified combat grid.
Demonstrating Atmanirbharta: usage of indigenously developed weapons, platforms and systems in operational exercises.
Projecting strategic deterrence: by conducting operations in sensitive border zones like Sir Creek and alerting adversaries to India’s operational readiness.

Exercise Trishul Drills

Some specific drills and modules within Trishul include below mentioned lists. These components reflect the evolving needs of modern warfare, where domain integration, speed, information dominance and logistics resilience matter as much as weapons and numbers.

Agni Drishti: A network-centric warfare drill integrating land, air, space and unmanned ISR assets into a “sensor-to-shooter” grid.
Trinetra: Focused on electromagnetic spectrum dominance, counter-UAV kill-chains and multi-domain sensing and strike.
Amphibious landings off the Saurashtra coast and amphibious manoeuvres in creek zones to test operational flexibility in maritime environment.
Logistics testing: The exercise puts emphasis on moving large quantities of supplies, fuel, electronic assets and integrating them across services without delays.

Exercise Trishul Pakistan’s Response

Pakistan responded to India’s Exercise Trishul by issuing multiple air-traffic route restrictions (NOTAMs) across its central and southern airspace on 28 to 29 October 2025, signalling heightened vigilance in reaction to India’s tri-services drill near the western border. Pakistani military sources also placed the Bahawalpur Strike Corps and Karachi Corps on high alert, and naval patrols in the Arabian Sea were reinforced as Islamabad viewed the exercise near the disputed Sir Creek sector as a strategic signal of pressure on its maritime and land-frontiers.

Exercise Trishul Significance

The strategic importance of Exercise Trishul lies in several aspects:

Location: Conducted near Pakistan’s western border (Sir Creek / Gujarat) it signals India’s readiness to operate in contested border zones.
Deterrence: Pakistan’s issuance of airspace restrictions (NOTAM) ahead of Trishul underscores the drill’s perception by adversaries.
Integration with border operations: Coming after operations like “Operation Sindoor”, the drill connects with India’s active operational posture rather than just training.
Reflects force structure evolution: The emphasis on theatre commands, joint logistics and multi-domain warfare underlines India’s transition to future-ready force structures.
Self-Reliance: By using indigenous platforms and emphasising Atmanirbharta, the exercise aligns with the broader national defence strategy.

In essence, Exercise Trishul is both a preparedness exercise and a strategic communication tool.

Exercise Trishul Outcomes

Though the final after-action reports are classified, several implications can be discerned:

The drills will likely refine doctrines for joint forces in India’s upcoming theatre command structure.
Gaps in logistics, information fusion and service interoperability will emerge and drive reforms in supply chains and command architecture.
The exercise will validate the readiness of newly raised or restructured formations (e.g., the Southern Command’s “Agnibaaz” Division) to conduct multi-domain operations.
Operational readiness on the western frontier will receive boost; adversary eyewear (Pakistan/ China) will monitor and adjust their own posture accordingly.
The visibility of the exercise underscores India’s military diplomacy – conveying to neighbours and partners that India’s joint force capability is advancing.

Exercise Trishul Challenges

Despite its strategic success, several challenges remain in the execution and outcome of Exercise Trishul:

Inter-Service Coordination Gaps: Though the exercise focuses on jointness, operational differences between services persist, particularly in command hierarchy and information sharing.
Logistical Complexity: Conducting large-scale tri-service operations across diverse terrains requires massive logistical coordination, which still faces time and resource bottlenecks.
Technology Integration: Integrating indigenously developed systems with legacy imported equipment creates technical compatibility issues during real-time operations.
Cybersecurity Risks: As the exercise relies heavily on digital networks and communication systems, there is a rising vulnerability to cyber intrusions.
Budgetary and Infrastructure Constraints: Advanced exercises demand extensive funding, fuel, and infrastructure upgrades, which may be limited in certain sectors.
Environmental Impact: Large-scale military operations in sensitive areas like Sir Creek raise ecological concerns that require mitigation.

Way Forward:

To strengthen future editions of Exercise Trishul and India’s tri-service capability, several measures are recommended:

Institutionalize Theatre Commands: The government should fast-track the creation of integrated theatre commands with unified control structures for seamless coordination.
Enhance Indigenous R&D: Continued investment in Indian defense technologies will ensure better system compatibility and strategic autonomy.
Develop Advanced Logistics Corridors: Establishing military logistics hubs and AI-based supply tracking can ensure faster movement of men and materials.
Cyber and EW Preparedness: Specialized training programs on cyber warfare and electronic dominance are needed to address digital threats during operations.
Joint Training Doctrine: Regular tri-service drills under shared tactical doctrines will bridge operational gaps and improve readiness.
Eco-friendly Operations: Sustainable planning with environmental assessments should accompany exercises in ecologically fragile zones.

Exercise Trishul UPSC

Exercise Trishul is a large scale operational exercise scheduled by the Ministry of Defence to integrate multiple services in complex scenarios. Trishul serves as both a readiness drill and a deterrent signal in India’s strategic neighbourhood. According to official sources and the defence commentary:

The 2025 edition is being conducted by the Southern Command of the Indian Army from around 30 October to 10 November near the western border and offshore Saurashtra region.
It covers challenging terrains like deserts, creeks (notably the strategic Sir Creek marshland along the India-Pakistan border) and coastal amphibious zones.
The exercise integrates modern capabilities: unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), electronic warfare (EW) assets, cyber operations, space-based ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance), and full spectrum theatre logistics.
A Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) for airspace up to 28,000 feet has been issued, underscoring the altitude and scale of operations.

Exercise Trishul FAQs

Q1: What is Exercise Trishul?

Ans: Exercise Trishul is a tri-services military drill conducted by the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force to enhance joint operational readiness.

Q2: Where is Exercise Trishul 2025 being conducted?

Ans: It is being held near the western border and Saurashtra coastal region, including the strategic Sir Creek sector.

Q3: What are the main objectives of Exercise Trishul?

Ans: To test interoperability, validate theatre logistics, and demonstrate self-reliance in defense technology across land, sea, and air operations.

Q4: Which commands lead Exercise Trishul?

Ans: The Indian Army’s Southern Command leads it, supported by the Western Naval Command and Air Force’s South-Western Command.

Q5: What makes Exercise Trishul unique?

Ans: Its multi-domain focus, inclusion of cyber and space warfare components, and full tri-service participation make it one of India’s most advanced exercises.

National Population Policy 2000, Objectives, Evolution, Features

December 3, 2025

The second largest population in the world is India with a current population of about 1.4 billion, recognising the implications of population expansion on socio-economic development, the Government of India has implemented various policy measures over the decades. Among these, the National Population Policy (NPP), 2000 stands out as a comprehensive strategy aimed at achieving population stabilisation and improving reproductive health outcomes.

National Population Policy 2000

The National Population Policy 2000 was adopted by the Government of India to address the challenges related to the rapid population growth. Its primary objective is to achieve population stabilisation through voluntary and informed family planning. The policy provides access to reproductive and child healthcare services, while also promoting responsible parenthood.

Also Read: National Education Policy 2020

National Population Policy Evolution

Pre-Independence Efforts (1940): The Indian National Congress set up a committee under social thinker Radha Kamal Mukherjee to explore ways to resolve the fast-growing population, especially post-1921. The committee emphasized voluntary restraint, public education about low-cost contraception, and discouraging practices like polygamy.
Bhore Committee (1943-46): Headed by Sir Joseph Bhore, this health-focused panel proposed actively limiting family size as part of a national health strategy. It laid early groundwork for linking public health with population control.
Post-Independence Beginnings (1952): India became the first developing nation to launch a government-backed family planning program. A Population Policy Committee was formed in 1952, though its initial efforts lacked structure and impact.
Establishment of Central Family Planning Board (1956): By the mid-1950s, a national board was introduced, shifting focus primarily to sterilization as a core method of population control.
National Population Policy of 1976: Key measures under this policy included:
- Raising the legal marriage age to 21 for men and 18 for women
- Offering financial rewards for adopting birth control
- Promoting female literacy
- Tying central assistance to states with their performance in population control
- Using mass media to spread family planning messages
- Including population awareness in school curriculum

Emergency Period & Coercive Measures (1975-77): During the Emergency, the government carried out mass sterilizations under duress, which severely damaged public trust in the program and drew widespread backlash.

Shift to Voluntary Approach (Post-1977): The incoming government moved away from coercion, rebranding the initiative as the “Family Welfare Programme” to rebuild credibility.

National Health Policy 1983: This policy supported smaller family norms achieved through informed, voluntary choices, and emphasized population stabilization as a national goal.

Population Committee & MS Swaminathan Group (1991-1993): A new committee was formed to suggest a long-term, integrated population strategy. It recommended a full-fledged national policy, integrating development, demographic balance, and environmental sustainability.

An expert panel led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan later drafted the framework for what would become India’s formal population policy.

Launch of National Population Policy (2000): The policy was officially adopted in 2000, providing a comprehensive plan to stabilize population growth while addressing health, education, and gender-related concerns in a balanced, rights-based framework.

Also Read: New Economic Policy 1991

National Population Policy Objectives

To address the need of contraception, strengthen the health infrastructure and human resources and ensure integrated service delivery in the domain of reproductive and child healthcare.
To bring the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement level by 2010 through the effective implementation of inter-sectoral strategies and coordinated policy interventions.
To achieve a stable population by 2045, aligned with the goals of sustainable economic development, improved quality of life, and environmental sustainability.

Measures of Population

Survey: Collection of sample based demographic data through questionnaires to know the population trends.

Census: The Census is a full count of the population. It captures data on population size, distribution, literacy, employment, housing, and more, serving as the foundation for planning and policy-making every 10 years.

Population Registers: This keeps continuous records of people living in a country. These registers are dynamic in nature and are useful for maintaining up-to-date information on births, deaths, migration, and marital status.

Vital Registration Systems: Official systems that record vital events such as births, deaths, marriages, and divorces. They provide essential data for calculating indicators like birth rate, death rate, and life expectancy.

National Population Policy Features

The National Population Policy lays a clear framework aimed at ensuring accessible reproductive health service across India, it emphasizes on encouraging people to adopt responsible health and family planning decisions through awareness and education.
NPP 2000 guarantees free and compulsory education for every child up to 14 years of age, reducing the dropout rates and improving retention for both boys and girls.
The policy targets a significant reduction in the Infant Mortality Rate aiming for fewer than 30 deaths per 1000 live births. In maternal health, the goal is to reduce the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) to fewer than 100 deaths per 1,00,000 live births.
National Population Policy had an objective to expand immunization coverages delaying the age of marriage for women to improve maternal and child health outcomes.
Controlling the spread of communicable diseases is another area of focus, alongside integrating traditional Indian medicine systems (AYUSH) into maternal and child healthcare.
The NPP 2000 policy expands access to various contraceptive options, also promotes HIV prevention and strengthens coordination between National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) and healthcare services for treating reproductive and sexually transmitted infections.

National Population Policy Key Initiatives

Expanded Contraceptive Choices: The policy has broadened the range of contraceptives available, introducing newer methods like injectable contraceptives. This gives individuals more flexibility to choose options that align with their health needs and personal preferences.

Sterilization Incentive Scheme: To support those opting for sterilization, a compensation mechanism is in place. It offers financial support both to individuals undergoing the procedure and to healthcare teams involved in offsetting any income loss or related costs during the process.

Mission Parivar Vikas: To strengthen the reach of family planning services, Mission Parivar Vikas was rolled out in 146 districts with high fertility rates across seven priority states. The mission focuses on direct community engagement and ensures wider access to contraceptives and reproductive health services.

Use of Postpartum IUDs (PPIUCDs): The policy promotes offering intrauterine devices to women immediately after childbirth. This helps ensure effective birth spacing and long-term contraception right from the post-delivery stage.

Doorstep Delivery of Contraceptives: ASHAs (Accredited Social Health Activists) play a central role in distributing contraceptives directly to households. This approach is especially crucial for reaching people in remote or underserved regions, where access to healthcare services can be limited.

Pregnancy Test Kits at Community Level: Pregnancy testing kits have been added to the medical supplies distributed by ASHAs. These kits allow women to check for pregnancy privately and promptly, improving early detection and timely medical care.

National Population Policy Need of Changes

By 2041, around 59% of Indians will be of working age, a narrow window to leverage demographic advantage.
With longer lifespans and falling birth rates, the world is aging fast. In India, 12% of the population will be elderly by 2025, and 20% by 2050.
Economic planning must align with population growth. The key lies in equipping people with relevant skills and making them employable.
The one-child policy slowed growth but led to a steep rise in the elderly population. India's policies must avoid such unintended consequences.
Rather than enforcing fertility limits, the goal should be enabling families to make informed choices in a growing economy.
The 2000 National Population Policy emphasized family planning. Now, it must also address aging, sexual health, and regional imbalances.
India must treat its population as a development asset. The goal isn’t just to manage numbers but to create a healthy, skilled, and productive society.

National Population Policy 2000 FAQs

Q1: What is the National Population Policy (NPP)?

Ans: The NPP is a policy aimed at stabilizing India’s population through education, healthcare access, and voluntary family planning initiatives.

Q2: When was the National Population Policy implemented?

Ans: The current National Population Policy was implemented in 2000, replacing the earlier policies from 1976 and 1977.

Q3: What are the objectives of the NPP 2000?

Ans: Its goals include achieving a stable population, reducing infant and maternal mortality, promoting delayed marriage, and ensuring universal access to contraception.

Q4: What is the immediate objective of NPP 2000?

Ans: The immediate goal was addressing unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and personnel in reproductive and child health.

Q5: What is the medium-term objective of the NPP 2000?

Ans: To bring the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement levels by 2010 meaning two children per woman.

Tiger Reserves in India, State Wise List, Established Date

December 3, 2025

The Bengal Tiger was officially declared the National Animal of India in April 1973 as part of the Project Tiger initiative. Before this the Lion held the status of National Animal of India. The decision was made as Bengal Tiger was listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red Data Book. Tiger Reserves in India network was established in 1973.

Tiger Reserves in India

India is home to 80% of the world's tiger population. According to the Tiger Census Report 2022, conducted every 4 years, the tiger population in India increased from 2,967 in 2018 to 3,682 in 2022. In 2022, Madhya Pradesh had the highest number of tigers (785), followed by Karnataka (563), Uttarakhand (560), and Maharashtra (444). Among the Tiger Reserves in India, Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) had the highest tiger population (260), followed by Bandipur (150) and Nagarhole (141) in Karnataka. Currently, India has 58 tiger reserves, governed under Project Tiger and administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

List of Tiger Reserves in India

India is home to 58 Tiger Reserves, established under Project Tiger. The latest addition is Madhav National Park in Madhya Pradesh, which was added in 2025. Here is the List of Tiger Reserves in India.

List of Tiger Reserves in India
Sl No	Tiger Reserve (TR)	State	TR Notifcn Year	Total Area (sq km)
1	Bandipur	Karnataka	2007	1456.3
2	Corbett	Uttarakhand	2010	1288.31
3	Amanagarh buffer	Uttar Pradesh	2012	80.60
4	Kanha	Madhya Pradesh	2007	2051.79
5	Manas	Assam	2008	2837.10
6	Melghat	Maharashtra	2007	2768.52
7	Palamau	Jharkhand	2012	1129.93
8	Ranthambore	Rajasthan	2007	1411.29
9	Simlipal	Odisha	2007	2750.00
10	Sunderban	West Bengal	2007	2584.89
11	Periyar	Kerala	2007	925.00
12	Sariska	Rajasthan	2007	1213.34
13	Buxa	West Bengal	2009	757.90
14	Indravati	Chhattisgarh	2009	2799.07
15	Namdapha	Arunachal Pradesh	1987	2052.82
16	Nagarjunsagar Sagar	Andhra Pradesh	2007	3296.31
17	Dudhwa	Uttar Pradesh	2010	2201.77
18	Kalakad Mundanthurai	Tamil Nadu	2007	1601.54
19	Valmiki	Bihar	2012	899.38
20	Pench	Madhya Pradesh	2007	1179.63
21	Tadobha Andhari	Maharashtra	2007	1727.59
22	Bandhavgarh	Madhya Pradesh	2007	1536.93
23	Panna	Madhya Pradesh	2007	1598.10
24	Dampa	Mizoram	2007	988.00
25	Bhadra	Karnataka	2007	1064.29
26	Pench – MH	Maharashtra	2007	741.22
27	Pakke	Arunachal Pradesh	2012	1198.45
28	Nameri	Assam	2000	464.00
29	Satpura	Madhya Pradesh	2007	2133.31
30	Anamalai	Tamil Nadu	2007	1479.87
31	Udanti Sitanadi	Chhattisgarh	2009	1842.54
32	Satkoshia	Odisha	2007	963.87
33	Kaziranga	Assam	2007	1173.58
34	Achanakmar	Chhattisgarh	2009	914.02
35	Kali	Karnataka	2007	1097.51
36	Sanjay Dhubri	Madhya Pradesh	2011	1674.50
37	Mudumalai	Tamil Nadu	2007	688.59
38	Nagarhole	Karnataka	2007	1205.76
39	Parambikulam	Kerala	2009	643.66
40	Sahyadri	Maharashtra	2012	1165.57
41	Biligiri Ranganatha Temple	Karnataka	2007	574.82
42	Kawal	Telangana	2012	2015.44
43	Sathyamangalam	Tamil Nadu	2013	1408.40
44	Mukundara	Rajasthan	2013	759.99
45	Nawegaon Nagzira	Maharashtra	2013	1894.94
46	Amrabad	Telangana	2015	2611.39
47	Pilibhit	Uttar Pradesh	2014	730.25
48	Bor	Maharashtra	2014	816.27
49	Rajaji	Uttarakhand	2015	1075.17
50	Orang	Assam	2016	492.46
51	Kamlang	Arunachal Pradesh	2017	783.00
52	Srivilliputhur Megamalai	Tamil Nadu	2021	1016.57
53	Ramgarh Vishdhari	Rajasthan	2022	1501.89
54	Ranipur	Uttar Pradesh	2022	529.36
55	Veerangana Durgavati	Madhya Pradesh	2023	2339.12
56	Dholpur – Karauli	Rajasthan	2023	599.64
57	Guru Ghasidas – Tamor Pingla	Chhattisgarh	2024	2829.39
58	Ratapani	Madhya Pradesh	2024	1271.47
59	Madhav	Madhya Pradesh	2025	1651.39
Total	–	–	–	84487.83

State-Wise List of Tiger Reserves in India

India is home to 58 Tiger Reserves spread across 18 states, dedicated to protect the endangered Bengal tiger and its natural habitat. These reserves operate under Project Tiger, launched in 1973 to ensure the recovery of tiger populations and the preservation of their ecosystems.

State-Wise List of Tiger Reserves in India
State	Number of Tiger Reserves	Tiger Reserves (TR)
Andhra Pradesh	1	Nagarjunsagar Sagar
Arunachal Pradesh	3	Namdapha, Pakke, Kamlang
Assam	4	Manas, Nameri, Kaziranga, Orang
Bihar	1	Valmiki
Chhattisgarh	4	Indravati, Udanti Sitanadi, Achanakmar, Guru Ghasidas – Tamor Pingla
Karnataka	5	Bandipur, Bhadra, Kali, Nagarhole, Biligiri Ranganatha Temple
Kerala	2	Periyar, Parambikulam
Madhya Pradesh	9	Kanha, Pench, Bandhavgarh, Panna, Satpura, Sanjay Dhubri, Veerangana Durgavati, Ratapani, Madhav
Maharashtra	6	Melghat, Tadobha Andhari, Pench – MH, Sahyadri, Nawegaon Nagzira, Bor
Rajasthan	5	Ranthambore, Sariska, Mukundara, Ramgarh Vishdhari, Dholpur – Karauli
Tamil Nadu	5	Kalakad Mundanthurai, Anamalai, Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam, Srivilliputhur Megamalai
Telangana	2	Kawal, Amrabad
Uttar Pradesh	4	Dudhwa, Amanagarh buffer, Pilibhit, Ranipur
Uttarakhand	2	Corbett, Rajaji
West Bengal	2	Sunderban, Buxa
Mizoram	1	Dampa
Odisha	2	Simlipal, Satkoshia

Top 10 Largest Tiger Reserves in India

Each Tiger Reserves in India plays a major role in wildlife conservation. Below are the Top 10 Largest Tiger Reserves in India, known for their diverse ecosystems.

Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (3,296.31 sq. km.) Andhra Pradesh & Telangana

Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve is spanning across 5 districts in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, this tiger reserve is the Largest Tiger Reserve in India, offering a vast habitat for Bengal tigers, leopards, pangolins, Indian rock pythons, and several other species. The Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar Reservoirs enhance the biodiversity of this reserve, making it an ecologically significant area.

Manas Tiger Reserve (3,150.92 sq. km.) Assam

Manas Tiger Reserve is located in the Himalayas, Manas Tiger Reserve is not just a national park but also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, an Elephant Reserve, and a Biosphere Reserve. It is home to some of the rarest and most endangered species, including the one-horned rhinoceros, Asiatic elephant, clouded leopard, and hoolock gibbons. The Manas River, which flows through the park, adds to its scenic beauty and ecological richness.

Melghat Tiger Reserve (2,768.52 sq. km.) Maharashtra

Melghat Tiger Reserve is situated in the Satpura Hill Range, and is an important part of central India's biodiversity. The reserve serves as a catchment area for five major rivers, which support its diverse flora and fauna. Apart from tigers, Melghat Tiger Reserve is home to species like Indian gaur, sambar deer, wild boars, and many bird species, making it a haven for wildlife enthusiasts.

Similipal Tiger Reserve (2,750 sq. km.) Odisha

Located in the Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, Similipal is known for its dense forests, unique biodiversity, and stunning waterfalls. The reserve is home to Royal Bengal tigers, elephants, leopards, barking deer, and rare orchids. The cool breeze from the forests and the presence of various streams make it a refreshing natural habitat. Similipal is an essential part of India's wildlife conservation efforts.

Amrabad Tiger Reserve (2,611.39 sq. km.) Telangana

Amrabad Tiger Reserve is situated in the Nallamala Hills, Amrabad Tiger Reserve is one of the largest reserves in South India. It has a rich tribal heritage, with the Chenchu tribe coexisting with the wildlife. The Amrabad Tiger Reserve is home to Bengal tigers, rusty-spotted cats, mugger crocodiles, Indian rock pythons, and a variety of bird species.

Sundarbans Tiger Reserve (2,584.89 sq. km.) West Bengal

Sundarbans Tiger Reserve is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Located in West Bengal, it is famous for the Royal Bengal tigers, which have adapted to swimming in the saline waters. The forest gets its name from the Sundari trees, which dominate the landscape. The Sundarbans are also home to saltwater crocodiles, Gangetic dolphins, and various bird species, making it one of the most unique tiger reserves in India.

Dudhwa Tiger Reserve (2,201.77 sq. km.) Uttar Pradesh

Dudhwa Tiger Reserve is located along the India-Nepal border, and is a crucial part of Uttar Pradesh’s wildlife conservation efforts. It is the only place in the state where both tigers and one-horned rhinos coexist. The reserve features dense forests, vast grasslands, and wetland ecosystems, providing an ideal habitat for a diverse range of species, including elephants, swamp deer, and migratory birds.

Satpura Tiger Reserve (2,133.30 sq. km.) Madhya Pradesh

Satpura Tiger Reserve is situated south of the Narmada River, Satpura Tiger Reserve is known for its rich biodiversity and unique terrain. Apart from tigers, the reserve is home to leopards, chital, nilgai, blackbuck, Indian giant squirrels, and flying squirrels. The landscape consists of rugged hills, deep valleys, and dense forests, making it one of the most picturesque wildlife sanctuaries in India.

Namdapha Tiger Reserve (2,052.82 sq. km.) Arunachal Pradesh

Namdapha Tiger Reserve is located in Arunachal Pradesh, is the only tiger reserve in the world to host all four big cat species: tiger, leopard, snow leopard, and clouded leopard. This makes it one of the most ecologically significant reserves in India. It is part of the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot, featuring a mix of tropical, subtropical, and alpine ecosystems.

Kanha Tiger Reserve (2,051.79 sq. km.) Madhya Pradesh

Kanha Tiger Reserve, the inspiration behind Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book, is one of India’s most famous tiger reserves. It is home to the hard ground swamp deer (Barasingha), Bengal tigers, Indian wild dogs, and leopards. The lush green meadows and dense forests of Kanha make it an ideal wildlife habitat and a popular destination for nature lovers.

Tiger Reserves in India FAQs

Q1: Which is India's 57th tiger reserve?

Ans: Ratapani Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh is the India’s 57th tiger reserve.

Q2: What is the 54th tiger reserve of India?

Ans: Dholpur-Karauli Tiger Reserve is the 54th tiger reserve of India.

Q3: Which is the 53rd Tiger Reserve in India?

Ans: Guru Ghasidas National Park of Chhattisgarh is the 53rd Tiger Reserve in India.

Q4: Where are 52 tiger reserves in India?

Ans: Ramgarh Vishdhari wildlife sanctuary is the 52nd Tiger Reserve in India.

Q5: Which is 55th tiger reserve in India?

Ans: Dholpur – Karauli Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan is the 55th Tiger Reserve in India.

Prominent Rulers of India, List, Period of Rule, Territory

December 3, 2025

Prominent Rulers of India includes a list of rulers who have ruled this country since ancient times. India has witnessed a number of brave rulers who have fought for this country as well as established their own independent kingdoms. Having knowledge about these rulers is important to help you understand the history of the Indian subcontinent. In this article, we are going to cover all the important rulers who have ruled the Indian subcontinent starting from ancient times.

List of Important Rulers of India

Here is a list of all the prominent rulers who ruled the Indian Subcontinent in a unique manner and left their mark through some way or another: .

Name of Rulers	Period of Rule	Territory
Chandragupta Maurya	300-324 BC	Magadha
Akbar	1542-1605	Kalanaur
Ashoka	232-263 BCE	Pataliputra
Porus	315-340 BC	Between Jhelum & Chenab
Shivaji Bhosale	1627-1680	Maharashtra
Prithviraj Chauhan	1178-1192 CE	Sapadalaksha
Maharaja Ranjit Singh	1801-1839	Northwest Indian
Samudragupta	336-380 CE	West Bengal
Maharana Pratap	1326-1884	Mewar
Raja Raja Chola	985-1014 ECE	Southern India
Alauddin Khilji	1296-1316	Delhi Sultanate
Rana Sanga	1508-1528	Mewar
Rajendra Chola 1	947-1014	Lamuri
Harshvardhana	606-647 CE	Thanesar
Bimbisara	492-544 BCE	Magadha
Pulakeshin	610-642	Deccan
Bindusara	273-297 BCE	Deccan upto Mysore
Tipu Sultan	1782-1799	Mysore
Krishnadevaraya	1471-1529	Vijayanagar
Muhammad bin Tughluq	1324-1351	Delhi
Sher Shah Suri	1540-1545	North India & Delhi
Hemachandra Vikramaditya	1556	Delhi

Prominent Rulers of India

India is known as a country that not only has a royal heritage but also some of the most prominent rulers of ancient times. These rulers are not only remembered for their courage and the wars they fought, but also for their way of ruling, unique methods of running the economy and introduction of currencies and administration methods. Some of these important rulers are:

Chandragupta Maurya
- First historical emperor of India and founder of the Maurya Dynasty.
- With Chanakya’s guidance, seized control of Magadha.
- Ruled for 24 years.
- Famous Monument: Palace at Pataliputra.
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar
- The third Mughal emperor, son of Humayun, ascended the throne at a young age.
- Widely regarded as the greatest Mughal ruler; promoted religious tolerance.
- Abolished tax on Hindu pilgrims; founded Din-i Ilahi blending Hindu, Islamic, and Parsi principles.
- Defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat.
- Famous Monuments: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri
Ashoka
- Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara; known as Samraat Chakravartin.
- Key figure in the spread of Buddhism worldwide.
- Modern Indian emblem derived from his Lion Capital at Sarnath.
- Advocated protection of minorities; renounced war after the Kalinga conflict.
- Famous Monuments: Sanchi Stupa, Nalanda Mahavihara.
Porus
- King of Pauravas (region in present-day Pakistan).
- Famed for bravery against Alexander in the Battle of the Jhelum.
- Reinstated by Alexander and granted territories up to the River Beas.
Shivaji Bhosale
- Founder and greatest ruler of the Maratha Empire.
- Expert in guerrilla warfare; resisted Mughal advances.
- Established Raigad as the capital and was crowned Chhatrapati.
- Known as the "Father of the Indian Navy."
- Famous Monuments: Sindhudurg and Pratapgad Forts.
Prithviraj Chauhan
- King of the Chauhan dynasty; one of the few Hindu rulers of Delhi.
- Defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
- Legendary tale of elopement with Sanyogita.
- Famous Monuments: Hansi Fort, Rai Pithora’s Fort.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh
- Founder of the Sikh Empire in Punjab; first Sikh Emperor.
- United Sikhs and others despite losing one eye.
- Acquired the Koh-i-Noor Diamond after rescuing Shah Shuja.
- Famous Monuments: Ram Bagh Palace, prominent Gurudwaras.
Samudragupta
- Successor of Chandragupta I; greatest ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
- Patron of art, culture, and religious tolerance.
- Issued seven distinct types of coins.
Raja Raja Chola I
- Initiated the Second Golden Age of Tamil Nadu.
- Expanded the Chola Empire across South Asia.
- Famous Monument: Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjai Big Temple).
Alauddin Khilji
- Second ruler of the Khilji dynasty; known for military conquests and strong administration.
- Governed Kara before ascending to the throne.
- Conquered Gujarat in 1297 CE.
- Famous Monuments: Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort, Jamait Khana Mosque.
Rana Sanga
- Maharana Sangram Singh of Mewar; last major Rajput ruler before Mughal dominance.
- Known for bravery and defending Rajputana against Babur.
Rajendra Chola I
- Son of Raja Raja Chola I; expanded the empire beyond India.
- Known for naval power and building a vast artificial lake.
Harshavardhana
- Celebrated ruler of North India; patron of art and religion.
- Supported Nalanda University; praised by Chinese traveler Xuanzang.
Bimbisara
- Haryanka dynasty ruler of Magadha.
- Used marriage alliances to expand territory; disciple of Buddha.
- Founded the city of Rajgir.
Pulakeshin II
- The great Chalukya ruler defended his kingdom from Harshavardhana.
- Built several Shiva temples.
Bindusara
- Son of Chandragupta Maurya; expanded the empire except Kalinga.
- Had 16 wives and 8 sons.
Tipu Sultan
- Known as the "Tiger of Mysore"; pioneer in rocket technology.
- Wrote Fathul Mujahidin, a military manual.
- Famous Monuments: Nandi Hills Fort, Manjarabad Fort.
Krishnadevaraya
- Vijayanagara ruler led the empire to its peak.
- Encouraged foreign trade.
- Tenali Rama served in his court.
Hemachandra Vikramaditya (Hemu)
- Prime Minister of Adil Shah Suri; undefeated in 22 battles.
- Crowned himself Emperor of Delhi after his 22nd victory.

Prominent Rulers of India FAQs

Q1: Who are the 5 famous rulers of India?

Ans: Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka the Great, Akbar, Raja Raja Chola I, and Shivaji Maharaj.

Q2: What are the 10 major dynasties of India?

Ans: Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Mughal, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Vijayanagara, Delhi Sultanate, Kushan, and Pala dynasties.

Q3: Which dynasty was prominent in India's history?

Ans: The Maurya Dynasty, known for unifying most of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka.

Q4: Who was the first known ruler of India?

Ans: Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya Empire, 321 BCE.

Q5: Who was the last great ruler of India?

Ans: Aurangzeb was the last powerful Mughal emperor.

Important Rulers of the Maratha Empire, List, Rulers

December 3, 2025

Important Rulers of the Maratha Empire include rulers under whose influence and rule the Maratha Empire became one of the most powerful kingdoms in Indian history. Under the leadership of these rulers, the Maratha empire not only defeated powerful invaders like the British but also strengthened its own individual identity. Established in the 17th century, the Maratha empire played an important role in framing the cultural and political landscape of India. The marathas are remembered for their smartness, unique strategies, military skills and various contributions. In this article, we are going to cover the important maratha rulers of India and their contributions in strengthening the empire.

Maratha Empire Overview

The Marathas were known to constitute a powerful empire during the 17th-19th century period. Founded in 1674 by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the empire was consequently led by powerful leaders who eventually contributed to the growth. The empire is not only remembered for its victory over the Mughal rule but also as a strong force against the British colonists.

The foundation of maratha rule can be traced back to the strong disciplined military and administrative system introduced by Shivaji. By the mid 18th century, the marathas had established a strong control over various territories including Tamil Nadu and Punjab.

List of Important Rulers of Maratha Empire

The Maratha Empire saw the rule of several great leaders who shaped its destiny. Here is a list of some of the most important rulers of the Maratha Empire:

Important Chhatrapati Rulers

The Maratha Empire designated the title of Chhatrapati to the supreme ruler. They were the central figures in Maratha leadership who played an important role in establishment, administration and expansion of the empire. The title of Chhatrapati Shivaji was given to the following rulers:

Chhatrapati Shivaji (1674-1680)
- Founder of the Maratha Empire and crowned Chhatrapati in 1674.
- Introduced Swarajya (self-rule) and an efficient administrative system.
- Built a powerful navy to protect the Konkan coastline.
- Conducted successful military campaigns against the Mughals and Bijapur Sultanate.
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj (1681-1689)
- Son of Shivaji, known for his bravery and resistance against the Mughals.
- Defeated the Portuguese and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore.
- Fought against Aurangzeb but was captured and executed in 1689.
Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj (1689-1700)
- He was the younger brother of Sambhaji.
- Took refuge in Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu after Sambhaji’s death.
- Led guerrilla warfare against the Mughals to sustain Maratha rule.
Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj (1707-1749)
- Grandson of Shivaji, secured the throne, becoming the fifth Chhatrapati following the short reign of Shivaji II.
- Introduced the Peshwa system, granting administrative control to Balaji Vishwanath.
- Expanded Maratha influence across India

Important Peshwa Rulers

The Peshwas were influential leaders of the Maratha Empire, shaping its administration, military, and political strategies. Originally appointed as prime ministers, they gradually rose to become the de facto rulers in the 18th century. Below is a list of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire

Balaji Vishwanath (Peshwa 1713-1720)
- First Hereditary Peshwa from the Bhat Family.
- Strengthened the empire’s financial and military systems.
- Negotiated the release of Shahu Maharaj from Mughal captivity.
Baji Rao I (Peshwa 1720-1740)
- A brilliant military strategist who expanded the Maratha Empire and established the Maratha Confederacy.
- Defeated the Mughals and expanded Maratha rule to Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand.
- Marathas became the dominant power in India during his reign.
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (Peshwa 1740-1761)
- Continued Maratha expansion and established dominance in North India.
- Led the Marathas during the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Madhav Rao I (Peshwa 1761-1772)
- Revived the Maratha Empire after the loss at Panipat.
- Focused on stabilizing the empire, reviving its finances, and re-establishing law and order
- Strengthened administration and restored Maratha influence.
Mahadji Shinde (Shinde Dynasty, 1761-1794)
- Controlled Delhi and played a major role in North Indian politics.
- Defended Maratha interests against the British and Afghans.
Baji Rao II (Peshwa 1796-1818)
- The last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire.
- Defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818), leading to the empire’s collapse.

Difference Between Chhatrapati and Peshwa

The Peshwa and Chhatrapati were two different positions in the Maratha Empire. The Chhatrapati was associated with being the sovereign ruler, while the Peshwa was considered to be the prime minister responsible for managing the military and administrative affairs. Over the years, the Peshwas gained more prominence over the Chhatrapati, due to their hold over the Maratha administration. The shift in power eventually led to the political shaping of the Maratha Empire.

Maratha Chhatrapati vs Peshwa
Feature	Chhatrapati	Peshwa
Position	Supreme ruler	Prime minister
Authority	Head of the Maratha Empire	Chief executive under Chhatrapati
Role	Symbol of sovereignty	Military and administrative head
Founder	Shivaji Maharaj	Balaji Vishwanath
Power Shift	Initially had full power	Gradually became the real power center

Important Rulers of Maratha Empire FAQs

Q1: Who was the major ruler of the Maratha kingdom?

Ans: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the major ruler of Maratha Kingdom.

Q2: Who was an important leader of the Marathas?

Ans: Bajirao I was an important leader of Marathas.

Q3: Who were the major leaders of the Marathas?

Ans: Shivaji Maharaj, Bajirao I, Madhavrao I, Mahadji Shinde.

Q4: Who is considered the greatest Maratha leader?

Ans: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the greatest Maratha leader.

Q5: Who defeated Shivaji?

Ans: Aurangzeb’s forces captured him, but he later escaped.

Chaolung Sukapha

December 3, 2025

Chaolung Sukapha Latest News

Recently, the union Minister of Ports, Shipping & Waterways led a vibrant celebration of Assam Day and paid rich tributes to Chaolung Sukapha.

About Chaolung Sukapha

He was a visionary 13th-century ruler who founded the Ahom kingdom that ruled Assam for six centuries.
He is widely referred to as the architect of “Bor Asom” or “greater Assam”.
It was in Charaideo that Sukapha established his first small principality, sowing the seeds of further expansion of the Ahom kingdom.

Administration of Chaolung Sukapha

He divided the kingdom into territorial units called khels or phoids, each under an officer responsible for supplying a fixed number of paiks.
- Paiks are the able-bodied male population who owed labour and military service to the state.
- Every adult male between sixteen and fifty was registered as a paik and served the king for part of the year in agriculture, construction, or war. In return, he was allotted land for personal cultivation.
He emphasized guerrilla tactics suited to the terrain of rivers, jungles, and hills.

Why is Chaolung Sukapha Important?

Sukapha’s significance — especially in today’s Assam — lies in his successful efforts towards assimilation of different communities and tribes.
He adopted a policy of conciliation and assimilation rather than annihilation.
Sukapha developed very amiable relationships with the tribal communities living in Assam — especially the Sutias, the Morans and the Kacharis.

Source: PIB

Chaolung Sukapha FAQs

Q1: Who was Chaolung Sukapha?

Ans: A Ahom king

Q2: What is Chaolung Sukapha's significance in Indian history?

Ans: He unified Assam under one rule.

New Geographical Indication Products

December 3, 2025

New Geographical Indication Products Latest News

Recently, five products from Tamil Nadu have secured the Geographical Indications (GI) tag.

About New Geographical Indication Products

Woraiyur Cotton Sari

It is native to Tiruchi district, and is woven in Manamedu on the banks of the Cauvery.
They are known for their distinctive Korvai border (a continuous running pattern) — block colour palettes, and geometric motifs.
The border has different motifs, including many geometrical shapes.
The Devanga community has been the driving force behind the Woraiyur cotton sarees for generations.

Thooyamalli Rice

Thooyamalli, meaning ‘pure jasmine’, is a traditional sambha-season rice variety grown over 135 - 140 days.
It is often referred to as ‘pearl rice’ due to its shiny nature and is regarded highly for its nutritional benefits.

Kavindapadi ‘Naatu Sakkarai’

Kavindapadi in Erode district is a major supplier of jaggery powder in Tamil Nadu, with vast stretches of sugarcane fields nourished by the Lower Bhavani Project canal.
It is made locally by mechanically crushing the cane and slowly evaporating the extracted juice.

Namakkal ‘Kalchatti’

Namakkal’s famed cookware is made using soapstone (makkal pathirangal).
It is popularly known as kalchatti, and has been a staple in South Indian kitchens for generations.

Ambasamudram ‘Choppu Saman’

Origin: The art of making choppu saman (wooden toys) has been practiced for over two centuries, with origins tracing back to the 18th century.
This craft involves the careful handcrafting of miniature wooden toys — from tiny kitchen utensils to small tables, chairs, and other play objects.
Material used:Traditionally, these toys were carved from indigenous trees like the Manjal Kadamba tree (Neolamarckia cadamba), teak, and rosewood.

Source: TH

New Geographical Indication Products FAQs

Q1: What is a Geographical Indication (GI)?

Ans: A sign that identifies a product as originating from a specific geographical location.

Q2: Which community is known for weaving Woraiyur Cotton Sari?

Ans: Devanga community

Rock Eagle Owl

December 3, 2025

Rock Eagle Owl Latest News

Recently, a Rock Eagle Owl nest prompted the Telangana forest department to halt quarrying operations for over a month.

About Rock Eagle Owl

It is also called Indian eagle-owl (Bubo bengalensis) or Bengal eagle-owl.
It is a large-horned owl species native to hilly scrub forests in India.
Appearance
- It is usually brown and grey in colour, with a white throat patch that has black stripes.
  It was earlier treated as a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl.
- Its chicks are born with white fluff which is gradually replaced by speckled feathers during the pre-juvenile moult after about two weeks.
- It is usually seen in pairs. It has a deep resonant booming call that may be heard at dawn and dusk.
Habitat: They are especially seen near rocky places within the mainland of the Indian Subcontinent south of the Himalayas. They avoid humid evergreen forests and extremely arid areas.
Distribution: It is mainly found in South Asian countries like India, Nepal, Pakistan

Conservation Status of Rock Eagle Owl

IUCN: Least Concern
CITES: Appendix II

Source: IE

Rock Eagle Owl FAQs

Q1: What is the scientific name of the Rock Eagle Owl?

Ans: Bubo bengalensis

Q2: What is a distinctive feature of the Rock Eagle Owl?

Ans: Large ear tufts

Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary

December 3, 2025

Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary Latest News

A rare striated grassbird was recently recorded in Chaprala wildlife sanctuary in Gadchiroli district, marking a major range extension for the species in Maharashtra.

About Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary

It is located in the Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra.
Established in 1986, it covers an area of approximately 134.78 sq.km.
The Markhanda and Pedigundam hills flank the sanctuary from northeast and south, and the Pranhita River flows along its western boundary.
It is located on the bank of the confluence of the Wardha and Wainganga rivers.
During the monsoons, river water swells and enters the sanctuary.
Additionally, several water bodies, including the Murgikunta, Raikonta, and Komatkunta tanks, further contribute to the sanctuary’s biodiversity.
Vegetation: It is dominated by southern tropical dry deciduous forests interspersed with grasslands.
Flora: The dominant tree species include teak, Arjun, salai, mahua, bel, dhawada, tendu, sissoo, and semal.
Fauna:
- It is inhabited by Tiger, Leopard, Wild boar, Sloth bear, Wild dogs, Langurs, Blackbuck, Spotted Deer, Sambar, Jackal, Mongoose, etc.
- The sanctuary also features a distinctive riparian ecosystem that supports a diverse aquatic fauna, including fish, prawns, and turtles.

Key Facts about Striped Grassbird

It is a species of bird in the Locustellidae family.
Scientific Name: Megalurus palustris
Distribution: It is widely found across South and Southeast Asia, including China, India, Pakistan, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Features:
- It has a large body size of 22-28 cm with a body weight of about 38-56 g.
- The upper body is light reddish brown.
- There are thick black streaks on the back and wing covers.
- Dark yellow eyebrows.
- The tail is elongated and sharp.
- Lower body whitish, black streaks on chest.
- Iris brown, upper beak black, underside pink, and feet pink.
Conservation Status:
- IUCN Red List: Least Concern

Source: TOI

Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary FAQs

Q1: Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary is located in which Indian state?

Ans: Maharashtra

Q2: What is the approximate area of Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary?

Ans: It covers an area of approximately 134.78 sq.km.

Q3: Which river flows along the western boundary of Chaprala Wildlife Sanctuary?

Ans: Pranhita River

Q4: haprala Wildlife Sanctuary lies near the confluence of which two rivers?

Ans: It is located on the bank of the confluence of the Wardha and Wainganga rivers.

List of Navratna Companies in India 2025, Eligibility, Benefits

December 3, 2025

Navratna companies in India are Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) that have been granted enhanced autonomy and financial freedom by the Government of India to help them compete more effectively in the global market. These companies are given operational and financial powers, enabling them to make quick decisions on investments, joint ventures, and mergers, up to a certain limit, without the need for government approval.

Navratna Companies Eligibility Criteria

The eligibility criteria for Navratna Status is :

Miniratna Category I status is required.
A composite score of 60 or more out of 100 in key parameters such as net profit, net worth, total manpower cost, cost of services, and earnings per share.
Must be profitable for the last three consecutive years.

Navratna Companies in India: Benefits

Navratna status offers several benefits to public sector enterprises in India, enhancing their operational and financial capabilities. Here are the key benefits:

Enhanced Financial Autonomy: Navratna companies can invest up to ₹1,000 crore without needing government approval, allowing for quicker and more strategic investments.
Operational Flexibility: These companies have the freedom to form joint ventures, alliances, and undertake mergers and acquisitions both domestically and internationally.
Decision-Making Power: The Board of Directors of Navratna companies has greater authority in making decisions related to human resources, capital expenditure, and other operational aspects.
Competitive Edge: With greater autonomy, Navratna companies can respond more swiftly to market changes and competition, enhancing their overall efficiency and effectiveness.
Global Expansion: The status encourages these companies to expand their operations globally, helping them to emerge as significant players on the international stage.
Performance Incentives: Achieving and maintaining Navratna status is a recognition of a company’s strong performance, which can boost its reputation and attract better talent and partnerships.

List of 14 Navratna Companies in India

Here is a list of 14 Central Public Sector Enterprises in India:

Sl.No	Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSE)
1	Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
2	Container Corporation of India Limited
3	Engineers India Limited (EIL)
4	Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
5	Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL)
6	National Aluminium Company (NALCO)
7	National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC)
8	NationCal Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC)
9	NLC India Limited (NLCIL)
10	Oil India Limited (OIL)
11	Power Finance Corporation (PFC)
12	Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL)
13	Rural Electrification Corporation (REC)
14	Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)

14 Navratna Companies Details

Here is a detailed explanation of 14 Navratna Companies in India:

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
Founded in 1954 in Bengaluru, BEL is a state-owned aerospace and defense company with nine factories and several regional offices across India. It reported a revenue of ₹12,921.11 crore (US$1.8 billion) in 2020. BEL's product range includes avionics, radars, weapon systems, C4I systems, and electronic voting machines.
Container Corporation of India (CONCOR)
CONCOR, a Navratna PSU under the Ministry of Railways, was incorporated in 1988 and began operations in 1989 by taking over seven Inland Container Depots (ICDs) from Indian Railways. This strategic move marked India's entry into intermodal freight transport, making rail a cost-effective option for long-distance cargo.
Engineers India Limited (EIL)
EIL, a Navratna PSU established in 1965, provides engineering services for the petroleum, petrochemical, pipeline, and infrastructure sectors. Under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, EIL is a leader in turnkey contracting and industrial projects across various sectors, including mining, metallurgy, and offshore oil & gas.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
Founded in 1940 and headquartered in Bengaluru, HAL is a key player in India's aerospace and defense industries, managed by the Ministry of Defence. HAL specializes in the design, fabrication, and assembly of aircraft, helicopters, jet engines, and their components.
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL)
Established in 1986, MTNL is a state-owned telecom provider operating in Mumbai, New Delhi, and Mauritius. Now a subsidiary of BSNL, MTNL provides crucial telecom services in these metro areas.
National Aluminium Company (NALCO)
Headquartered in Bhubaneswar, NALCO is India's largest integrated Bauxite-Alumina-Aluminium-Power complex, recognized globally as the lowest-cost producer of metallurgical grade alumina and bauxite. NALCO operates across bauxite mining, alumina refining, aluminium smelting, power generation, and logistics.
NBCC (India) Limited
NBCC, established in 1960, is a leading construction and project management company under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. With 31 regional offices, it is responsible for implementing key national initiatives like AMRUT, PMGSY, and solid waste management projects.
National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC)
NMDC, India’s largest iron ore producer, explores minerals like iron ore, copper, limestone, and diamonds. It operates mechanized mines in Chhattisgarh and Karnataka and manages India's only mechanized diamond mine in Panna, Madhya Pradesh.
Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) India Limited
Incorporated in 1956, NLC is a government-owned mining and energy company that produces 30 million tonnes of lignite annually from its opencast mines in Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. This lignite powers its thermal power stations with a capacity of 3,640 MW.
Oil India Limited (OIL)
OIL, a Navratna PSU, is the second-largest oil and gas exploration company in India. Established in 1959 and headquartered in Assam, it engages in the exploration, development, and production of crude oil, natural gas, and LPG.
Power Finance Corporation (PFC)
PFC, incorporated in 1986, is the financial backbone of India's power sector, providing consulting, financial products, investment banking, and loan management services. Its IPO in 2007 was one of the most oversubscribed in India's history.
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam (Vizag Steel)
Vizag Steel, under Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd (RINL), is India’s first shore-based integrated steel plant. It produces high-grade steel using state-of-the-art technology and operates subsidiaries like Eastern Investments Limited and The Orissa Minerals Development Company.
REC Limited
REC, formerly known as Rural Electrification Corporation, is a public infrastructure finance company in India’s power sector. It provides loans to central and state sector utilities, private developers, and rural electric cooperatives.
Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)
Founded in 1961, SCI is India’s premier shipping company and a recipient of Navratna status in 2008. It operates a diversified fleet, providing shipping solutions to various sectors. In 2019, the Government of India approved its privatization.

Navratna Companies in India FAQs

Q1: How many Navratna companies are there in India?

Ans: There are currently 13 Navratna companies in India.

Q2: Which is the 17th Navratna company?

Ans: NLC India Limited became the 17th Navratna company.

Q3: Which is the 18th Navratna company in India?

Ans: NHPC Limited is the 18th Navratna company in India.

Minimum Support Price (MSP) Crops List

December 3, 2025

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a market intervention scheme where the government sets a predetermined price for 22 crops. If market prices drop below the MSP, the government steps in to purchase the crops. This ensures that farmers receive a guaranteed price, protecting them from market fluctuations and ensuring financial stability. Keep reading the article to know the details of MSP, the List of Crops Covered Under MSP and many more.

Minimum Support Price (MSP)

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is the minimum price set by the government to ensure farmers receive fair value for their crops, even when market prices fall. This concept was introduced in 1966-67 during the Green Revolution as part of agricultural reforms, MSP serves as a safety measure taken by the union government to protect farmers from financial losses and maintain food security.

The Indian government announces MSP twice a year, before the Kharif (monsoon) and Rabi (winter) sowing seasons. The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the MSP, which is then approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA). This system encourages farmers to grow essential crops while ensuring financial stability.

List of Crops Covered Under MSP

The government sets the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for 22 crops to provide financial support to farmers. This includes 14 Kharif crops, 6 Rabi crops, and 2 commercial crops. MSP is also determined for Toria and de-husked coconut, based on the MSPs of rapeseed & mustard and copra. The MSP is revised annually by the government, considering the existing economic and agricultural conditions to ensure fair price for the crop to the farmers.

Kharif Crops

Paddy
Jowar
Bajra
Ragi
Maize
Tur (Arhar)
Moong
Urad
Groundnut
Sunflower Seed
Soyabean (Yellow)
Sesamum
Nigerseed
Cotton

Rabi Crops

Wheat
Barley
Gram
Masur (Lentil)
Rapeseed & Mustard
Safflower

Commercial Crops

Copra
Jute

Steps to Determine Minimum Support Price

The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the Minimum Support Price (MSP) based on various factors, ensuring fair prices for crops to farmers. Before announcing the MSP, the government considers:

Cost of Production: The primary factor includes expenses on seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and labour. Farmers are assured a minimum margin of 50% over the production cost.
Demand and Supply: The government analyzes market trends and consumer demand to determine appropriate pricing.
Market Price Trends: Domestic and international price comparisons ensure that the MSP remains competitive.
Inter-Crop Price Parity: A balanced pricing structure across different crops encourages diversified farming.
Terms of Trade: The government assesses the relationship between agricultural and non-agricultural sectors to maintain fair trade conditions.

Other Considerations

Changes in Input Prices
Input-Output Price Parity
Industrial Cost Structure
Cost of Living
Impact on Subsidies
Farmer’s Income Parity

The government uses the A2+FL formula to calculate MSP, which includes:

A2: Actual paid-out costs incurred by the farmer.
FL: The imputed value of family labour.

Minimum Support Price Needs

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a minimum price set by the government of India for Indian agriculture, offering stability, security, and motivation for farmers to sustain crop production. The below mentioned are the needs for the Minimum Support Price:

It guarantees a minimum income for farmers, protecting them from financial losses.
By providing assured prices, it motivates farmers to grow more staple crops, contributing to food security.
MSP acts as a buffer against price fluctuations, especially during harvest season.
A strong agricultural sector, backed by MSP, uplifts rural livelihoods and strengthens the economy.
Farmers are protected from being forced to sell their produce at unfair prices by traders.

Latest Minimum Support Price 2025-26

According to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, according to the latest Minimum Support Price (MSP) applicable for the 2025-26 is as follows (as of 22 January 2025):

Latest Minimum Support Price 2025-26
Commodity	Variety	2023-24	2024-25	Increase in MSP (2024-25 over 2023-24)
Kharif Crops
Paddy	Common	2183	2300	117 (5.4%)
	Grade 'A'	2203	2320	117 (5.3%)
Jowar	Hybrid	3180	3371	191 (6.0%)
	Maldandi	3225	3421	196 (6.1%)
Bajra		2500	2625	125 (5.0%)
Ragi		3846	4290	444 (11.5%)
Maize		2090	2225	135 (6.5%)
Tur (Arhar)		7000	7550	550 (7.9%)
Moong		8558	8682	124 (1.4%)
Urad		6950	7400	450 (6.5%)
Groundnut		6377	6783	406 (6.4%)
Sunflower Seed		6760	7280	520 (7.7%)
Soyabeen (Yellow)		4600	4892	292 (6.3%)
Sesamum		8635	9267	632 (7.3%)
Nigerseed		7734	8717	983 (12.7%)
Cotton	Medium Staple	6620	7121	501 (7.6%)
	Long Staple	7020	7521	501 (7.1%)
Rabi Crops
Wheat		2275	2425	150 (6.6%)
Barley		1850	1980	130 (7.0%)
Gram		5440	5650	210 (3.9%)
Masur (Lentil)		6425	6700	275 (4.3%)
Rapeseed & Mustard		5650	5950	300 (5.3%)
Safflower		5800	5940	140 (2.4%)
Toria		5650	5950	300 (5.3%)
Commercial Crops
Copra	Milling	10860	11160	300 (2.8%)
	Ball	11750	12000	250 (2.1%)
De-Husked Coconut		2930	3013	83 (2.8%)
Jute		5050	5335	285 (5.6%)

Minimum Support Price FAQs

Q1: What is meant by minimum support price?

Ans: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is the price set by the government to ensure farmers receive a guaranteed price for their crops, protecting them from market fluctuations.

Q2: What is the minimum price class 9?

Ans: In Class 9 Economics, the minimum price refers to the Minimum Support Price (MSP) set by the government to ensure farmers get fair compensation for their crops.

Q3: What is state minimum support price?

Ans: The State Minimum Support Price (State MSP) is a price set by individual state governments for certain crops, often higher than the central MSP, to support local farmers.

Q4: Who introduced MSP in India?

Ans: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) was introduced in 1966-67 by the Government of India during the Green Revolution to support farmers and ensure food security.

Q5: What is the purpose of MSP?

Ans: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) ensures farmers receive a fair price for their crops, protecting them from market fluctuations and ensuring agricultural sustainability.

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research

December 3, 2025

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research Latest News

Recently, the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) celebrated its Silver Jubilee and also released commemorative postage stamps.

About National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research

It was established as an autonomous Research and Development Institution on the 25th May 1998.
It was formerly known as the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR).
It has been at the forefront of leading India's scientific expeditions and research programmes in the Polar regions and the Southern Ocean.
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences Government of India
Location: Vasco da Gama, Goa.

Mandate and Functions of National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research

It is designated as the nodal organization for the co-ordination and implementation of the Indian Antarctic Programme, and executing polar expeditions in the Antarctic, Arctic, Southern Ocean, and Himalayas.
It also works on strategically vital projects like: Mapping of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), Continental shelf surveys, and the Deep Ocean Mission.
It has established and operationalised permanent Indian research stations -- DakshinGangotri, Maitri, and Bharati in Antarctica, and Himadri in the Arctic, along with the Himalayan station Himansh.

Source: PIB

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research FAQs

Q1: Where is the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research located?

Ans: Goa

Q2: Under which ministry does NCPOR operate?

Ans: Ministry of Earth Sciences

Right to Vote – Understanding Its Legal Status and Constitutional Evolution in India

December 3, 2025

Right to Vote Latest News

The Supreme Court is hearing cases filed against the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar.

Introduction

The Supreme Court of India is presently examining petitions related to the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar.
This has reignited an important legal question: What is the true legal status of the right to vote in India?
Although the right to vote is fundamental to the functioning of a democracy, Indian jurisprudence has oscillated between categorising it as a constitutional right and a statutory one.
The debate has implications not just for electoral integrity but also for how citizen rights are interpreted and enforced.

Classifying Rights in the Indian Legal Framework

India recognises different classes of rights under its constitutional and legal regime:
- Natural Rights: Inherent and inalienable, such as the right to life and liberty. While not directly enforceable, courts may interpret these through fundamental rights.
- Fundamental Rights: Enshrined in Part III of the Constitution, they include rights such as freedom of speech, equality before the law, and protection from discrimination. These are enforceable under Article 32.
- Constitutional Rights: Located outside Part III but within the Constitution, such as the right to property and trade. These are enforceable through Article 226 or relevant legal processes.
- Statutory Rights: Derived from ordinary laws passed by Parliament or State legislatures, such as the right to work under MGNREGA or the right to food under the National Food Security Act.
The status of the right to vote, though derived from the Constitution, has largely been interpreted as a statutory right, setting the stage for the ongoing debate.

Constitutional and Legal Provisions on Voting

The Constitution of India, under Article 326, guarantees universal adult franchise, stating that every citizen aged 18 or above is entitled to vote, provided they are not disqualified under law. This mandate is operationalised through two key legislations:
Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RP Act, 1950):
- Section 16 disqualifies non-citizens from being enrolled in electoral rolls.
- Section 19 requires voters to be ordinarily resident and aged 18 or more on the qualifying date.
Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act, 1951):
- Section 62 allows voting for all enrolled individuals unless disqualified by law or imprisoned.
These laws form the statutory framework for voting, leading to the view that the right to vote is not absolute but subject to legislative qualifications.

Judicial Interpretation Over the Years

The status of the right to vote has been clarified, and contested, across several landmark judgments:
- N.P. Ponnuswami (1952): The Supreme Court held that the right to vote is purely statutory.
- Jyoti Basu (1982): Reaffirmed that voting is neither a fundamental nor a common law right, but a statutory one.
- PUCL Case (2003): Justice P.V. Reddy observed that even if not fundamental, the right to vote could be considered a constitutional right.
- Kuldip Nayar (2006): The Supreme Court reverted to viewing voting as a statutory right.
- Raj Bala (2015): Recognised it as a constitutional right based on earlier PUCL interpretation.
- Anoop Baranwal (2023): Majority opinion once again concluded that the right to vote is statutory.
These oscillations reflect the court’s balancing act between textual interpretation and evolving democratic principles.

The Dissenting View and Future Possibility

In the Anoop Baranwal case, one of the judges, in his dissent, presented a nuanced position. He argued that:
- Voting is an expression of choice protected under Article 19(1)(a), freedom of speech and expression.
- Free and fair elections are intrinsic to the basic structure of the Constitution.
- Although shaped by statutory law, the origin of this right lies in Article 326 of the Constitution.
His reasoning could lay the foundation for a future judicial reconsideration that may elevate voting to the status of a constitutional right, particularly as jurisprudence around electoral rights and democratic accountability deepens.

Implications of the Current Legal Status

Statutory Nature: Being a statutory right means Parliament can impose reasonable restrictions, such as disqualifications or procedural changes.
Limited Enforcement: The right cannot be enforced through Article 32 like fundamental rights; redressal is through regular legal channels.
Need for Clarity: In an era of increasing voter suppression concerns, digital disenfranchisement, and electoral roll errors, the legal status of voting may impact how robustly the right is protected.

Source: TH

Right to Vote FAQs

Q1: What is the current legal status of the right to vote in India?

Ans: The right to vote in India is presently recognised as a statutory right under laws enacted by Parliament.

Q2: Which constitutional article underpins the right to vote?

Ans: Article 326 of the Constitution provides for universal adult suffrage in India.

Q3: Can the right to vote be enforced under Article 32 of the Constitution?

Ans: No, since it is not a fundamental right, it cannot be enforced directly under Article 32.

Q4: Which laws operationalise the right to vote in India?

Ans: The Representation of the People Act, 1950 and 1951 govern voter eligibility and electoral procedures.

Q5: Has the Supreme Court ever recognised voting as a constitutional right?

Ans: In some cases like PUCL and Raj Bala, courts acknowledged it as a constitutional right, but the prevailing view remains that it is statutory.

Colombo Security Conclave (CSC)

December 3, 2025

Colombo Security Conclave Latest News

The 7th National Security Adviser level meeting of the Colombo Security Conclave was held in New Delhi recently.

About Colombo Security Conclave

It is a regional security grouping comprising India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, and Seychelles.
The CSC’s core objective is to promote regional security by addressing transnational threats and challenges of common concern to the member states.
CSC brings together National Security Advisors (NSAs) and Deputy NSAs of the member countries.
Origin:
- The CSC, initially known as the Trilateral for Maritime Security Cooperation, evolved out of trilateral meetings between NSAs and Deputy NSAs from India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka, starting in 2011.
- It came to a standstill after 2014 due to rising tensions between India and the Maldives.
- After its revival and rebranding as the CSC in 2020, Mauritius joined the CSC in 2022, while Bangladesh joined in 2024.
- More recently, Seychelles has become the sixth member of the CSC.
Cooperation under the conclave focuses on five pillars:
- Maritime safety and security.
- Countering terrorism and radicalisation.
- Combating trafficking and transnational organised crime.
- Cyber-security and protection of critical infrastructure.
- Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief.
Permanent secretariat: Colombo.

Source: NOA

Colombo Security Conclave FAQs

Q1: Which countries are members of the Colombo Security Conclave?

Ans: India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, and Seychelles.

Q2: What is the primary objective of the Colombo Security Conclave?

Ans: Promote regional security by addressing transnational threats and challenges of common concern to the member states.

Q3: Where is the permanent secretariat of the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC) located?

Ans: Colombo

Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Rules 2025 – Operationalising India’s Privacy Framework

December 3, 2025

Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Rules 2025 Latest News

The Government of India has notified the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Rules 2025, marking the complete operationalisation of the DPDP Act 2023.
This comes eight years after the Supreme Court’s K.S. Puttaswamy (2017) judgment that declared privacy a fundamental right.
The rules seek to strengthen data protection, detail compliance mechanisms, and define the roles of Data Fiduciaries, Data Principals, and the Data Protection Board of India (DPBI).

Key Features of the DPDP Act and Rules

Citizen-centric legal architecture:
- SARAL (Simple, Accessible, Rational, and Actionable) design: Uses plain language and illustrations for ease of compliance.
- Rights and duties:
  - Data Principals (citizens): Rights to consent, correction, erasure, grievance redressal.
  - Data Fiduciaries (entities): Obligations to process data lawfully, ensure security safeguards, and report breaches.
Phased implementation timeline:
- Immediate provisions:
  - DPBI operationalised with four members, headquartered in New Delhi.
  - Amendment to Right to Information (RTI) Act 2005 becomes effective, restricting disclosure of “personal information”.
- Delayed provisions (12–18 months):
  - Informed consent requirements.
  - Purpose limitation in data processing.
  - Mandatory breach notification to users.
  - Appointment of Data Protection Officers (DPOs).
  - Launch of Consent Manager Framework (Nov 2026).
  - Full compliance for large tech firms (expected by May 2027).
Data Fiduciaries and Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs):
- Categories:
  - Determined by volume and sensitivity of data processed.
  - Criteria include impact on sovereignty, democracy, national security, and public order.
  - Major global and Indian tech companies (Meta, Google, Apple, Microsoft, Amazon) expected to be classified as SDFs.
- Obligations of SDFs:
  - Higher compliance standards.
  - Data protection impact assessments.
  - Mandatory verification of parental consent for children’s data.
Data localisation and transfers:
- Rules introduce conditional data localisation:
  - The government will specify categories of personal and traffic data that cannot leave India.
  - To be decided by a government-appointed committee.
  - Significant pushback expected from global tech firms.
- Industry view: Nasscom-Data Security Council of India (DSCI) stresses interoperability-friendly cross-border frameworks.
Processing of children’s data:
- Companies must adopt mechanisms for verifiable parental consent.
- No government-prescribed model—flexibility given to firms.
- Behavioural tracking and targeted ads for children generally prohibited, but limited processing allowed to prevent exposure to harmful content.
Breach notification and penalties:
- Obligations: Inform impacted users “without delay” regarding nature and extent of breach, timing and location, expected consequences, mitigation steps.
- Penalties: Up to ₹250 crore for failure to prevent data breaches. Wide powers vested in DPB to investigate and penalise.

Criticism of the Rules

Weakening the RTI Act: For example, removal of public interest override for personal information of public officials reduces transparency.
Civil society concerns: According to the Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF), rules enable extensive data collection by state agencies, and lack structural safeguards and oversight.
Wide government exemptions: Concerns over “State and its instrumentalities” receiving broad exemptions may undermine privacy protections and enable unchecked data processing by state agencies.
Data localisation pushback: Creates compliance burden on global tech companies; may affect India’s digital trade relations.
Delayed implementation: Key citizen protections (consent, breach notification, erasure rights) postponed by 12–18 months.
Ambiguity in parental consent mechanisms: Companies lack clarity on acceptable models; risk of inconsistent approaches.
Capacity constraints for DPBI: Only four members could be insufficient for a country with massive digital penetration.
Compliance burden on small firms: Rules may disproportionately affect startups with limited resources.

Way Forward

Strengthen independent oversight: Ensure DPBI functions autonomously with adequate staffing and resources.
Clarify data localisation norms: Engage with industry and global partners to build interoperable transfer mechanisms.
Restore transparency balance: Re-examine RTI-related amendments to protect citizens’ right to information.
Provide transitional support to firms: Standard templates and guidance for parental consent, breach notification, and consent management.
Build public awareness: Large-scale digital literacy campaigns on data rights and responsibilities.
Enhance security standards: Regular audits, incident response protocols, and minimum baseline cybersecurity norms.

Conclusion

The DPDP Act 2023 and Rules 2025 represent a landmark step in India’s journey toward a modern, comprehensive data protection regime.
They ensure national security, public order, friendly relations with foreign states, and aim to create an “innovation-friendly” ecosystem.
While they fulfil long-standing constitutional and policy commitments to individual privacy, balancing privacy, transparency, innovation, and national security remains the central challenge.
Effective implementation, stakeholder consultation, and a robust oversight mechanism will be critical to realising the full potential of India’s digital privacy law.

Source: TH | IE

Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Rules 2025 FAQs

Q1: How the DPDP Act 2023, and Rules 2025 operationalise the Right to Privacy in India?

Ans: They operationalise privacy by establishing citizen rights, fiduciary obligations, breach reporting, and the Data Protection Board, in line with the K.S. Puttaswamy judgment.

Q2: What are the implications of the DPDP Rules 2025 on transparency under the Right to Information (RTI) Act 2005?

Ans: The Rules weaken RTI by restricting disclosure of personal information of public officials even when public interest outweighs privacy concerns.

Q3: What is the classification of “Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs)” under the DPDP framework?

Ans: SDF classification increases compliance burden on large tech firms through stricter safeguards, data localisation, and impact assessments.

Q4: What are the major concerns raised by civil society regarding the DPDP Rules 2025?

Ans: Civil society fears excessive government exemptions, deferred rights, limited oversight, and expanded state control over personal data.

Q5: What is the significance of the data localisation provisions under the DPDP Rules 2025?

Ans: Data localisation strengthens national security and sovereignty but may strain global digital trade, interoperability, and industry compliance.

Daily Editorial Analysis 3 December 2025

December 3, 2025

The Dismal State of India’s Environment

Context

From the degrading ridges of the Aravalli range to the hazardous smog of the National Capital Region and the alarming spread of groundwater contamination across northern states, a web of interconnected ecological emergencies is unfolding.
While each of these developments may appear geographically and thematically distinct, together they paint a picture of systematic neglect and exploitation of the nation’s ecological foundations.
Together, these developments reveal a pattern of regulatory dilution extractive policymaking that threatens both the environment and public health.

The Aravalli Crisis: A Symbol of Systemic Exploitation

The Aravalli range, stretching from Gujarat to Haryana, has served for millennia as a natural barrier against desertification, a cradle of biodiversity, and a foundation of cultural history.
Yet illegal mining has already stripped large sections of these ancient hills.
The recent decision to exclude elevations below 100 metres from mining protections effectively provides a licence to destroy nearly 90% of the range, inviting further degradation.
This move prioritises short-term commercial extraction over long-term ecological stability, threatening to accelerate desertification and undermine regional climate resilience.

Air Pollution and Public Health: A Slow-Motion Emergency

Northern India continues to face one of the world’s most severe air-quality crises, with Delhi entering its annual smog season marked by dense clouds of particulate matter, dust, and toxic emissions.
This recurrent haze has evolved into a full-scale public health emergency, with estimates of up to 34,000 pollution-related deaths annually in just ten major cities.
Despite this, air-quality initiatives remain underfunded, inconsistently implemented, and administratively fragmented, reflecting a failure to treat air pollution as the urgent national crisis that it is.

Groundwater Contamination: An Emerging Catastrophe

Groundwater assessments have revealed dangerously high uranium levels in significant portions of Delhi, Punjab, and Haryana’s water supplies.
Chronic exposure to uranium can cause serious kidney damage, developmental issues, and long-term cancer risks.
The presence of such contaminants signals deep failures in water monitoring, aquifer protection, and environmental oversight.
This is not an isolated concern but part of a widening pattern of soil degradation, unchecked borewell drilling, and regulatory inertia.

Policy Dilution and Regulatory Weakening

A decade of legislative and executive decisions has contributed to the erosion of India’s environmental safeguards. Key examples include:
- The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, which created expansive exemptions from forest clearances.
- The Draft EIA Notification 2020, which sought to reduce public scrutiny, expand exemptions, and weaken compliance requirements.
- The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2018, which relaxed construction restrictions in sensitive coastal ecosystems.
These measures collectively represent a sustained weakening of transparency, accountability, and precaution, enabling large-scale diversion of natural resources.
Parallel to this regulatory dilution, political funding patterns have raised concerns about environmental policymaking being influenced by corporate interests, further undermining public trust.

Marginalising Communities: A Counterproductive Approach

Local and indigenous communities, historically central to ecological stewardship, have increasingly been portrayed as obstacles to conservation.
Authorities have attributed forest loss to the implementation of community rights, despite evidence that forests managed by indigenous groups are often more resilient.
Proposals such as the eviction of 65,000 families from tiger reserves contradict the principle that relocations must be voluntary and mutually beneficial.
This adversarial approach weakens conservation outcomes while eroding the rights and knowledge systems of forest-dependent communities.

The Way Forward: Toward a New Environmental Compact

A sustainable path forward requires a comprehensive reorientation of environmental governance.
First, India must resolve to halt ongoing ecological destruction.
- This includes stopping large-scale deforestation in Great Nicobar, Hasdeo Aranya, and the Himalayan belt, and launching strong crackdowns on illegal mining and unregulated development in eco-sensitive regions.
Second, environmental laws weakened in recent years must be reviewed and, where necessary, reversed.
- Post-facto environmental clearances should be discontinued, and institutions like the National Green Tribunal must be restored to full capacity and independence.
Third, environmental management must operate through cooperative federalism, particularly on issues such as air pollution and groundwater contamination that cross state boundaries.

Conclusion

India’s deepening environmental crises arise not from natural inevitabilities but from policy choices that undervalue ecological security.
Protecting the nation's future requires an environmental philosophy grounded in the rule of law, partnership with local communities, and recognition of the inextricable link between ecological health and human development.
Only through such a transformative approach can India build a safer, more resilient, and more equitable future.

The Dismal State of India’s Environment FAQs

Q1. Why is the Aravalli range considered ecologically important?
Ans. The Aravalli range is ecologically important because it prevents desertification, supports biodiversity, and stabilises the regional climate.

Q2. What makes air pollution in northern India a public health emergency?
Ans. It is a public health emergency because toxic smog causes thousands of premature deaths every year.

Q3. What did recent groundwater studies reveal in Delhi, Punjab, and Haryana?
Ans. Recent studies revealed dangerously high levels of uranium in groundwater across these regions.

Q4. How have environmental regulations been weakened in recent years?
Ans. Environmental regulations have been weakened through amendments and notifications that expand exemptions, reduce oversight, and limit public participation.

Q5. What approach is needed to restore environmental governance in India?
Ans. India needs a cooperative, law-based approach that protects ecosystems, empowers local communities, and reverses harmful policy changes.

Source: The Hindu

A Template for Security Cooperation in the Indian Ocean

Context

The convening of the 7th National Security Advisor–level summit of the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC) on November 20, 2025, marked a pivotal moment in the security landscape of the Indian Ocean.
Hosted by India and chaired by National Security Adviser Ajit Doval, the summit gathered senior representatives from Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Mauritius, Bangladesh, Seychelles, and Malaysia.
The meeting underscored the CSC’s growing relevance as a regional security forum committed to cooperative approaches within a strategically vital maritime space.

Origins and Reinvigoration of the CSC

Formed in 2011 as a trilateral grouping between India, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, the CSC initially struggled to sustain momentum due to political changes and limited convergence on security priorities.
Its revival in 2020 represented a turning point, expanding its scope across maritime security, counterterrorism, trafficking and organised crime, and cybersecurity.
Subsequent membership growth, Mauritius in 2022, Bangladesh in 2024, and Seychelles in 2025, reflected increasing regional confidence in the Conclave’s purpose.
This expansion has gradually transformed the CSC into one of the most active security-focused mechanisms in the Indian Ocean.

A Region in Flux: The Geopolitical Backdrop

The 2025 summit occurred amid significant shifts in the Indo-Pacific’s maritime and security frameworks, marked by fragmented institutions and intensifying great-power competition.
In this context, the CSC stands out as a regionally anchored platform capable of addressing shared vulnerabilities.
For India, the Conclave serves as an essential tool to stabilise its maritime neighbourhood and enhance coordination at a time when the geopolitical balance is being reshaped by increased Chinese activity in the Indian Ocean.
The CSC’s focus on non-traditional security challenges, including illegal fishing, drug trafficking, and maritime terrorism, positions it as a uniquely adaptive body suited to the region’s emerging needs.

The Development–Security Nexus

For many littoral states, security concerns are inseparable from developmental priorities.
Dependence on the ocean for trade, fisheries, and economic growth means that maritime threats directly affect national resilience.
Issues such as trafficking networks, marine environmental degradation, and climate-driven disruptions carry heavy developmental consequences.
Strengthening maritime surveillance, enhancing domain awareness, and improving emergency response capabilities allow CSC members to pursue security and development goals simultaneously.
This dual focus strengthens the rationale for deeper cooperation and helps smaller states translate security gains into economic opportunities.

Key Outcomes and Strategic Significance of the 2025 Summit

First, the accession of Seychelles as a full member signalled deepening regional commitment to the CSC’s mandate.
Second, India leveraged the summit to consolidate ties with maritime neighbours amid heightened geostrategic uncertainty.
Third, the meeting demonstrated that security cooperation is emerging as a central pillar of regional integration, particularly for addressing transnational maritime challenges.
Finally, Malaysia’s participation as a guest opened possibilities for future expansion, suggesting that the CSC may evolve into a broader Indian Ocean security platform.

Enduring Challenges: Divergent Perceptions and Institutional Weakness

Despite these gains, the CSC faces key challenges. The most prominent relates to divergent perceptions of China.
India views China’s expanding presence as a strategic concern, whereas many CSC members rely on Beijing as a vital economic partner and therefore do not frame China as a security threat.
Managing this divergence will be essential for maintaining a cohesive agenda.
A second challenge stems from the Conclave’s limited institutional structure.
Operating primarily at the National Security Adviser level, the CSC lacks dedicated permanent bodies capable of ensuring continuity, policy alignment, and systematic implementation.
Institutionalising working groups, standard procedures, and long-term cooperation mechanisms will be critical for sustained effectiveness.
A third concern arises from domestic uncertainties in member-states, particularly Bangladesh. Political volatility could affect policy consistency and weaken the group’s resilience.

Conclusion

The CSC has emerged as a promising and increasingly influential forum for enhancing security cooperation in the Indian Ocean.
Its expanding membership, focus on non-traditional threats, and growing strategic relevance highlight its potential to address shared regional challenges.
Its future success, however, depends on achieving greater cohesion, institutional resilience, and balanced threat perceptions.
With sustained commitment, the CSC can evolve into a foundational pillar of security cooperation in an Indo-Pacific region undergoing rapid transformation.

A Template for Security Cooperation in the Indian Ocean FAQs

Q1. Why was the 2025 CSC summit significant for the Indian Ocean region?
Ans. The 2025 CSC summit was significant because it strengthened regional cooperation at a time of major geopolitical shifts in the Indian Ocean.

Q2. Which new country joined the CSC as a full member in 2025?
Ans. Seychelles joined the CSC as a full member in 2025.

Q3. What major concern shapes India’s approach within the CSC?
Ans. India’s approach is shaped by concerns over China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean.

Q4. Why are maritime security and development linked for CSC member-states?
Ans. They are linked because many member-states depend on the ocean for trade, livelihoods, and economic growth.

Q5. What institutional challenge does the CSC currently face?
Ans. The CSC faces the challenge of lacking permanent institutional structures to ensure long-term policy coordination.

Source: The Hindu

Haemophilia and the RPwD Act - Bridging the Gap Between Recognition and Entitlements

Context

The Supreme Court has issued a notice to the Central Government on a petition demanding explicit recognition of haemophilia under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016 (RPwD Act).
Despite being already listed within the Act’s 21 recognised disabilities, individuals with haemophilia continue to be denied reservation, educational support, and welfare entitlements.
The case highlights a deeper structural gap between legal recognition and actual inclusion in India’s disability rights regime.

Evolution of Disability Law in India - From the 1995 Act to the 2016 RPwD Act

Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995
- It was enacted after India signed the “Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equality of People with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region”.
- Governed by a medicalised view of disability, it recognised only 7 disabilities.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016
- It was introduced after India ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) in 2007.
- Major reforms:
  - Shift from medical model to socio-medical model of disability.
  - Expansion from 7 to 21
  - Introduction of a rights-based framework ensuring equality, dignity, autonomy, and participation.

Scope of Disabilities under RPwD Act, 2016

Sensory and physical disabilities: Blindness, low vision, hearing impairment, locomotor disability, acid attack victims, dwarfism, cerebral palsy, leprosy-cured persons, speech and language disability.
Intellectual and psychosocial disabilities: Intellectual disability, mental illness, autism spectrum disorder, specific learning disabilities.
Neurological and neuromuscular conditions: Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, muscular dystrophy, chronic neurological disorders.
Blood-related and multiple disabilities:
- Thalassaemia, haemophilia, sickle cell disease, multiple disabilities including deafblindness.
- Despite this explicit statutory recognition, haemophilia patients continue to face exclusion from benefits.

Rights vs. Entitlements - The Core Problem

Rights available to all PwDs
- Equality and non-discrimination
- Protection from abuse/violence
- Right to live in the community
- Inclusive education
- Accessible voting
- Access to justice
Entitlements limited only to benchmark disabilities (40% or more of a specified disability)
- 5% reservation in higher education
- 4% reservation in government jobs
- Free education (6–18 years)
But, the 4% job reservation applies only to five specific categories, excluding haemophilia and similar conditions. These categories largely mirror the old 7 disabilities of the 1995 Act.

Structural Issues and Ongoing Exclusion

Visible vs invisible disabilities: Reservation prioritises disabilities that are outwardly visible. Conditions like haemophilia, sickle cell disease, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy remain excluded despite severe functional limitations.
Legacy of the 1995 law: The reservation matrix still reflects the 1995 Act’s narrow categories, undermining the expanded intent of the 2016 law.
Double disadvantage in employment: Persons with omitted disabilities face no reservation benefits, and rejection as “medically unfit” in open competition, resulting in systemic exclusion from employment.

Why the Haemophilia Litigation Matters

The case reveals a design flaw in India’s disability rights architecture - despite such explicit statutory recognition, persons with rare blood disorders continue to face exclusion.
The petition challenges the structural mismatch between - expanded disability recognition vs. static entitlements and reservation categories.
A favourable verdict could -
- Extend employment/education entitlements to blood-disorder patients
- Realign the RPwD Act with its rights-based intent
- Strengthen social justice, equality, and non-discrimination principles

Challenges

Inadequate implementation of the expanded disability list: Despite legal recognition, institutional frameworks still follow legacy categories.
Lack of awareness among authorities: Recruiting bodies and education authorities hesitate to classify haemophilia patients as eligible for benefits.
Medical fitness norms: Rigid medical standards often invalidate applications from persons with blood disorders.
Absence of updated reservation guidelines: The reservation matrix has not evolved with the expanded definitions in the 2016 Act.
Social barriers and stigma: Stereotypes about “invisible” conditions limit societal and institutional acceptance.

Way Forward

Update reservation categories: Revise Schedule 1 and job quota notifications to ensure all 21 disabilities, including haemophilia, fall under affirmative action schemes.
Alignment with UNCRPD principles: Policies must foreground accessibility, reasonable accommodation, dignity, and participation.
Sensitisation of recruiting agencies (e.g., UPSC, SSC): Clear instructions on recognising benchmark disabilities across all categories.
Standardised medical assessment: Ensure uniform guidelines to evaluate haemophilia and other rare disorders for benchmark disability certificates.
Strengthen monitoring mechanisms: Empower the Chief Commissioner for PwDs and State Commissioners to ensure compliance.

Conclusion

The haemophilia case exposes a critical gap in India’s disability governance: recognition without entitlement undermines true inclusion.
The RPwD Act’s progressive rights-based vision remains incomplete unless all disabilities—visible or invisible—receive equal access to employment, education, and social protection.
Addressing the structural misalignment between the law’s intent and its implementation is essential for realising constitutional guarantees of equality, dignity, and social justice for persons with disabilities.

Haemophilia and the RPwD Act FAQs

Q1. Why is the petition for including haemophilia under the RPwD Act significant?

Ans. Because haemophilia patients face exclusion from reservation and welfare entitlements.

Q2. How did the RPwD Act, 2016 transform India’s disability rights framework compared to the 1995 Act?

Ans. It expanded recognised disabilities from 7 to 21, adopted a socio-medical model, and introduced a rights-based, UNCRPD-aligned approach.

Q3. What structural flaw in the reservation framework does the haemophilia case highlight?

Ans. The reservation categories still mirror the old 1995 Act’s narrow disability list, excluding several legally recognised disabilities.

Q4. Why do persons with “invisible disabilities” like haemophilia face systematic exclusion from employment?

Ans. They are excluded from PwBD reservations and simultaneously often deemed “medically unfit,” leading to a double disadvantage.

Q5. What core issue does the SC’s intervention seek to address in the RPwD framework?

Ans. Ensuring that recognition under the Act is matched by entitlements, thereby translating the rights-based intent of the law into real, enforceable inclusion.

Source: IE

Daily Editorial Analysis 3 December 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Challenges Faced By the PM Internship Scheme – Explained

December 3, 2025

PM Internship Scheme Latest News

The Prime Minister’s Internship Scheme has come under scrutiny after government data revealed that only one in five selected candidates accepted the internship offer, and 20% of those who joined quit before completing the programme.

Overview of the PM Internship Scheme

The Prime Minister’s Internship Scheme is a government initiative aimed at providing young graduates with hands-on exposure to the functioning of Central Ministries, Departments, and public sector institutions.
The scheme is designed to help students understand policy implementation, administrative processes, and grassroots governance.
Interns are selected through a national-level application process that assesses academic merit, motivation, and interest in public policy.
They are placed in various government offices to work on research, data analysis, field studies, project tracking, and documentation tasks.
The scheme offers a stipend and a structured internship duration, though it does not guarantee a government job.

Key Findings: Low Acceptance and Premature Dropouts

Recent data shows that only 20% of shortlisted candidates actually accepted the offer, despite rigorous screening and shortlisting processes.
Even more concerning is that around 20% of those who joined exited early, signalling deeper structural issues.
Possible Reasons for Low Offer Acceptance
- Low Stipend or Financial Constraints: Many candidates felt the stipend did not sufficiently cover relocation and living expenses in major cities.
- Better Private Sector Opportunities: Graduates often receive higher-paying corporate offers, reducing the attractiveness of government internships.
- Limited Career Pathway: The internship does not guarantee government employment, making it less appealing for students seeking stable career prospects.
- Geographical Mismatch: Many postings required interns to work in distant states or field settings.
Reasons for Early Dropouts
- Mismatch between job expectations and actual tasks
- Lack of mentorship or structured learning
- Limited exposure to decision-making processes
- Logistical and accommodation difficulties
These issues collectively hinder the scheme’s objective of building youth capacity in public governance.

Government Response and Planned Improvements

The government has acknowledged these challenges and is evaluating ways to improve the scheme. Proposed measures include:
Enhancing Stipend Support
- There are discussions about revised stipends, especially for postings in Tier-1 cities where expenses are higher.
Better Orientation and Mentorship
- A more robust orientation module and structured mentorship framework are being considered to ensure interns gain meaningful exposure.
Improved Matching Between Interns and Departments
- The government aims to streamline the process so interns are placed in departments aligned with their academic background and career interests.
Strengthening Monitoring Mechanisms
- Digital tracking of intern performance, attendance, and learning milestones could offer more accountability and clarity.
Exploring Hybrid or Remote Internship Models
- To widen participation, hybrid internship models, allowing remote work for certain tasks, may be evaluated.
These reforms could potentially make the internship more attractive and reduce early dropout rates.

Broader Significance: Youth Engagement in Governance

Internships in public administration play a crucial role in strengthening democratic participation.
With India's vast demographic dividend, where over 65% of the population is below 35 years, programmes like the PM Internship Scheme can bridge the gap between young citizens and the institutional processes that shape policy.
A more successful internship model can benefit the government by:
- Creating a pipeline of trained young professionals
- Encouraging innovative thinking and technological adoption in ministries
- Enhancing citizen-centric governance
- Improving transparency through data-driven interns’ work
For youth, the benefits include exposure to real-world challenges, development of policy skills, and insights into governance mechanisms.

Challenges Ahead

Despite its goals, the scheme faces systemic challenges:
- Perceptions of limited growth opportunities
- Competition from private sector internships
- Difficulty attracting talent from rural or low-income backgrounds
- Need for structured learning outcomes and certifications
Unless these concerns are addressed comprehensively, the scheme may continue to face participation constraints.

Source: TH | PIB

PM Internship Scheme FAQs

Q1: What is the PM Internship Scheme?

Ans: It is a government initiative offering young graduates exposure to governance and public administration through internships in Central Ministries and Departments.

Q2: What percentage of selected candidates accepted the internship offer?

Ans: Only about 20% of shortlisted candidates accepted the offer.

Q3: How many interns left the programme early?

Ans: Around 20% of those who joined quit before completion.

Q4: What are the main reasons interns declined or left early?

Ans: Low stipend, better private opportunities, lack of mentorship, and logistical challenges.

Q5: How does the government plan to improve the scheme?

Ans: By enhancing stipends, improving mentorship, refining placement processes, and exploring hybrid internship models.

List of Anglo-Sikh Wars, History, Series of Event, Aftermath

December 3, 2025

The Anglo-Sikh Wars were two significant battles fought between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company in the mid-19th century. These wars led to the fall of the Sikh Empire and British control over Punjab. The First Anglo-Sikh War happened in 1845 whereas the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848. The fall of the Sikh Empire marked the end of one of the last major independent Indian states before the Revolt of 1857.

Anglo-Sikh Wars

In the early 19th century, the British East India Company aimed to extend its dominance over Punjab, a region governed by the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. However, after Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, internal conflicts and political instability weakened the empire. Utilising this opportunity, the Britishers increased their influence, escalating tensions that eventually led to open conflict. The Anglo-Sikh Wars, fought between 1845-1849, resulted in British control over the Sikh Empire, reshaping the political landscape of the region.

First Anglo-Sikh War

In the between 1845-1846, Maharaja Ranjit Singh expanded and consolidated the Sikh kingdom of Punjab, creating a powerful buffer state as British-controlled territories steadily advanced toward Punjab’s frontiers. To maintain balance, he pursued a cautious alliance with the British, even ceding territories south of the Sutlej River.

Ranjit Singh modernized his army by including Hindu and Muslim contingents and employing European and American officers to train Sikh forces on modern lines. While the British viewed this with suspicion, the deeper causes of conflict were more complex.

First Anglo-Sikh War Course

The British began with around 20,000-30,000 soldiers, while the Sikh army, under Lal Singh and Teja Singh, fielded nearly 50,000 troops. Despite their numerical advantage, the treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh weakened Sikh resistance. Major Battles includes:

Battle of Mudki (18 December 1845): The British won despite strong Sikh resistance.
Battle of Ferozeshah (21-22 December 1845): A battle where the British barely managed to secure victory.
Battle of Baddowal ( 21 January 1846):Ranjodh Singh Majithia led the battle and burned a portion of British cantonment.
Battle of Aliwal (28 January 1846): The British gained the upper hand by defeating the Sikh army.
Battle of Sobraon (10 February 1846): This decisive battle led to the end of the First Anglo-Sikh War.

First Anglo-Sikh War Treaty

Treaty of Lahore (8 March 1846): The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore, which imposed humiliating terms on the Sikhs. The strength of the Sikh army was reduced, and political control shifted to the British. Maharaja Duleep Singh was proclaimed ruler, with Rani Jindan as regent and Lal Singh as wazir. Since the Sikhs could not pay the full war indemnity, Kashmir (including Jammu) was transferred to Gulab Singh, who agreed to pay the Company ₹75 lakhs.

Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846): A follow-up treaty formally ceded Kashmir to Gulab Singh, establishing him as the independent ruler of Jammu and Kashmir.

Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846): Dissatisfaction over the Kashmir settlement led to Sikh unrest. The Treaty of Bhairowal removed Rani Jindan from the regency. A Council of Regency, composed of eight Sikh sardars, was set up to govern Punjab under the supervision of Henry Lawrence, the British Resident

Second Anglo-Sikh War

Rising tensions between the British and the Sikhs following the Treaty of Lahore led to the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848. The treaty had significantly weakened the Sikh Empire by territorial losses and a weakened Sikh military. This led to uprisings in regions like Multan and Hazara, where the killing of two British officers escalated tensions into a full-scale conflict.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Course

Lord Dalhousie personally supervised the campaign in Punjab. The war was marked by three major battles that decided the fate of the Sikh kingdom:

Battle of Ramnagar (22 November 1848): The first clash took place at Ramnagar under Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander-in-chief. The battle ended inconclusively, with neither side gaining a decisive advantage.

Battle of Chillianwala (13 January 1849): The second major engagement occurred at Chillianwala. It was one of the bloodiest encounters of the Anglo-Sikh wars, with heavy losses on both sides. Although the British claimed success, the outcome was far from clear, and the Sikhs fought with great determination.
Battle of Gujarat (21 February 1849): The battle was fought near Gujarat, close to the Chenab River. The Sikh army suffered a crushing defeat. Their Afghan allies were expelled from India, and the Sikh resistance collapsed soon after.

Meanwhile, at Multan, the British secured victory after a long siege. Mulraj surrendered in January 1849, marking the end of his rebellion. Following the defeat at Gujarat, Sikh commanders like Sher Singh and Chattar Singh surrendered in March 1849.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Impact

The annexation of Punjab was formally completed in March 1849, following the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Under the terms imposed by Lord Dalhousie, the young Maharaja Duleep Singh, only eleven years old at the time, was deposed and later sent to England on a pension. His mother, Rani Jindan (Jind Kaur), was forcibly separated from him, confined at Firozpur, and stripped of her wealth and allowances.

To administer the newly acquired province, Sir John Lawrence was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab. His tenure laid the foundation of British rule in the region, combining military control with administrative reorganisation. In recognition of his role in the conquest, Dalhousie was elevated to the rank of Marquis.

One of the most symbolic spoils of conquest was the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which the British appropriated. Originally part of the Sikh royal treasury, Maharaja Ranjit Singh had expressed in his will that the gem should be donated to the Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha. The British ignored this wish and instead claimed the diamond under the Treaty of Lahore (1849), transferring it to the British Crown.

Anglo-Sikh Wars Impact

The Anglo-Sikh Wars significantly shaped India’s history, leaving lasting political and social effects.

The wars led to the downfall of the Sikh Empire, bringing Punjab under British control.
The annexation of Punjab further strengthened British dominance in India.
The British administration introduced new policies, impacting governance, military structure, and society in Punjab.
The conflicts played a key role in shaping Sikh consciousness and promoting a spirit of resistance.
The Sikh defeat served as a reminder of colonial oppression, inspiring future uprisings against British rule.

Anglo-Sikh Wars FAQs

Q1: How many Anglo-Sikh wars are there?

Ans: There were two Anglo-Sikh Wars: the First (1845–1846) and the Second (1848–1849), both leading to the British annexation of Punjab and the fall of the Sikh Empire.

Q2: Who won the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war?

Ans: The British East India Company won the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849), defeating the Sikh forces and annexing Punjab, marking the complete end of Sikh sovereignty in India.

Q3: Who was the bravest Sikh warrior?

Ans: Hari Singh Nalwa (1791–1837), chief commander of the Sikh Khalsa Fauj, is renowned for leading conquests in Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar, and Jamrud.

Q4: Who led First Anglo-Sikh War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) was led by Governor-General Sir Henry Hardinge and Sir Hugh Gough for the British, while Lal Singh and Tej Singh led the Sikhs.

Q5: Which Treaty ended the First Anglo-Sikh War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore, signed on March 9, 1846.

Why WhatsApp Web Will Auto-Logout Every 6 Hours: DoT’s New SIM-Binding Rule Explained

December 3, 2025

SIM-Binding Rule Latest News

A new DoT directive requires messaging platforms such as WhatsApp, Signal, and Telegram to ensure that users can access their accounts only when the original registered SIM card is present in the phone.
As a result, linked services like WhatsApp Web will now auto-log out every six hours.
The government argues this move will curb digital fraud. However, tech companies warn it may undermine user privacy, create problems for users travelling abroad, and add friction when using apps across multiple devices.
Telecom operators, meanwhile, support the directive, creating a fresh flashpoint between telcos and tech firms.

New Regulations Under the Telecom Cybersecurity Rules, 2025

The government is enforcing new powers under the Telecommunication Cybersecurity Amendment Rules, 2025, which introduced a new regulatory category: Telecommunication Identifier User Entity (TIUE).
TIUEs include any platforms that use mobile numbers to identify users — not just telecom operators.

Mandatory SIM Binding for Messaging Apps

Platforms must now ensure that their services are continuously linked to the SIM card used during registration.
This means:
- Users cannot access the app without the original SIM being present in the device.
- All related web services (like WhatsApp Web) must auto-log out every six hours.
This SIM-binding requirement must be implemented within 90 days, and companies must submit a compliance report within four months.

Shift From OTP Verification to IMSI-Based Authentication

Currently, platforms verify identities via OTP sent to mobile numbers.
Under the new rules, they must begin verifying users by accessing the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) — a globally unique number stored on the SIM card.
This represents a significant architectural change in how platforms authenticate users.

Impact on Global Platforms Like WhatsApp

For WhatsApp — with billions of global users and over 500 million in India — complying with India-specific SIM-binding rules will require major re-engineering, since such requirements do not exist in other countries.

Why the Government Wants SIM Binding

The government argues that cybercriminals exploit messaging apps like WhatsApp without keeping the registered SIM in the device, making it difficult to trace fraud.
According to the DoT, some communication apps let users operate accounts even when the SIM linked to registration is absent, enabling misuse from outside India for cyber-frauds.
SIM binding, it says, is necessary to strengthen telecom cybersecurity and improve the ability to track malicious actors.

Telecom Industry’s Initial Support for SIM Binding

When the cybersecurity rules were first proposed, telecom operators supported SIM binding.
The Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI) argued that apps currently bind to a SIM only during initial verification, after which they continue functioning even if the SIM is removed — a loophole they believed enabled misuse.

New Practical Concerns Raised by Telecom Companies

Despite their earlier support, telecom representatives are now highlighting challenges in the DoT’s final directive.

Problems for International Travelers

Users who travel abroad often use foreign SIM cards while continuing to access WhatsApp or other apps without re-registration.
The new rule would block access unless the original SIM is present, creating significant inconvenience for frequent travellers.

Disruption to Professional Workflows

The requirement to log out secondary devices like WhatsApp Web every six hours adds friction:
- Many professionals rely on web access during work hours.
- Some workflows require using messaging apps without having the phone nearby.
This could hamper productivity and daily operations.

Questions About Effectiveness Against Fraud

Industry representatives also point out that:
- Many scammers use illegally obtained SIM cards, often registered with forged or mule identities.
- SIM binding may not effectively curb fraud if the underlying issue of fraudulent SIM issuance remains unaddressed.

Source: IE

SIM-Binding Rule FAQs

Q1: What does the new DoT directive require?

Ans: Messaging apps must continuously verify that the original registered SIM is present in the device, enforcing SIM binding and periodic logout from web sessions.

Q2: Why will WhatsApp Web now auto-log out?

Ans: Under SIM-binding rules, apps must end companion web sessions every six hours to ensure the service remains tied to the active SIM used during registration.

Q3: Why does the government want SIM binding?

Ans: DoT says cybercriminals misuse apps without the registered SIM, often from abroad, making fraud harder to trace. SIM binding aims to strengthen telecom cybersecurity.

Q4: What challenges does this create for users?

Ans: Frequent travellers, multi-device users, and professionals relying on WhatsApp Web may face interruptions, reduced convenience, and added friction in daily workflows.

Q5: Will SIM binding reduce digital fraud?

Ans: Experts say effectiveness is uncertain because many fraudsters use illegally obtained SIMs. Without fixing identity verification gaps, SIM binding may offer limited benefit.

Sanchar Saathi App: Features, Mandate, Privacy Issues & Govt Rules Explained

December 3, 2025

Sanchar Saathi Latest News

The Centre has directed smartphone manufacturers to preinstall the government-developed Sanchar Saathi app on all new devices and push it via software updates to existing phones.
The app allows users to report fraudulent calls, scam messages, and stolen mobile phones. Importantly, the government has asked that the app cannot be deleted by users.
Earlier, the DoT told companies that the app must be non-deletable, non-restrictable, and non-disableable, raising concerns about privacy and forced compliance.
Later, the Telecom Minister clarified that Sanchar Saathi is not mandatory and users may delete it if they wish.

About Sanchar Saathi

Sanchar Saathi is an optional mobile app and website developed by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT).
It aims to empower mobile users, enhance security, and raise awareness about government initiatives.
The platform provides multiple citizen-focused services, along with updates and educational material on telecom, cybersecurity, and end-user protection.

Key Services Offered by Sanchar Saathi

Sanchar Saathi provides a range of tools to strengthen user security, prevent fraud, and help track stolen devices.

Chakshu: Reporting Suspected Fraud Communication

Chakshu allows users to report suspicious calls, SMS, WhatsApp messages, or other communications linked to:
- Impersonation of DoT, TRAI, police, or government officials
- Investment or trading scams
- Fake KYC or payment-related messages from banks, utilities, or insurance
- Malicious links, phishing attempts, unverified APKs, and device-cloning attempts
Chakshu cannot be used to file cybercrime complaints.
Users may also report spam or Unsolicited Commercial Communication (UCC), which is addressed under The Telecom Commercial Communication Customer Preference Regulation (TCCCPR), 2018 regulations of TRAI.

Block and Track Lost or Stolen Mobile Phones

Sanchar Saathi enables users to:
- Block a lost or stolen mobile device
- Trace the device when someone tries to use it
- Unblock it after recovery
The service uses the phone’s IMEI number, a unique 15-digit identifier stored by mobile networks.

Mandatory Phone-Number Registration

Registration using a mobile number is compulsory for using the app’s features.
The app states this is required to “identify the mobile number” linked to its services.
On Android phones, the app automatically detects the active phone number and sends a registration SMS to DoT without explicit user consent.
- This has raised major privacy concerns.

What Permissions Sanchar Saathi Seeks on Android

Send SMS - Enables the app to send the automatic registration SMS to DoT.
Call and SMS Logs - Allows reporting suspicious calls or messages through the app.
Photos and Files - Needed to upload screenshots of scam calls/SMS or documentation for lost/stolen phone reporting.
Camera Access - Used to scan a phone’s IMEI barcode to verify device authenticity.

Legal Basis for Mandating Sanchar Saathi

The government’s directive relies on expanded powers under the Telecommunications Act, 2023 and the amended Telecom Cyber Security (TCS) Rules, 2024.
- TCS rules were amended in 2025.
While DoT had earlier assured that its mandate would remain limited to telecom operators, the November 2025 amendment broadened the scope significantly.

Expanded Definition: Who Falls Under DoT’s Authority Now

The amendment introduced the term Telecommunication Identifier User Entity (TIUE) — covering any entity that uses a phone number to identify users.
This includes:
- Smartphone manufacturers
- Messaging platforms like WhatsApp
- Apps requiring phone-number verification
Under this broadened definition, DoT:
- Mandated WhatsApp and other platforms to auto-log-out web sessions every six hours
- Required WhatsApp accounts to stop working if used on devices without the registered SIM
The Sanchar Saathi pre-installation mandate arises from this expanded rule set.

Constitutional Concerns and Right to Privacy

Experts warn that forced installation and a ban on uninstalling the app may face constitutional scrutiny.
- Smartphone makers warn that complying with the mandate may require deep OS-level changes, potentially weakening device security.
- Concerns are amplified because:
  - Sanchar Saathi is government-backed, and state agencies receive broad exemptions under India's Data Protection Act.
  - Critics fear this could give the Centre greater control over digital ecosystems and expand state surveillance capabilities.
Experts noted:
- The Puttaswamy judgment protects the right to privacy.
- State-mandated apps must meet tests of legality, necessity, proportionality, and least intrusive means.
- Aadhaar survived scrutiny partly because it was categorised as voluntary at the time.
By making Sanchar Saathi pre-installed and uninstallable, the mandate shifts from a voluntary security tool to compelled compliance, raising privacy concerns.

Source: IE | TH | IE

Sanchar Saathi FAQs

Q1: What is the Sanchar Saathi app?

Ans: Sanchar Saathi is a DoT-developed platform offering tools to report fraud calls, scam messages, spam, and block or trace lost phones using IMEI-based services.

Q2: What services does Sanchar Saathi provide?

Ans: It enables reporting suspicious communications via Chakshu, tracking stolen phones, blocking devices nationwide, viewing mobile connections, and accessing telecom security awareness material.

Q3: Why was Sanchar Saathi mandated for pre-installation?

Ans: DoT used expanded powers under the Telecom Act and Cybersecurity Rules to require preinstallation, arguing it improves user security and combats rising digital fraud.

Q4: What privacy concerns have been raised?

Ans: Critics warn the app’s non-removable mandate, auto-registration and access to call/SMS logs, files, and camera could enable surveillance and violate privacy principles under Puttaswamy.

Q5: What permissions does the app access?

Ans: On Android, it requests SMS, call logs, photos, files, and camera access. On iOS, only limited permissions are allowed due to Apple’s stricter privacy guardrails.

Chambal River

December 3, 2025

Chambal River Latest News

Efforts to reclaim degraded land from Chambal ravines expose both people and biodiversity to ecological risks from erosion and flooding.

About Chambal River

The Chambal River, called Charmanvati in ancient times, is one of the major tributaries of the Yamuna River.
Located in Central India, the river forms part of the greater Gangetic drainage system.
It is known for its clear and pristine waters, and it is also one of the cleanest rivers in India.
Course:
- It is a perennial river and has its source in Janapav, located to the south of Mhow Town close to Indore on the southern sides of the Vindhya Mountain Range in Madhya Pradesh.
- The river flows north-northeast through Madhya Pradesh, running for a time through Rajasthan, then forming the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh before turning southeast to join the Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh.
- It flows through three Indian states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
- It is the largest of the rivers flowing through Rajasthan.
- Total Length: 1024 kilometres
Drainage:
- To its south, east, and west, the basin is defined by the Vindhyan mountain ranges, while the northwestern boundary is marked by the Aravalli range.
- The Chambal and its tributaries drain the Malwa region of northwestern Madhya Pradesh, while its tributary, the Banas, which rises in the Aravalli Range, drains southeastern Rajasthan.
Tributaries: The main tributaries of Chambal include the Banas and Mej rivers on the left and the Parbati, Kali Sindh, and Shipra rivers on the right.
Major Dams: Gandhi Sagar, Jawahar Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar, and Kota Barrage dams are built on this river.
Notable Landmark: Pachnada confluence in Uttar Pradesh, where it meets the Kwari, Yamuna, Sind, and Pahuj rivers.
National Chambal Sanctuary:
- Established in 1979, it covers 5400 sq.km. across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
- Known for protecting the critically endangered Gharial crocodile, along with other crocodile species, turtles, and diverse fish.
- A hotspot for birdwatching with over 300 bird species, including the endangered Indian Skimmer.

What is a Ravine?

It is a narrow valley with steep sides, usually caused by stream bank erosion.
Their slopes can be quite sharp, often between 20% and 70% in gradient.
Ravines are smaller than canyons and larger than gullies.

Source: DTE

Chambal River FAQs

Q1: Where does the Chambal River originate?

Ans: It has its source in Janapav, located to the south of Mhow Town close to Indore on the southern sides of the Vindhya Mountain Range in Madhya Pradesh.

Q2: The Chambal River is a major tributary of which river?

Ans: Yamuna

Q3: Chambal River flows through which Indian states?

Ans: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.

Q4: What is the total length of the Chambal River?

Ans: 1024 km

Cold Wave

December 3, 2025

Cold Wave Latest News

Higher than normal cold wave days are expected to impact parts of central India as well as some regions in northwest and northeast India, according to the India Meteorological Department (IMD).

About Cold Wave

Cold waves are unusual weather occurrences caused by extremely low temperatures in the near-surface atmosphere.
Their duration can range from several days to a few weeks, contingent upon the geography and climatic conditions of the region.
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines a cold wave as a rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours.
This is distinguished by a marked cooling of the air, or with the invasion of very cold air, over a large area.
As per IMD, a cold wave is considered when the minimum temperature of a station is 10°C or less for plains and 0°C or less for hilly regions.
- A cold wave and severe cold wave is considered a negative departure from normal i.e., 4.5°C to 6.4°C and more than 6.4°C in hill stations, respectively.
- Similarly, the departure in minimum temperature of ≤ 04°C and ≤ 02°C for plains is considered a cold wave and severe cold wave, respectively.
Cold waves are predominantly experienced during the period December-February, when minimum temperatures drop to very low levels, especially over the northern parts of India.
Health Risks:
- Exposure to extreme cold can lead to frostbite, hypothermia, and other cold-related illnesses.
- Non-freezing cold injuries, such as Immersion Foot—caused by prolonged exposure to cold, wet conditions—are also a risk.
- In extreme cases, cold exposure may result in fatalities if adequate precautions are not taken.

Source: HT

Cold Wave FAQs

Q1: What is a cold wave according to the India Meteorological Department (IMD)?

Ans: A rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours over a large area.

Q2: As per IMD, what minimum temperature qualifies as a cold wave in the plains?

Ans: 10°C or less

Q3: Cold waves are most commonly experienced in India during which months?

Ans: December–February

Q4: What indicates a severe cold wave in hilly regions?

Ans: Departure of minimum temperature ≥ 6.4°C from normal.

GLP-1 Drugs

December 3, 2025

GLP-1 Drugs Latest News

Recently, the World Health Organization has finally issued global guidelines on the use of popular GLP-1 drugs for weight loss.

About GLP-1 Drugs

The Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) or GLP-1 receptor agonists are synthetic drugs which are being used for the treatment of obesity in adults.
These drugs are mainly injectables, though oral versions are under development.
- Examples: Two leading GLP-1 drugs are: Semaglutide and Tirzepatide (by Eli Lilly)
Both have been introduced in India and are transforming obesity and diabetes treatment.

How Do GLP-1 Drugs Work?

These drugs act by:
- Increasing insulin secretion when glucose is high.
- Inhibiting glucagon release, reducing liver glucose output.
- Slowing gastric emptying, preventing sudden spikes in blood sugar.
- Suppressing appetite, making the person feel full sooner.

Key Facts about Glucagon-like peptide-1

GLP-1 is both an incretin hormone and a neurotransmitter.
It is a naturally occurring gut hormone (incretin) released after food intake.
It is secreted from the small intestine and from the hindbrain after we eat a meal.
It travels to the pancreas, where it helps to regulate our blood sugar by increasing insulin and decreasing glucagon.
It works for just a few minutes, so after you eat a meal and GLP-1 is secreted naturally, it gives an immediate effect that lasts maybe 30 minutes.
GLP-1 also has beneficial effects in many organs, such as the kidney, liver, and cardiovascular system.

Source: TH

GLP-1 Drugs FAQs

Q1: What is the primary use of GLP-1 drugs?

Ans: To manage type-2 diabetes and obesity

Q2: How do GLP-1 drugs work?

Ans: It works by suppressing glucagon and slowing stomach emptying.

COP30 Outcomes: Roadmap to End Deforestation

December 3, 2025

Deforestation Latest News

The 30th UN Climate Conference (COP30) in Belem, Brazil, ended with a political agreement, known as the Global Mutirao Agreement, that commits nations to prepare two major roadmaps: one to halt and reverse deforestation, and another to “transition away” from fossil fuels.
While the forest roadmap received broad support, the final text avoided binding commitments on fossil fuel phase-out, underscoring sharp geopolitical divisions.

Roadmap Focused on Ending Deforestation

The centrepiece of the conference was a strong political push to address global deforestation.
COP30 President announced a dedicated deforestation roadmap, which countries will develop over the coming year.
This aligns with host country Brazil’s emphasis that climate action must prioritise forest protection, biodiversity conservation, and indigenous rights.
The roadmap is expected to mobilise:
- Additional finance for forest conservation,
- Cross-border cooperation to curb illegal logging,
- Long-term strategies for restoring degraded landscapes,
- Support systems for forest and indigenous communities.
With COP30 held in the heart of the Amazon biome, the emphasis on forest protection carried both symbolic and strategic significance.

Fossil Fuels: The Most Divisive Issue at COP30

Demands for a Phase-Out
- Over 80 countries, including the EU and small island nations, pushed for explicit language requiring a phase-out of fossil fuels, the world’s largest source of greenhouse gas emissions.
- They sought a clear timeline and measurable commitments.
Resistance from Developing Nations
- Major developing economies, India, China, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa, opposed binding phase-out language. Their arguments included:
  - National energy needs and development priorities,
  - Concerns over inadequate climate finance,
  - Rejection of uniform global timelines that disregard domestic realities.
- India and several BRICS members insisted that energy transitions must be nationally determined, not externally imposed.
Outcome: A Non-Binding ‘Transition Away’ Roadmap
- As a compromise, COP30 adopted:
  - A broad commitment to “transition away from fossil fuels”, but
  - No timeline,
  - No mandatory reduction pathway, and
  - A separate voluntary roadmap, announced by the President, outside the formal COP text.
- This reflects a politically negotiated midpoint, with developing nations effectively shaping the narrative.

The Emerging Power Shift in Climate Diplomacy

A COP Without the United States
- For the first time in three decades, the United States did not send an official delegation.
- This absence dramatically changed the negotiation landscape, weakening the bargaining influence of developed countries.
BRICS’ Ascendance
- In the US vacuum, BRICS countries emerged as a decisive bloc. They influenced:
  - The removal of fossil phase-out language,
  - The insertion of flexibility for developing nations,
  - Greater focus on equity and economic justice,
  - Attention to trade-related climate barriers, such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).
- This marks a new era in climate governance, one where negotiating power is more distributed and multipolar.

Climate Finance: The Central Fault Line

Finance remained one of the most contentious issues at COP30.
A Two-Year Finance Work Programme
- Countries agreed to launch a two-year programme to address global climate finance needs, including:
  - Clearer methodologies for estimating finance gaps,
  - Strengthening transparency on financial flows,
  - Designing mechanisms for predictable and adequate funds.
Adaptation Finance Commitments
- COP30 highlighted the severe shortfall in adaptation finance and called for:
  - Tripling global adaptation finance by 2035,
  - Prioritising support to vulnerable nations.
Paris Agreement Article 9.1 Reaffirmed
- Developing countries secured a key recognition:
  - Under Article 9.1, developed countries have a mandatory obligation to provide climate finance to developing countries, not voluntary or negotiated.
- This acknowledgement was a major diplomatic win for the Global South.

Other Agreements Adopted Under the Global Mutirao

COP30 also adopted 10 thematic agreements, covering:
- Technology transfer,
- Loss and damage,
- Global Goal on Adaptation,
- Just energy transition and livelihood protection,
- Implementation and transparency frameworks.
These agreements will shape negotiations leading to COP31.

Significance of COP30

COP30 may not have delivered a dramatic breakthrough like a fossil fuel phase-out, but it represents an important political turning point.
It rebalanced global climate negotiations, giving developing nations a stronger voice.
It produced a realistic agreement centred on equity, rather than overly ambitious but unattainable targets.
It reinforced the importance of forests, particularly the Amazon, in stabilising global climate systems.
It highlighted deep divides on fossil fuels that will dominate future COP discussions.

Source: TH | IE

Deforestation FAQs

Q1: What roadmaps were announced at COP30?

Ans: Roadmaps to halt deforestation and pursue a voluntary fossil fuel transition.

Q2: Why did COP30 not include a fossil fuel phase-out?

Ans: Developing nations opposed binding timelines, citing national circumstances and inadequate finance.

Q3: What is the Global Mutirão agreement?

Ans: A political package addressing finance, adaptation, technology, and cooperation frameworks.

Q4: How did COP30 address climate finance?

Ans: By launching a two-year finance programme and calling for tripling adaptation finance by 2035.

Q5: Why is COP30 geopolitically significant?

Ans: The US absence enabled BRICS nations to shape the outcome, shifting negotiation power balances.

Bitra Island

December 3, 2025

Bitra Island Latest News

The Chief of Staff of the Southern Naval Command recently said the Navy is setting up a detachment in Bitra Island, which "is more or less completed".

About Bitra Island

It is located in the northern region of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.
It is the smallest inhabited island in the territory.
It has a land area of 0.105 sq.km.
It has a length of 0.57 km and a width of 0.28 km at the broadest point.
Though the land area is small, its lagoon area is 45.61 sq.km.
There is a small shrine of Malik Mulla, an old Arab saint who is said to have been buried here. The shrine is a place of pilgrimage for the people of other islands.
As per the 2011 census, the population of Bitra Island is 271.
Climate:
- The climate of Bitra is similar to the climatic conditions of Kerala. March to May is the hottest period of the year.
- The temperature ranges from 25°C to 35°C, and humidity ranges from 70 to 76 percent for most of the year.
It used to be covered by thick shrubs and was the breeding ground for seabirds. In the early 19th century the birds left the place due to human interference.
It is strategically important to India, as it lies in a key position in the Arabian Sea.
Bitra would become the third island in the archipelago with a defence establishment – two Indian naval bases in the archipelago are INS Dweeprakshak in Kavaratti, the capital of the UT, and INS Jatayu in Minicoy.

Source: NIE

Bitra Island FAQs

Q1: Where is Bitra Island located?

Ans: It is located in the northern region of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.

Q2: What is the land area of Bitra Island?

Ans: It has a land area of 0.105 sq.km.

Q3: Which saint’s shrine is located on Bitra Island?

Ans: Malik Mulla, an old Arab saint.

Q4: As per the 2011 Census, what is the population of Bitra Island?

Ans: 271

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 for UPSC Prelims & Mains

December 3, 2025

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 form an essential segment of the UPSC Civil Services Examination (CSE) syllabus. Current affairs include significant events and developments taking place in India and across the globe, covering multiple areas such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, and sports. This article presents a complete overview of UPSC Current Affairs for November 2025, useful for both Prelims and Mains preparation.

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 hold major importance for UPSC CSE aspirants. To support preparation, Vajiram and Ravi release the Monthly Current Affairs Magazine- The Recitals, along with Daily Prelims Pointers, Mains Articles, Editorial Analysis, and The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis Video. These materials compile verified and concise current affairs from trustworthy sources such as PIB, Yojana, Kurukshetra, The Hindu, Indian Express, Economic Times, and Down to Earth. The content is presented using text, infographics, tables, and charts, making it simpler for aspirants to understand and retain key topics.

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 for Prelims and Mains

The UPSC Current Affairs for November 2025 include Daily Prelims Pointers, Mains Articles, and Editorial Analysis carefully designed by subject experts. The content is updated daily on the official website and sourced primarily from The Hindu and The Indian Express. Prelims Pointers focus on fact-based, concise notes for objective-type questions, while Mains Articles help aspirants develop analytical and descriptive writing skills. Additionally, The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis Video offers detailed discussions on major news stories with accompanying handouts summarizing key takeaways in bullet form for quick revision.

UPSC Current Affairs November 2025

Every day, the platform publishes ten Prelims Pointers, four Mains Articles, and three Editorial Analysis covering all significant issues of the month. Aspirants can also access a Daily MCQ Quiz and The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis Video for consistent practice and conceptual clarity. Below is the complete schedule of links to Daily Prelims Pointers, Mains Articles, Editorial Analyses, and The Analyst Videos for November 2025:

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025
Date	Prelims Pointers	Mains Articles	Editorial Analysis	The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis Video
1 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
2 November 2025	Link	Link	To Be Updated	Link
3 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
4 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
5 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
6 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
7 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
8 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
9 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
10 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
11 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
12 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
13 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
14 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
15 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
16 November 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
17 November 2025	To Be Updated	Link	Link	To Be Updated
18 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
19 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
20 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
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22 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
23 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
24 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
25 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
26 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
27 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
28 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
29 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated
30 November 2025	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated	To Be Updated

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 Importance

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 continue to be the backbone of the UPSC CSE Syllabus, reflecting major developments and issues in India and the world. Covering multiple fields such as polity, economy, society, environment, and science, the UPSC Current Affairs for November 2025 help aspirants build analytical insight, strengthen conceptual understanding, and stay updated with real-world issues, key attributes for success in both Prelims and Mains examinations.

Testing Awareness and Analytical Thinking: The Current Affairs for November 2025 encourage aspirants to move beyond simple fact memorization and focus on understanding the causes and consequences of key developments. They test awareness of major national and international events and the ability to think critically about their broader implications. This analytical learning approach builds strong reasoning and problem-solving skills, essential for future civil servants.
Connecting Static and Dynamic Portions of the Syllabus: November 2025 Current Affairs serve as a vital link between static topics and ongoing developments. Government policies, global conferences, or economic changes can be connected to subjects like polity, geography, economy, and history. This connection helps aspirants apply theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios, improving the depth and structure of their answers in the Mains examination.
Dynamic Nature of UPSC Preparation: The importance of Current Affairs November 2025 also lies in their ever-changing nature. Since UPSC questions often reflect recent national and global developments, daily updates are necessary. The dynamic nature of current affairs ensures aspirants remain informed, adaptable, and capable of dealing with unpredictable questions. This habit fosters continuous learning and a flexible mindset, key to success in the examination.
Practical Relevance for Civil Services: Current Affairs November 2025 are directly relevant to real-world administration. They help future civil servants understand the social, economic, and political challenges they will encounter in public service. These topics often form the core of the UPSC interview stage, testing aspirants’ judgment, awareness, and ability to express balanced opinions on contemporary issues of national importance.

Monthly Current Affairs November 2025 FAQs

Q1: How to prepare Current Affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: Aspirants should read reputed newspapers, follow monthly compilations, and practice regular answer writing based on current topics.

Q2: Why are Current Affairs important for UPSC preparation?

Ans: They connect static and dynamic subjects, enhance analytical skills, and play a vital role in all three stages of the UPSC exam.

Q3: What are Vajiram & Ravi Prelims Pointers?

Ans: They are short, focused current affairs notes created daily for UPSC Prelims revision and available on the Vajiram & Ravi website.

Q4: Which newspaper is best for UPSC Current Affairs?

Ans: The Hindu and The Indian Express are the most recommended newspapers for reliable UPSC Current Affairs coverage.

Q5: How to make newspaper notes for UPSC CSE?

Ans: Summarize important issues in bullet points and organize them according to the GS syllabus for efficient revision and recall.

Monthly Current Affairs October 2025 for UPSC Prelims & Mains

December 3, 2025

UPSC Current Affairs for October 2025 are one of the common and crucial components of the UPSC CSE syllabus. Current affairs are the events and issues that are happening in the present time, both in India and around the world. They cover various domains, such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, sports, etc. In this article, we are going to cover the UPSC Current Affairs for October 2025 for both Prelims and Mains.

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025

Current affairs October 2025 are an important part of UPSC CSE preparation, and to assist aspirants, Vajiram & Ravi publish Monthly Current Affairs Magazine, The Recitals, daily prelims pointers, mains articles, editorial analysis, daily newspaper analysis video- The Analyst. These sources consolidate and simplify all the important current affairs topics from the month into high-quality, well-researched magazines. Drawing from reliable sources like PIB, Yojana, Kurukshetra, The Hindu, Indian Express, Economic Times, and Down to Earth, the content is presented through text, infographics, charts, and tables, ensuring easy understanding and effective learning.

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 for Prelims & Mains

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 for Prelims & Mains includes Daily Prelims Pointers and Mains Articles as well as Daily Editorial Analysis that are carefully curated by experts and updated on our website on a daily basis. These topics, derived from The Hindu and Indian Express, simplify the preparation process by providing a thorough analysis of current affairs . They cover both backward and forward linkages, offering a comprehensive understanding of each topic. Designed as concise daily notes, they ensure that aspirants efficiently address all the key subjects. While Prelims Pointers have a more concise and focused approach, the Mains Articles are crafted to enable students to effectively utilize the information for answer writing in the Mains exam. The Daily Editorial Analysis analyses the daily editorial news in the Indian Express and The Hindu Newspaper. The Analyst – Daily Newspaper Analysis Video by Vajiram & Ravi provides a thorough and insightful breakdown of the most significant news stories from The Hindu and Indian Express. Each video is paired with a handout summarizing the key points, presented in a clear, bullet-point format for easy comprehension and effective research.

UPSC October Current Affairs 2025

We publish ten Prelims Pointers, four Main Articles and three Editorial Analysis on a daily basis. Apart from this we also post daily MCQ Quiz for practice and The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis. Here is a link to our Daily Prelims Pointers and Mains Articles, Editorial Analysis, Daily Quiz and The Analyst Video created using multiple sources to ease UPSC preparation for the aspirants:

Date	Prelims Pointers	Mains Articles	Editorial Analysis	The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis Video
1 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
2 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
3 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
4 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
5 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
6 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
7 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
8 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
9 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
10 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
11 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
12 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
13 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
14 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
15 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
16 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
17 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
18 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
19 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
20 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
21 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
22 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
23 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
24 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
25 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
26 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
27 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
28 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
29 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
30 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
31 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link

Importance of Current Affairs October 2025 for UPSC Aspirants

Current affairs remain one of the most crucial components of the UPSC CSE syllabus, covering events and issues of present relevance in India and across the world. They span diverse areas such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, and sports. The importance of current affairs for October 2025 lies in their direct role in shaping the knowledge base and analytical ability of aspirants, making them indispensable for exam success.

Testing Awareness and Understanding of the Contemporary World
Current affairs October 2025 are not just about memorizing facts but about analyzing events and their wider implications. They test your awareness of global and national happenings, along with your ability to understand causes, consequences, and possible solutions. For aspirants, this builds global perspective and critical thinking qualities central to civil services.
Connecting Static and Dynamic Portions of the Syllabus
Current affairs October 2025 act as a bridge between static knowledge and real-time developments. Events such as policy changes, international summits, or socio-economic shifts can be linked to static subjects like history, polity, geography, and economy. This integration strengthens conceptual clarity and improves answer writing by enabling aspirants to connect theory with practice.
Unpredictable and Dynamic Nature of UPSC Preparation
The importance of current affairs for October 2025 also lies in their dynamic and evolving nature. Unlike static subjects, they change daily and require consistent updates. This unpredictability challenges aspirants to remain alert and well-informed, while also adding variety to UPSC preparation. It ensures that aspirants do not rely solely on rote learning but instead develop adaptability and analytical flexibility.

Relevance to Civil Services and Real-World Administration
Above all, current affairs October 2025 are vital as they reflect the realities future civil servants must deal with. They highlight governance challenges, policy decisions, and social issues that administrators directly engage with. Moreover, they are critical during the interview stage, where aspirants are tested on their opinions and depth of understanding regarding contemporary issues.

Current Affairs October 2025 FAQs

Q1: How to prepare current affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: By consistently reading newspapers, using standard monthly magazines, and revising through reliable compilations with answer writing practice.

Q2: What is the importance of studying current affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: Current Affairs link static subjects with real-time issues, test analytical skills, and form a significant part of Prelims, Mains, and Interview.

Q3: What are Vajiram & Ravi Prelims Pointers?

Ans: They are concise, exam-focused current affairs notes prepared by Vajiram & Ravi for UPSC Prelims revision uploaded on their website on a daily basis.

Q4: Which newspaper to read to prepare UPSC Current Affairs?

Ans: The Hindu and The Indian Express are the most recommended newspapers for UPSC preparation.

Q5: How to prepare newspaper notes for UPSC CSE?

Ans: By focusing on exam-relevant issues, summarizing in bullet points, and organizing under GS syllabus topics for quick revision.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Biography, Contributions, Achievements

December 3, 2025

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Birth Anniversary is celebrated on 3rd December every year. He is a well known freedom fighter who fought for Indian Independence. A remarkable scholar, lawyer and independence activist, he was elected as the President of the Constituent Assembly in 1950 and became the longest serving head of India for about 12 years. On this day, let's look at the life and achievements of Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Educational Background

Dr. Rajendr Prasad was well versed in Persian, Hindi and Arithmetic at an early age.
He completed his graduation from Presidency College, Calcutta as a scholarship student.
He completed his MA in Economics and was also a member of Servants of India Society and Dawn society during his college years.
He was appointed as the Principal of Langar Singh College at Bihar.
In 1909 he pursued the degree of law from a college in Kolkata.

Dr. rajendra Prasad Literary Works

As a learned activist and leader, Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s literary works are full of stories and information about the Indian Freedom struggle. Here is a list of works of Dr. Rajendra Prasad-

Satyagraha at Champaran (1922)
Division of India (1946)
Atmakatha (1946)
Mahatma Gandhi and Bihar, Some Reminiscences (1949)
Bapu Ke Qadmon Men (1954)
Since Independence (published in 1960)
Bharatiya Shiksha
At the feet of Mahatma Gandhi

Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s Role during the Indian Freedom Struggle

Following are Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s Contributions to India’s National Movement

Champaran Satyagraha:
- Dr. Rajendra Prasad actively supported the Champaran Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi.
- He called for non-cooperation in Bihar as part of Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement and toured the state, organizing public meetings and delivering impassioned speeches to garner support.
Dedication to the Freedom Struggle:
- In 1921, he left his flourishing law practice to establish a National College near Patna, dedicating himself fully to India’s freedom struggle.
- Responding to Gandhi’s call to boycott Western educational institutions, he withdrew his son from school and admitted him to Bihar Vidyapeeth, an institution he helped establish based on traditional Indian education models.
Imprisonment for Activism:
- Dr. Rajendra Prasad faced imprisonment multiple times:
  - In 1931, for his participation in the Salt Satyagraha.
  - In 1942, for his active involvement in the Quit India Movement.

Through his unwavering dedication, Dr. Rajendra Prasad played a pivotal role in India’s struggle for independence.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s Participation in Constitutional Making

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of Indian National Congress during the Bombay Session in October 1934. He later was also appointed as the President of the Constituent Assembly in July 1946.

Under his leadership the following committees were constituted:

Ad hoc Committee on the National Flag
Committee on the Rules of Procedure
Finance and Staff Committee
Steering Committee

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Legacy

Dr. Rajendra Prasad happens to be the only President who has been re-elected as the President twice unanimously in 1952 and then in 1957.
He has stayed in the office for the longest tenure of about 12 years.
The tradition of opening the Mughal Gardens for visitors was initiated for the first time under his leadership.
He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1962.
He retired from Politics in 1962.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Birth Anniversary FAQs

Q1: What was the role of Rajendra Prasad in the national movement UPSC?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad played a pivotal role in India’s freedom struggle, supporting movements like Champaran Satyagraha, Non-Cooperation, and Quit India.

Q2: What is Dr. Rajendra Prasad famous for?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad is famous for being India’s first President and his significant contributions to the freedom movement.

Q3: What was the role of Dr. Rajendra Prasad in making the Indian Constitution?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad served as the President of the Constituent Assembly, guiding the drafting of the Indian Constitution.

Q4: What was the slogan of Rajendra Prasad?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad is not known for a specific slogan but is remembered for his ideals of selfless service and dedication to the nation.

Q5: When was Dr. Rajendra Prasad honoured with the Bharat Ratna?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1962.

Bonda Tribe

December 3, 2025

Bonda Tribe Latest News

Members of the Bonda community in Odisha’s Malkangiri district are set to transition from fragile thatched huts to permanent pucca houses under the Union government’s PM-Janman scheme.

About Bonda Tribe

The Bondas are exclusively found in the Malkangiri district of Odisha and are mostly concentrated in the Khairaput block of the district.
It is a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) and one of the oldest tribes of India.
They are also known as Bondo, Bondas, Bonda Paraja, and Bhonda.
With a population of approximately 7,000 people, they live in a mountainous and forest ecosystem
They are considered one of the first settlers in India, with their lineage tracing back to the Austroasiatic race.
Language:
- The Bonda people speak Remo, a language belonging to the Austroasiatic linguistic family.
- This is distinct from mainstream Indian languages, making it difficult for outsiders to communicate with them.
The Bondas are divided into two groups because of their distinct cultural practices:
- The Lower Bondas, who live in the Malkangiri district in south Odisha and border Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and
- The Upper Bondas, who live in the remote villages of the district’s hilly terrain.
The social organization is hierarchical, with a council of elders that makes important decisions for the community.
The Bonda people live in small villages organized around communal spaces where ceremonies and meetings take place.
Bonda architecture is characterized by mud and thatched-roof houses, designed to adapt to the mountainous environment and climatic conditions.
The art of the Bonda is expressed mainly through the creation of decorative tools and utensils, in addition to their colorful fabrics and jewelry.
They have an interesting dressing style – ladies are semiclad and wear different sorts of rings and pieces of jewelry around their bodies, while the men wear deadly attires.
Religion: The religion of the Bonda people is animistic, focused on the worship of nature and ancestral spirits.
Occupation:
- Their economy is based mainly on subsistence agriculture, hunting, and gathering.
- They are known for their unique practice of shifting cultivation called dangar chas.
- They grow crops like paddy, millet, pulses, and vegetables.
Only 6% of Bondas are literate. The life expectancy of the tribe is so low they are nearly extinct.

Source: DC

Bonda Tribe FAQs

Q1: The Bonda Tribe is primarily found in which Indian state?

Ans: Odisha

Q2: The Bonda Tribe is classified under which category?

Ans: Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG)

Q3: The language spoken by the Bonda people, Remo, belongs to which linguistic family?

Ans: Austroasiatic linguistic family.

Q4: What is the estimated population of the Bonda Tribe?

Ans: About 7,000

Q5: What type of agriculture is traditionally practiced by the Bonda people?

Ans: Shifting cultivation (dangar chas)

Maharatna Companies in India 2025, List, Eligibility, Benefits

December 3, 2025

The Government of India classifies Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) into three categories: Maharatna, Navratna, and Miniratna based on specific eligibility criteria. As of 2025, there are 14 Maharatna Companies in India with the latest addition of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in the year 2024. This article outlines the criteria for achieving these statuses and provides a detailed list of Maharatna companies, along with key information about each.

Maharatna Company Eligibility Criteria

Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) in India are also classified based on their specific non-financial objectives and are registered under Section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013 (formerly Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956). In 2010, the government introduced the Maharatna category to recognise higher-performing PSUs.

Eligibility Criteria for a Maharatna Company:

Must hold Navratna status.
Listed on the Indian stock exchange with the required minimum public shareholding as per Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) regulations.
Should have an average annual net profit after tax exceeding Rs. 5,000 crore over the last three years.
Must maintain an average annual turnover of Rs. 25,000 crore for three years, or
An average annual net worth of Rs. 15,000 crore for three years.
Must demonstrate a global presence or international operations.

Maharatna Companies Benefits

Maharatna status is a prestigious designation granted to select Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) in India. Here are some key benefits of Maharatna status:

Greater Autonomy: Maharatna companies enjoy greater operational and financial autonomy compared to other CPSEs. This allows them to make quicker and more efficient decisions.
Investment Capabilities: These companies can invest up to ₹5,000 crore or 15% of their net worth in a single project without requiring government approval.
Strategic Flexibility: Maharatna companies have the freedom to undertake mergers, acquisitions, and strategic investments both domestically and internationally.
Human Resource Management: The Board of Directors of Maharatna companies has the authority to create posts below the level of the Board of Directors and make decisions related to human resource management and training.
Global Expansion: The status aims to empower these companies to expand their operations and emerge as global giants.
Financial Performance: To qualify for Maharatna status, companies must demonstrate exceptional financial performance, including high turnover, net worth, and profitability over the past three years.

List of 14 Maharatna Companies in India

Here is the list of 14 Central Public Sector Enterprises that are classified as Maharatna Companies:

Sl.No	Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSE – Maharatna Company)
1	NTPC Limited (NTPC)
2	Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC)
3	Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)
4	Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)
5	Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL)
6	Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL)
7	Coal India Limited (CIL)
8	GAIL India Limited (GAIL)
9	Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL)
10	Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID)
11	Power Finance Corporation
12	Rural Electrification Corporation Limited
13	Oil India Ltd
14	Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)

14 Maharatna Company in India Details

Brief Details about 14 Public Sector Maharatna Companies:

National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
NTPC, founded on 7th November 1975, was granted Maharatna status in May 2010 by the Government of India. Operating from 70 locations in India and abroad (Sri Lanka and Bangladesh), NTPC has five regional headquarters. It offers services in electricity generation, distribution, and natural gas exploration, production, and distribution.
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
Established on 14th August 1956, ONGC is India’s largest crude oil and natural gas company, responsible for 75% of the country’s domestic production. With over 11,000 km of pipelines, it holds Maharatna status since 2010. ONGC has subsidiaries like ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), and ONGC Mangalore Petrochemicals Limited (OMPL).
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)
SAIL, based in New Delhi, is the 20th largest steel producer in the world and the third largest in India. It operates five integrated steel plants and three special steel plants across the country.
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)
BHEL specializes in the design, engineering, and servicing of products for core sectors such as power, transportation, renewable energy, oil & gas, and defense. It supplies locomotives to Indian Railways and defense equipment like naval guns and simulators.
Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL)
IOCL is India’s largest commercial oil company, with ventures into alternative energy and international downstream operations. It operates across the entire hydrocarbon value chain, including refining, pipeline transportation, and petrochemicals.
Coal India Limited (CIL)
CIL, granted Maharatna status in 2011, is the world’s largest coal producer. Founded in 1975, it is headquartered in Kolkata and operates through subsidiaries like Western Coalfields Limited (WCL), Central Coalfields Limited (CCL), and others.
Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL)
Founded in 1984, GAIL is India’s largest state-owned natural gas processing and distribution company. It received Maharatna status in February 2013 and is under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL)
BPCL, India’s second-largest fuel retailer, was granted Maharatna status in 2017.
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID)
Incorporated in 1989, POWERGRID handles electric power distribution, transmission, and energy trading. It is headquartered in Gurugram and holds Maharatna status.
Power Finance Corporation (PFC)
PFC, a non-banking financial corporation established in 1986, serves as the financial backbone of India’s power sector.
Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC)
REC, incorporated in 1969, provides long-term financing for infrastructure projects. It is a Public Financial Institution (PFI) and a Non-Banking Finance Company (NBFC) under the Ministry of Power.
Oil India Ltd (OIL)
OIL, founded in 1959, is India’s second-largest national oil and gas company, engaged in the exploration and production of crude oil, natural gas, and LPG. It operates under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) Founded in 1940 and granted Maharatna status in 2024, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is a Bengaluru-based government-owned aerospace and defence giant that designs, manufactures, and maintains aircraft, helicopters, engines, avionics, and related systems. It plays a crucial role in strengthening India’s military and civil aviation capabilities while also supporting ISRO in key space missions through advanced engineering and collaborative technology development.

Maharatna Companies in India FAQs

Q1: What is the 12th Maharatna company in India?

Ans: Power Finance Corporation (PFC) is the 12th Maharatna company in India.

Q2: Which is the 13th Maharatna company?

Ans: Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC) is the 13th Maharatna company.

Q3: How many Maharatna companies are there in India now?

Ans: There are 14 Maharatna companies in India now.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

December 3, 2025

The principles of "Procedure Established by Law" and "Due Process of Law" are pivotal in shaping the constitutional and legal frameworks of democratic nations. While both terms deal with protecting the life and liberty of individuals, their scope, interpretation, and application vary significantly.

Procedure Established by Law

The phrase "Procedure Established by Law" is discussed in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees protection of life and personal liberty. According to this principle:

"No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law."

This means that if a law is duly enacted by the legislature and proper procedure is followed, the state can deprive a person of life or liberty. It does not require that the law itself be just, fair, or reasonable.

Key Features

Emphasis on legislative procedure.
Focuses on enacted law, not its fairness.
More narrow and formalistic in approach.

Due Process of Law

Due Process of Law, a broader concept primarily used in the United States Constitution, ensures not only that a law is followed but also that it is just, fair, and reasonable. It contains two components:

Procedural Due Process - Whether fair procedures were followed.
Substantive Due Process - Whether the law itself is fair and just.

In India, though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has gradually incorporated Due Process principles through judicial interpretations of Article 21.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

The Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law reflects the evolution of constitutional protection in India. What began as a strict adherence to legislative procedure has transformed into a more people-centric approach, ensuring that laws do not merely exist, but that they also uphold the values of justice, fairness, and liberty. The table below includes the Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law:

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law
Aspect	Procedure Established by Law	Due Process of Law
Origin	Derived from British legal system	Originates from the U.S. Constitution
Mention in Indian Constitution	Explicitly mentioned in Article 21	Not mentioned directly; interpreted by judiciary
Focus	Checks if the procedure is legally enacted	Checks if the law is fair, just, and not arbitrary
Scope	Narrower; focuses on legal procedure	Broader; includes substantive fairness
Judicial Review	Limited; courts can’t question the morality of law	Extensive; courts can strike down unfair laws
Protection of Rights	Weaker protection against unjust laws	Stronger protection of individual rights and liberty
Current Application in India	Interpreted broadly post-Maneka Gandhi case (1978)	Partially adopted in Indian jurisprudence via Article 21

Important Supreme Court Judgments

A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950):

Held that any law made by the legislature is valid if the procedure is followed.
Applied narrow interpretation of Article 21—Procedure Established by Law only.

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)

Landmark case where the Supreme Court ruled that the procedure must be fair, just, and reasonable, not arbitrary.
Expanded Article 21 to include Due Process elements.
Connected Article 21 with Articles 14 and 19, making fundamental rights more integrated and powerful.

Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)

Recognized Right to Privacy as a part of Article 21.
Reinforced the need for laws to meet the test of reasonableness and fairness.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law Key Points

India originally adopted only the “Procedure Established by Law”, unlike the U.S., which follows “Due Process of Law”.
Through judicial activism and progressive interpretations, Indian courts have incorporated the essence of due process.
Today, Article 21 is not limited to procedural legality; it also ensures fairness and non-arbitrariness of laws.
This evolution has strengthened the protection of civil liberties in India.

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Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law FAQs

Q1: Which article of the Indian Constitution mentions Procedure Established by Law?

Ans: Article 21 states that no person shall be deprived of life or liberty except according to the procedure established by law.

Q2: Is Due Process of Law part of the Indian Constitution?

Ans: While not explicitly stated, the Supreme Court has read the principles of Due Process into Article 21 through judgments like Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India.

Q3: What is the main drawback of Procedure Established by Law?

Ans: It can allow unfair or unjust laws to be enforced as long as proper legislative procedure is followed.

Q4: Which case introduced Due Process-like interpretation in India?

Ans: The Maneka Gandhi case (1978) was a turning point, interpreting Article 21 to require that the procedure must be just, fair, and reasonable.

Q5: How do these doctrines affect individual rights?

Ans: Due Process offers stronger protection as it questions both the law and its implementation, ensuring fairness in both substance and procedure.

Important Battles in Indian History, List, Year, Outcomes

December 3, 2025

The important battles in Indian History cover all the major events and battles that took place during ancient, medieval and modern history. Given the long history of conquering and invasion, India has witnessed a huge number of wars which were fought for the quest of power, religious domination and territorial control. In this article, we are going to look into these wars and their important dates and significance.

Important Battles in Indian History

The important battles in Indian history are the ones that have left a lasting impact on the topography, culture and political environment of India. The battles in Indian history can be divided into three periods:

Ancient period
Medieval period
Modern period

Important Battles in Ancient India History

Ancient Indian History has witnessed some important battles that reflect on the culture, philosophies and flourishing economy of that period. Once known as the “sone ki chidiya”, India was invaded by some powerful dynasties, with the intention of expansion and power control.

Battle Name	Year	Between	Outcome
Battle of the Ten Kings	14th century BCE	King of Bharatas vs. a confederation of ten tribes	Bharatas emerged victorious, leading to the establishment of the Kuru Kingdom.
Battle of Hydaspes	326 BCE	Alexander the Great vs. King Porus	Alexander won but respected Porus, allowing him to retain his kingdom.
Seleucid–Mauryan War	305–303 BCE	Chandragupta Maurya vs. Seleucus I Nicator	Chandragupta secured territories and a marriage alliance with Seleucus.
Kalinga War	261 BCE	Ashoka vs. Raja Anantha Padmanabha	Ashoka won but adopted Buddhism due to the war's brutality.
Battle of Pullalur	618–619 CE	Chalukya King Pulakesin II vs. Pallava King Mahendravarman I	Pulakesin II defeated the Pallavas.

Important Battles in Medieval Indian History

Medieval India saw the invasion of the Mughal Empire and the Delhi Sultanate both constituting powerful empires. Both being powerful kingdoms, this period saw a rise in political struggles for supremacy in India and military conflicts. List of important battles in Medieval Indian History include:

Battle	Year	Between	Outcome
First Battle of Tarain	1191 CE	Prithviraj Chauhan vs. Muhammad Ghori	Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori, showcasing Rajput strength.
Second Battle of Tarain	1192 CE	Muhammad Ghori vs. Prithviraj Chauhan	Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj, marking the start of Muslim rule in North India.
Battle of Chandawar	1194 CE	Muhammad Ghori vs. Jaichandra	Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichandra, consolidating his power in northern India.
Battle of Kili	1299 CE	Mongols (Chagatai Khanate) vs. Delhi Sultanate	Delhi Sultanate, under Alauddin Khilji, successfully repelled the Mongol invasion.
Battle of Delhi	1398 CE	Timur (Timurids) vs. Tughlaq Dynasty	Timur sacked Delhi, causing widespread destruction and weakening the Tughlaq dynasty.
First Battle of Panipat	1526 CE	Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi	Babur's victory established the Mughal Empire in India.
Battle of Khanwa	1527 CE	Babur vs. Rana Sanga	Babur defeated Rana Sanga, solidifying Mughal control over northern India.
Battle of Chanderi	1528 CE	Babur vs. Medini Rai	Babur captured Chanderi, further consolidating Mughal power in central India.
Second Battle of Panipat	1556 CE	Akbar (Mughals) vs. Hemu	Akbar's forces defeated Hemu, ensuring Mughal dominance in northern India.
Battle of Haldighati	1576 CE	Maharana Pratap of Mewar vs. Mughal forces (led by Man Singh I)	Mughals emerged victorious, Maharana Pratap's guerrilla warfare tactics continued.

List of Important Battles in Modern Indian History

Modern History of India constitutes a major power supremacy of the British and their ruling. The wars fought during this period shaped the political landscape of India and also acknowledged the wars fought by Indians against the British to get freedom from colonial rule. Important battles in Modern Indian History include:

Battle Name	Year	Between	Outcome
Battle of Plassey	1757 CE	British East India Company vs. Siraj-ud-Daulah	Marked the beginning of British political dominance in India.
Battle of Buxar	1764 CE	British East India Company vs. Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Shah Alam II	Consolidated British control over Bengal and established the Company's dominance in India.
Third Battle of Panipat	1761 CE	Marathas vs. Ahmad Shah Abdali	Decisive defeat of the Marathas, leading to a decline in their power.
Battle of Wandiwash	1760 CE	British vs. French	Ended French ambitions in India during the Carnatic Wars.
Anglo-Mysore Wars	1767–1799 CE	British East India Company vs. Mysore (Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan)	Series of wars that led to the fall of Mysore and strengthened British control.
Anglo-Maratha Wars	1775–1818 CE	British East India Company vs. Maratha Empire	Led to the dissolution of the Maratha Empire and British supremacy.
Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence)	1857 CE	Indian rebels vs. British East India Company	Marked the end of Company rule and the beginning of direct British Crown rule.

Top 10 Battles in Indian History

Here is a list of the top 10 most important battles in Indian history, based on their historical impact and legacy:

Battle of Kurukshetra (Mahabharata)

Date: Legendary (circa 3000 BCE)
Significance: Fought between the Pandavas and Kauravas, the battle of Kurukshetra is a mythological battle which shaped the narrative in Indian culture about the Mahabharata and its philosophy.

Battle of Hydaspes

Date: 326 BCE
Combatants: Alexander the Great vs. King Porus of Paurava
Significance: fought on the banks of Jhelum River, the battle of Hydaspes was one of the biggest victories of Alexander. However, while King Porus was defeated, his efforts to resist were appreciated by Alexander.

Kalinga War

Date: 261 BCE
Combatants: Emperor Ashoka and the kingdom of Kalinga.
Significance: Ashoka is remembered to play an important role in preaching and promoting Buddhism in India as well in other nations. After the casualties that occured in the Kalinga War, Ashoka gave up on violence and decided to follow a non-violence life and embrace buddhism.

Battle of Panipat

Date: April 21, 1526
Combatants: Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi
Significance: The beginning of Mughal Empire in India witnessed the first battle of Panipat that was fought in between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi. This war played a significant role in shaping Indian history by marking the start of Mughal Rule in India.

Battle of Talikota

Date: January 26, 1565
Combatants: Deccan Sultanates vs. Vijayanagara Empire
Significance: Battle of Talikota marked the collapse of Vijayanagara empire by a combined effort of the Deccan sultanate to fight against the power in south India.

Battle of Plassey

Date: June 23, 1757
Combatants: British East India Company vs. Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula
Significance:
This battle marked the beginning of British rule in India. The British victory, largely due to treachery within the Nawab’s ranks, led to British domination of Bengal and, eventually, most of India.

Battle of Buxar

Date: October 22, 1764
Combatants: British East India Company vs. Shuja-ud-Daula, Mir Qasim, and the Nawab of Oudh
Significance: This war increased the influence of British over India and led to the expansion of British Colonial power, strengthening the control of British East India Company over Bengal territory.

Battle of Kolhapur

Year: 1779
Combatants: Marathas vs. British East India Company
Significance: Showed the resilience of Maratha Empire through the key battle of maratha-british conflict. After this war, the Marathas emerged as a powerful empire in Indian politics.

First Battle of Indian Independence

Year: 1857
Combatants: Indian rebels (Sepoys) vs. British East India Company
Significance: the Revolt against British Rule was the first war of Indian Independence. All the wars after this event were inspired from this war of 1857.

Battle of Kohima

Date: April 4 to June 22, 1944
Combatants: British-Indian forces vs. Imperial Japanese Army
Significance: A turning point in World War II where British-Indian troops halted Japan’s advance into India, shifting momentum in favor of the Allies in Southeast Asia.

All Battles fought in the past have played an important role in impacting the cultural and political history of India whether it involved struggle of independence, spread of religious changes and territorial dominance.

Important Battles of Indian History FAQs

Q1: What was the greatest battle in Indian history?

Ans: The Battle of Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761) had a massive impact on Indian history, shaping empires and dynasties.

Q2: Which part of history is most important for UPSC Mains?

Ans: Modern Indian History (1757–1947), especially British rule, freedom struggle, and post-independence developments.

Q3: What was the most famous battle in history?

Ans: The Battle of Kurukshetra (from Mahabharata) is legendary, while the Battle of Panipat (1761) is historically significant.

Q4: When and between whom did the major wars of Indian history take place?

Ans: Major battles like Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761), Buxar (1764), Plassey (1757), and 1857 Revolt were fought between Indian rulers and foreign powers like the Mughals, Marathas, British, and Afghans.

Q5: What was India called 1000 years ago?

Ans: India was known as "Bharat", "Aryavarta", and "Jambudweep" in ancient texts.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)

December 3, 2025

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana Latest News

The Union government has decided to expand the ambit of the PM Fasal Bima Yojana to include crop damage by animals as a ground for payouts, a long-standing demand by farmers, an official said recently.

About Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana

Launched on 18th February 2016, PMFBY is a crop insurance scheme by the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation, and Farmers’ Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture.
PMFBY aims to provide financial protection to farmers against crop loss due to natural disasters (hail, drought, famine), pests, and diseases.
PMFBY provides crop insurance at a cost-effective premium to all Indian farmers.
It is implemented through a network of insurance companies and banks.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana Objectives

To provide financial assistance and support to farmers suffering from crop damage or loss arising out of unforeseen events.
To stabilise the income of farmers and ensure continuance in farming.
To encourage the farmers to adopt modern and innovative agricultural practices.
To ensure crop diversification, and creditworthiness of the farmers, enhance growth, and competitiveness of the agriculture sector and protect the farmers from production risks.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana Eligibility

All farmers, including sharecroppers and tenant farmers, growing the notified crops in the notified areas are eligible for coverage.
Compulsory Component:All farmers availing Seasonal Agricultural Operations (SAO) loans from Financial Institutions (i.e. loanee farmers) for the notified crops would be covered compulsorily.
Voluntary Component: The Scheme would be optional for the non-loanee farmers.
Farmers must have an insurable interest in the insured crops.
Farmers must possess a valid and authenticated land ownership certificate or a valid land tenure agreement.
Farmers must not have received compensation for the same crop loss from any other medium or source.
Special efforts shall be made to ensure maximum coverage of SC/ST/Women farmers under the scheme.
Budget allocation and utilization under this should be in proportion to land holdings of SC/ ST/ General along with women in the respective state cluster.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana Benefits

Affordable Premiums:
- The maximum premium payable by the farmer will be 2% for the Kharif food and oilseed crops.
- For rabi food and oilseed crops, it is 1.5% and for yearly commercial or horticultural crops it will be 5%.
- The remaining premium is subsidized by the government.
- For the farmers in the North-Eastern States, Jammu, Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh, the government also pays the entire premium.
Comprehensive Coverage:
- The scheme covers natural disasters (droughts, floods), pests, and diseases.
- Post-harvest losses due to local risks like hailstorms and landslides are also included.
- Loss or damage to notified insured crops due to war, nuclear risks, malicious damage and other preventable risks is excluded from the scope of coverage.
Timely Compensation: PMFBY aims to process claims within two months of the harvest to ensure that farmers get the compensation quickly, preventing them from falling into debt traps.
Technology-Driven Implementation:
- PMFBY integrates advanced technologies like satellite imaging, drones, and mobile apps for precise estimation of crop loss, ensuring accurate claim settlements.
- The National Crop Insurance Portal (NCIP) digitizes processes for seamless farmer-insurer-bank interaction. YES-TECH (Yield Estimation System Based on Technology) ensures remote sensing based accurate yield estimation, while CROPIC (Collection of Real-time photos and Observations of Crops) uses geotagged photos to verify crops for precise damage assessment.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana FAQs

Q1. Who are called sharecroppers?

Ans. A sharecropper is a tenant farmer, someone who works land that's rented from its owner

Q2. What are Rabi Crops?

Ans: Rabi crops are cultivated during the spring season, which typically lasts from November to April in India.

Q3. What are Kharif crops?

Ans: Rabi crops are winter crops sown after the monsoon and harvested in spring, thriving in cool, dry conditions.

Q4. What is remote sensing?

Ans: Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, typically from aircraft or satellites.

Source: HT

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