2026 for January 1970

Red Tapism, Definition, History, Causes, Impact, Preventive Measures

January 2, 2026

Red Tapism refers to the excessive adherence to formal rules, procedures, and bureaucratic requirements that delay decision making without adding real administrative value. It is commonly associated with public administration but is also observed in private organisations. Red Tapism increases compliance costs in terms of time, money, and human effort, reducing efficiency, accountability, and public trust in governance systems across countries.

Red Tapism

Red Tapism is the manifestation of red tape in administrative functioning, where procedures become ends in themselves rather than means to effective governance. It represents unnecessary, duplicative, outdated, or poorly designed regulations that impose avoidable compliance burdens. Unlike essential safeguards, Red Tapism generates administrative costs beyond what is required to achieve policy objectives, thereby slowing service delivery and economic activity.

Red Tapism Historical Background

Red Tapism evolved alongside expanding bureaucratic states and complex governance systems, historically emerging from administrative control mechanisms rather than service oriented governance.

Early Administrative Origins: The term originated in the 16th century Spanish administration under Charles V, where red ribbons bound urgent state files, symbolising procedural formalism over outcomes.
British Institutionalisation: In Britain, red tape became synonymous with bureaucratic inertia during the 19th century, highlighted in literary critiques by Charles Dickens and Thomas Carlyle.
Colonial Administrative Legacy: Colonial administrations used rigid procedures to enforce control, prioritising rule compliance over responsiveness, shaping bureaucratic cultures in many post colonial states.
United States Expansion: Early 20th century America associated red tape with military procurement delays and veterans’ record management, reflecting procedural overload.
Post War Governance Growth: After World War II, expanding welfare states and regulatory regimes increased paperwork and layered approvals, deepening Red Tapism.
Modern Regulatory Proliferation: Late 20th century governance saw rapid regulatory growth, often without sunset clauses, converting useful rules into persistent administrative burdens.

Red Tapism Causes

Red Tapism arises from structural, institutional, behavioural, and technological factors that reinforce procedural rigidity.

Over Regulation: Excessive rules created without adequate problem analysis lead to compliance requirements that exceed policy necessity.
Rules Becoming Obsolete: Regulations designed for older technologies or conditions persist even after their relevance ends, increasing procedural redundancy.
Layered Decision Making: Multiple approval levels create delays as files move sequentially rather than concurrently.
Risk Averse Bureaucracy: Fear of accountability encourages officials to rely excessively on rules rather than professional judgment.
Lack of Accountability Mechanisms: Weak performance evaluation allows inefficient procedures to continue unchecked.
Colonial Administrative Structures: Legacy systems prioritise control, documentation, and hierarchy over service delivery.
Discretionary Power Concentration: Officials controlling approvals may maintain complexity to preserve authority.
Inconsistent Rule Interpretation: Ambiguity across departments results in repetitive documentation and procedural duplication.
Poor Digital Integration: Fragmented IT systems replicate paperwork instead of eliminating it.
Cultural Formalism: Organisational cultures equate compliance with effectiveness, discouraging innovation.

Read About: Judicial Reforms in India

Red Tapism Impact

Red Tapism produces measurable economic, administrative, social, and ethical consequences across governance systems.

Economic Growth Constraint: Studies across 68 countries show excessive bureaucracy discourages investment and slows technological diffusion.
Business Compliance Costs: In Canada, regulatory red tape cost businesses approximately USD 11 billion in 2020, representing nearly 28% of total regulatory burden.
Reduced Job Creation: Research links red tape with lower firm growth, reduced competitiveness, and weaker employment generation.
Public Sector Inefficiency: Surveys of public servants reveal that unnecessary documentation reduces operational effectiveness and internal service quality.
Employee Burnout: Studies in Korea, Belgium, Chile, and New Zealand link red tape to emotional exhaustion and declining job satisfaction.
Risk Averse Governance: Officials prioritise procedural safety over problem solving, delaying critical decisions.
Delayed Public Services: Welfare schemes and infrastructure projects experience prolonged implementation timelines due to layered approvals.
Erosion of Public Trust: Persistent delays weaken citizen confidence in institutions.
Increased Informality: Complex procedures push citizens and firms toward informal or illegal alternatives.
Policy Ineffectiveness: Administrative overload dilutes the intended impact of welfare and development programs.

Red Tapism Prevention Measures

Reducing Red Tapism requires structural reforms, political commitment, ethical governance, and digital transformation.

Regulatory Simplification: Periodic review and repeal of obsolete rules prevent accumulation of unnecessary procedures.
Sunset Clauses: Automatic expiration of regulations ensures continued relevance and accountability.
Digital Governance: Integrated online platforms reduce paperwork, duplication, and discretionary delays.
Single Window Systems: Unified clearance mechanisms minimise inter departmental procedural overlaps.
Decriminalisation of Minor Offences: Shifting technical violations from criminal prosecution to administrative adjudication reduces procedural congestion.
Faceless Administration: Electronic assessment and appeals limit discretion and procedural bias.
Performance Audits: Regular evaluation of administrative efficiency discourages procedural formalism.
Capacity Building: Training officials in ethical decision making and problem solving reduces rule bound inertia.
Citizen Feedback Mechanisms: Direct reporting of procedural bottlenecks helps prioritise reforms.
Strong Political Leadership: Evidence shows successful red tape reduction depends on sustained executive commitment.

Red Tapism International Aspects

Red Tapism is a global governance challenge addressed through varied reform strategies across countries.

European Union: The EU has pursued administrative burden reduction since the 1990s, focusing on regulatory simplification and harmonisation across the single market.
United Kingdom: Regulatory reform initiatives estimated potential GDP gains exceeding 1% through red tape reduction.
Canada: The federal one-for-one rule mandates removal of an existing regulation for every new administrative burden introduced.
British Columbia Model: A 37% regulatory reduction achieved between 2001 and 2004 through strong political leadership and ministerial accountability.
United States: Red tape reduction featured in the National Performance Review and later initiatives to limit regulatory expansion.
South Korea: Institutionalised regulatory impact assessments, sunset clauses, and digital complaint platforms reduced redundant procedures.
New Zealand: Creation of a Ministry for Regulation in 2023 institutionalised the principle that regulation should be a last resort.
Latin America: Countries like Mexico and Spain have faced persistent red tape challenges, affecting business formation and innovation.
Global Trade Impact: Misaligned regulations across jurisdictions increase transaction costs and restrict cross border commerce.
Governance Rankings: Ease of Doing Business indicators historically highlight red tape as a major development barrier.

Red Tapism FAQs

Q1: What is Red Tapism?

Ans: Red Tapism refers to excessive procedural formalities and rigid rules that delay decisions without improving administrative outcomes.

Q2: Why is Red Tapism considered harmful?

Ans: It increases costs, slows service delivery, discourages investment, and reduces public trust in governance institutions.

Q3: Is Red Tapism limited to government offices?

Ans: No, it also exists in large private organisations where excessive internal procedures hinder efficiency and innovation.

Q4: How does Red Tapism affect economic growth?

Ans: By increasing compliance burdens, it reduces business competitiveness, delays projects, and weakens job creation.

Q5: How can Red Tapism be reduced?

Ans: Through regulatory simplification, digital governance, sunset clauses, accountability reforms, and performance based administration.

Soil Erosion, Definition, Types, Causes, Factors, Impact

January 2, 2026

Soil Erosion is a natural geomorphological process involving the detachment and removal of soil and weathered rock materials by exogenetic forces such as water, wind, ice, gravity, plants, animals, and human activities. Under natural vegetation cover, soil erosion occurs slowly as part of denudation and remains largely balanced by soil formation. However, when this natural equilibrium is disturbed, erosion accelerates rapidly.

Soil Erosion

Soil Erosion refers to the loosening, detachment, transport, and deposition of topsoil particles from land surfaces by physical agents, primarily water and wind. In its natural form, also called geological erosion, soil removal occurs slowly and uniformly over long periods. Accelerated soil erosion, also known as man induced erosion, results from human altered land use patterns and removes soil at rates ten to several thousand times faster than natural soil formation.

According to L.D. Meyer and W.H. Wischmeier, soil particle detachability is the critical stage in erosion, controlled by grain size, cohesion, and flow velocity. Particles larger than 0.2 mm require higher water velocity for detachment. When erosion exceeds soil regeneration capacity, it transforms into severe soil degradation, undermining ecological balance and agricultural sustainability.

Soil Erosion Types

The types of Soil Erosion based on dominant physical agents along with their mechanisms and consequences are listed below:

Water Erosion: Caused by rainfall and surface runoff, water erosion includes splash, sheet, rill, gully, streambank, landslide, and coastal erosion.
Raindrop (Splash) Erosion: Raindrops of about 5 mm diameter strike soil at 32 km/hr, dislodging particles and destroying soil aggregates. It is a sub-type of water erosion.
Sheet Erosion: Uniform removal of thin topsoil layers by overland flow, often unnoticed but responsible for major nutrient losses.
Rill Erosion: Formation of shallow finger-like channels after sheet erosion, which gradually deepen and multiply annually.
Gully Erosion: Deep channels exceeding 30 m in width and depth, severely restricting land use and farm operations.
Streambank Erosion: Wearing away of riverbanks during floods, altering river courses and damaging infrastructure and farmland.
Landslide Erosion: Sudden downslope movement of soil due to gravity, slope instability, or saturation, causing major land loss.
Coastal Erosion: Wave action and sea ingress remove coastal soils, depositing sand inland and degrading agricultural land.
Wind Erosion: Dominant in arid and semi arid regions, removing fine particles through suspension, saltation, and surface creep.
Tillage Erosion: Soil displacement caused by repeated ploughing on slopes, often exceeding water erosion in cultivated lands.

Soil Erosion Factors

The natural and human induced drivers controlling Soil Erosion intensity and processes across landscapes in a concise, process oriented manner have been described below:

Rainfall Intensity: High intensity rainfall produces greater kinetic energy, increasing splash erosion, runoff velocity, and sediment transport, especially on bare or saturated soils.
Soil Texture and Structure: Sandy and silty soils detach easily, while clay and organic rich soils resist erosion due to better aggregation and particle cohesion.
Slope Gradient and Length: Longer and steeper slopes increase runoff speed, enhancing rill, gully, and mass movement erosion under heavy precipitation.
Vegetation Cover: Roots bind soil particles, canopy intercepts raindrops, and litter improves infiltration; vegetation removal dramatically increases erosion rates.
Climate Variability: Extreme rainfall events, droughts, and temperature fluctuations alter soil moisture and structure, intensifying erosion processes.
Deforestation: Removal of forest litter, humus, and root networks exposes mineral soil, increasing runoff and erosion by several orders of magnitude.
Agricultural Practices: Deep tillage, monocropping, slope cultivation, and bare fallow periods break soil structure and accelerate water and wind erosion.
Overgrazing: Livestock trampling compacts soil, reduces vegetation cover, and initiates surface runoff and gully formation.
Irrigation Mismanagement: Excess irrigation causes waterlogging, salinity, reduced infiltration, and increased surface runoff.
Construction and Urbanisation: Soil excavation, compaction, and impervious surfaces increase runoff volume and sediment transport into water bodies.

What is Land Degradation?

Land degradation refers to the decline in land’s productive capacity due to Soil Erosion, nutrient depletion, salinisation, waterlogging, and chemical contamination. Slight degradation reduces yields by 10%, moderate degradation by 10-50%, and severe degradation causes over 50% productivity loss. Globally, over 4.85 billion acres of land are degraded, with water and wind erosion responsible for 84% of this degradation.

Soil Erosion Impact

The on site and off site consequences of Soil Erosion across agriculture, ecology, hydrology, and human systems have been listed below:

Loss of Fertile Topsoil: Nutrient rich fine particles and organic matter are removed, exposing less fertile subsoil.
Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Crop yields decline due to nutrient loss, poor water retention, and seedling removal.
Water Resource Degradation: Sedimentation of rivers, reservoirs, and dams reduces storage capacity and water quality.
Aquatic Ecosystem Damage: Sediments smother fish spawning grounds and reduce biodiversity in freshwater and coastal systems.
Desertification Risk: Persistent erosion converts productive land into barren landscapes, especially in dry regions.
Infrastructure Damage: Roads, canals, and settlements suffer from sediment deposition and bank erosion.
Air Pollution: Wind blown dust carries pesticides and heavy metals, causing respiratory and climatic impacts.
Flood Intensification: Reduced infiltration increases runoff, enhancing flood frequency and severity.
Climate Feedbacks: Soil organic carbon loss weakens carbon sequestration, reinforcing climate change impacts.
Human and Animal Mortality: Landslides and erosion induced floods cause fatalities and displacement.

Soil Conservation

Major proven and emerging strategies to prevent Soil Erosion and restore soil health using scientific, policy driven, and ecological approaches are as follows:

Vegetative Cover: Afforestation, cover crops, and grasses reduce runoff velocity and soil detachment.
Terracing: Step like slope modification reduces runoff length and erosion on hilly terrain.
Contour Farming: Ploughing across slopes reduces water flow speed and soil loss.
Crop Rotation: Improves soil structure, nutrient balance, and organic carbon content.
No Till Farming: Minimises soil disturbance, preserving aggregates and reducing erosion.
Windbreaks: Shelterbelts reduce wind velocity and protect agricultural fields.
Biochar Application: Pyrolysed organic matter improves soil water retention and nutrient holding capacity.
Biofertilisers: Microbial inoculants enhance soil fertility while reducing chemical input dependence.
Precision Agriculture: Drone based nutrient mapping optimises fertiliser use and limits soil degradation.
Policy Interventions: Soil Health Card Scheme, NMSA, PKVY, and Neem coated urea promote sustainable soil management.

Soil Erosion Global Aspects

Globally, Soil Erosion has emerged as a major environmental challenge due to population pressure, land misuse, deforestation, intensive agriculture, infrastructure expansion, and climate change. Each year, approximately 75 billion tonnes of fertile soil are lost worldwide, far exceeding natural soil regeneration rates. This loss directly threatens food security, water quality, ecosystem stability, and long term land productivity.

Soil Erosion FAQs

Q1: What is Soil Erosion?

Ans: Soil Erosion is the removal of fertile topsoil by water, wind, or human activities, reducing land productivity and soil health.

Q2: What are the main causes of Soil Erosion?

Ans: Major causes include heavy rainfall, deforestation, overgrazing, improper farming practices, and construction activities.

Q3: Which type of Soil Erosion is most common?

Ans: Water erosion is the most widespread form, especially in regions with high rainfall and sloping agricultural land.

Q4: How does Soil Erosion affect Agriculture?

Ans: It reduces soil fertility, lowers crop yields, increases input costs, and can permanently degrade farmland.

Q5: How can Soil Erosion be controlled?

Ans: Soil erosion can be controlled through afforestation, contour farming, terracing, crop rotation, and sustainable land use practices.

East Flowing Rivers in India, List, Map, Features, Key Details

January 2, 2026

Rivers have played a decisive role in shaping human civilisation, agriculture, and settlement patterns since ancient times. In India, rivers form the backbone of irrigation, drinking water supply, transport, and energy generation. A large number of Indian rivers flow eastward from the Peninsular Plateau into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers carry heavy sediments, form extensive deltas, and support dense populations. East flowing rivers in India have historically sustained agriculture based economies, influenced cultural development, and enabled trade and connectivity along fertile coastal plains.

East Flowing Rivers in India

East Flowing Rivers in India originate mainly from the Western Ghats, Central Highlands, and Chotanagpur Plateau and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers are longer, have large drainage basins, numerous tributaries, and develop broad deltas near their mouths. Major east flowing rivers in India include the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Pennar, Subarnarekha, Brahmani, Ponnaiyar, Vaigai, etc. Their extensive river systems support irrigation intensive agriculture, hydropower projects, and urban settlements across eastern and southern India.

East Flowing Rivers in India Features

East Flowing Rivers in India display distinct physical and hydrological characteristics shaped by peninsular geology, monsoonal rainfall, and gentle coastal gradients.

Direction of Flow: East flowing rivers in India move from west to east due to the slope of the Peninsular Plateau toward the Bay of Bengal.
Delta Formation: These rivers deposit large quantities of alluvium, forming fertile deltas such as the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, and Mahanadi deltas.
Sediment Load: East flowing rivers in India carry heavier sediment loads compared to west flowing rivers due to longer courses and larger catchments.
Tributary Network: They possess extensive tributary systems that increase basin size and water availability across multiple states.
Agricultural Dependence: Their waters support intensive agriculture, sustaining food crops and livelihoods for a major share of India’s population.

East Flowing Rivers in India State Wise List

East Flowing Rivers in India pass through multiple states, supporting inter state irrigation, water sharing, and economic activities. Most east flowing rivers in India traverse two or more states, increasing the importance of basin level management.

Southern States: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka depend heavily on Cauvery, Krishna, Pennar, Ponnaiyar, and Vaigai rivers.
Eastern States: Odisha and West Bengal are sustained by Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarani, Subarnarekha, and Damodar systems.
Central and Eastern Highlands: Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh contribute headwaters to rivers like Subarnarekha and Brahmani.

Godavari River

The Godavari River is the longest East Flowing River in India and is often called the “Dakshin Ganga” due to its vast basin and economic importance.

Origin and Length: Godavari originates near Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra and flows eastward across peninsular India into the Bay of Bengal.
Drainage Basin: It drains a large basin covering multiple states, making it one of the most extensive River Systems in India.
Delta Formation: The Godavari forms a wide and fertile delta along the Andhra Pradesh coast.
Economic Role: The river supports irrigation, drinking water supply, and inland fisheries across its basin.

Krishna River

The Krishna River is a major East Flowing River in India supporting agriculture and hydropower in southern India.

Source Region: Krishna originates in the Western Ghats and flows eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
Tributary System: It receives water from several tributaries, expanding its basin across Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
Agricultural Importance: The Krishna delta is one of India’s most productive rice growing regions.
Water Projects: The river hosts multiple irrigation and storage projects supporting semi arid regions.

Cauvery River

The Cauvery River is a lifeline for southern India, especially Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Origin: Cauvery rises in the Western Ghats and flows southeastward into the Bay of Bengal.
Delta System: It forms a well developed delta supporting intensive agriculture.
Cultural Significance: The river has historical importance for ancient South Indian kingdoms.
Irrigation Role: Cauvery waters sustain major agricultural belts in southern India.

Mahanadi River

The Mahanadi River is a major east flowing river in eastern India.

Source Region: Mahanadi originates in central India and flows eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
Delta Formation: It forms a broad delta in coastal Odisha.
Floodplain Agriculture: The fertile plains support extensive rice cultivation.
Economic Importance: The river is vital for irrigation, fisheries, and water supply.

Pennar River

The Pennar River, also called Uttara Pinakini, is a significant East Flowing River in India of the southern peninsula.

Origin: Pennar originates from the Chennakasava hill in the Nandidurg range of Karnataka.
Length: The river flows for about 597 kilometres before draining into the Bay of Bengal.
Basin Area: Pennar basin covers approximately 55,000 square kilometres across Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Topography: The basin is bounded by Erramala, Nallamala, Velikonda, Seshachalam, and Paliconda ranges.
Land Use: About 58.64% of the basin area is under agriculture.
Tributaries: Major tributaries include Jayamangali, Kunderu, Chiravati, and Papagni.
Projects: Somasila project, Mylavaram Dam, and Penna Ahobilam Balancing Reservoir support irrigation.

Subarnarekha River

The Subarnarekha River is an important east flowing river of eastern India.

Origin: It originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand.
Length: The river flows for about 395 kilometres before entering the Bay of Bengal.
Inter State Course: It forms part of the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha.
Tributaries: Dulang, Kanchi, Kharkai, Karkari, Raru, and Garru rivers join the Subarnarekha.
Physical Feature: Hundru Falls, with a height of about 98 metres, lies on its course.

Brahamani River

The Brahmani River is one of the longest east flowing rivers in Odisha.

Origin: It is formed by the confluence of Koel and Sankh rivers near Rourkela.
Length: The river flows for nearly 800 kilometres.
Basin Extent: The basin is bounded by Chhotanagpur Plateau, Mahanadi basin, and Bay of Bengal.
States Covered: The river flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
Delta Formation: Along with Baitarani, it forms a large delta near Dhamra.
Infrastructure: Rengali Dam is constructed across the Brahmani River.

Ponnaiyar River

The Ponnaiyar River, also known as Dakshina Pinakini or Thenpennai, is an important east flowing river of southern India.

Origin: It rises from the Nandi Hills in Karnataka.
Course: The river flows through Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
Drainage: It empties into the Bay of Bengal.
Basin Boundaries: The basin is surrounded by Eastern Ghats hill ranges.
Dams: Krishnagiri and Sathanur dams are built across the river.
Economic Use: The river supports irrigation and agro based industries.

Vaigai River

The Vaigai River is a prominent east flowing river of Tamil Nadu.

Origin: It originates from Varusanadu Hills of the Western Ghats.
Course: The river flows northeast through the Kambam Valley.
Tributaries: Major tributaries include Suruliyaru, Manjalaru, Mullaiyaru, and Varahanadhi.
Drainage: It drains into the Palk Strait near Ramanathapuram.
Historical Significance: The Vaigai flowed through ancient Madurai and is mentioned in Sangam literature dated around 300 BCE.

East Flowing Rivers in India FAQs

Q1: Why do most rivers in Peninsular India flow eastward?

Ans: Most rivers flow eastward due to the gentle slope of the Peninsular Plateau toward the Bay of Bengal.

Q2: Which is the longest East Flowing Rivers in India?

Ans: The Godavari River is the longest east flowing river in India.

Q3: Why do East Flowing Rivers in India form large deltas?

Ans: They carry heavy sediments and slow down near the Bay of Bengal, leading to extensive delta formation.

Q4: Name two major agricultural deltas formed by East Flowing Rivers in India.

Ans: The Godavari Delta and the Cauvery Delta are major agricultural regions.

Q5: How are East Flowing Rivers in India economically important?

Ans: They support irrigation, hydropower, fisheries, drinking water supply, and dense population settlements in India.

Oil Reserves in India, Formation, Distribution, Map, Govt Initiatives

January 2, 2026

Oil Reserves in India play a crucial role in ensuring the country’s energy security, economic stability, and industrial growth. Petroleum oil is the backbone of transportation, manufacturing, power generation, and defence sectors. Despite being one of the largest consumers of crude oil in the world, India has limited domestic oil reserves, making it heavily dependent on imports.

Oil Reserves in India

India has moderate proven oil reserves compared to global standards. These reserves are unevenly distributed and largely confined to specific geological regions. The country’s sedimentary basins cover nearly 3.36 million square kilometres, but only a portion has been explored so far.

Domestic crude oil production meets only 15-18% of India’s total demand, while the rest is fulfilled through imports from West Asia, Russia, and Africa. This makes the development of Oil Reserves in India a strategic priority.

Also Read: Coal Mines In India

Constituents of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

Petroleum, also known as mineral oil, is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons along with small amounts of other organic compounds. It is formed over millions of years from decomposed organic matter under high pressure and temperature in sedimentary rocks.

Hydrocarbons (90–95%) – Mainly compounds of hydrogen and carbon, forming alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Organic compounds (5–10%) – Contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and other elements.
Trace organo-metallic compounds – Include metals like vanadium and nickel present in very small amounts.
Minor impurities – Influence refining processes and environmental emissions when combusted.

Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

Petroleum or mineral oil is formed over millions of years through geological and biochemical processes in sedimentary rocks. Its formation requires specific conditions of organic matter accumulation, burial, pressure, and temperature.

Origin: Derived from the remains of microscopic plants and animals deposited in sediments millions of years ago.
Sedimentary Rock Requirement: Only occurs in porous and permeable sedimentary rocks capable of storing oil.
Porosity: Rocks must have tiny pores or gaps to accommodate sufficient quantities of oil.
Permeability: Pores must be interconnected to allow oil and gas to flow when wells are drilled.
Impervious Cap Rock: Porous rocks must be capped by impermeable layers to prevent oil from escaping.
Accumulation in Traps: Oil generally accumulates in anticlines, fault traps, and other geological traps.
Favourable Geological Period: Most petroleum in India formed during the Tertiary period when conditions for organic deposition were ideal.
Transformation Process: Buried organic matter undergoes heat and pressure, converting it into hydrocarbons over millions of years.

Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India

The Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India is closely linked to sedimentary basins formed over millions of years. These basins contain organic matter that, under heat and pressure, transformed into hydrocarbons.

1. Assam (Brahmaputra Valley)

Assam is the oldest oil-producing region in India and holds a historic position in the country’s petroleum industry. Oil-bearing strata extend for nearly 320 km along the Brahmaputra Valley in Upper Assam. The oil occurs in Tertiary sedimentary rocks associated with anticlines and fault traps.

Oldest oil-producing state in India
Major oilfields: Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran-Hugrijan
Digboi is the oldest oilfield in India
Oil is refined mainly at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, and Barauni
Oilfields are relatively inaccessible and far from major consumption centres

2. Gujarat (Cambay Basin)

Gujarat is one of the most important on-shore oil-producing regions in western India. The oilfields are mainly located in the Cambay (Khambhat) Basin, which contains thick sedimentary deposits rich in hydrocarbons.

Major oilfields: Ankleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawgam, Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol, Sanand
Ankleshwar is the most productive oilfield of the state
Oil is transported to refineries at Trombay and Koyali
Well-developed pipeline network supports production and refining

3. Rajasthan (Barmer–Sanchor Basin)

Rajasthan has emerged as India’s largest on-shore oil-producing state due to major discoveries in the Barmer region. The basin contains significant reserves trapped in sandstone formations.

One of the largest inland oil discoveries in India
Major oilfields: Mangala, Saraswati, Rajeshwari
Contributes significantly to India’s domestic crude oil output
Modern extraction technology used for enhanced oil recovery

4. Mumbai High (Western Offshore Region)

Mumbai High is the largest and most productive oil-producing region in India. It is an off-shore oilfield located in the Arabian Sea, about 160 km west of Mumbai. Discovered in 1974, it lies in Miocene-age rock strata.

Largest contributor to India’s crude oil production
Located in the western off-shore basin
Supported by advanced offshore drilling platforms like Sagar Samrat
Includes nearby fields such as Bassein

5. Krishna–Godavari Basin (Eastern Offshore Region)

The Krishna–Godavari (KG) Basin along the eastern coast is an important emerging oil and gas-producing region. It holds substantial hydrocarbon potential in both on-shore and off-shore areas.

Located off the coast of Andhra Pradesh
Important off-shore oilfield: Rava
Significant reserves of both oil and natural gas
Considered one of India’s most promising future energy regions

6. Cauvery Basin (Tamil Nadu and Offshore Areas)

The Cauvery Basin is another important oil-producing region located in Tamil Nadu and adjoining offshore areas. The basin has both on-shore and off-shore oilfields.

Important oilfields: Narimanam, Kovilappal
Oil found in Tertiary sedimentary formations
Moderate but steady contribution to domestic production

Also Read: Silver Production in India

Oil Reserves in India Map

An Oil Reserves in India Map highlights the concentration of petroleum resources along the western coast and north-eastern region. Offshore areas dominate India’s oil production, while onshore reserves are relatively scattered.

India’s Oil Reserves vs Global Oil Reserves

India’s oil reserves are very limited compared to global oil-rich nations, even though India is among the top crude oil consumers worldwide. While India holds less than 1% of global proven oil reserves, countries in the Middle East and Russia dominate global reserves, making India highly dependent on imports.

India’s Oil Reserves vs Global Oil Reserves
India	Global Oil Reserves
Less than 1% share of proven oil reserves	Over 50% reserves concentrated in the Middle East
Domestic production meets only a small part of demand	Many countries have surplus production
Heavy import dependence (over 80%)	Major exporters of crude oil
Oilfields mainly in Mumbai High, Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan	Large reserves in Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Russia, Iran
Low reserve-to-production ratio	High reserve-to-production ratio
Vulnerable to global price and supply shocks	Greater energy and strategic stability

Government Initiatives for Oil Exploration

Government Initiatives for Oil Exploration in India are aimed at boosting domestic crude oil production, reducing import dependence, and encouraging private and foreign investment. These reforms focus on policy simplification, flexible licensing, and faster monetisation of oil and gas resources.

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP): Introduced a single licence for all hydrocarbons, replaced profit-sharing with a revenue-sharing model, and provided pricing and marketing freedom to explorers.
Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP): Allows companies to choose exploration blocks of interest through continuous bidding rounds, promoting exploration of unexplored and frontier areas.
New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP): Earlier framework that opened the sector to private and foreign players, later replaced due to regulatory rigidity and delays.
Discovered Small Field Policy (DSF): Aimed at monetising small and marginal oilfields quickly by encouraging participation of smaller operators.
National Data Repository (NDR): Provides easy access to geological and geophysical data, improving transparency and informed investment decisions.

Environmental Concerns Related to Oil Exploration

Environmental concerns related to oil exploration arise due to the intensive drilling, extraction, and transportation activities involved in the petroleum sector. These activities often take place in ecologically sensitive areas such as coastal regions, forests, wetlands, and offshore zones, posing serious risks to the environment.

Oil spills and leakages that contaminate marine and coastal ecosystems, affecting fisheries and coral reefs
Air pollution caused by gas flaring, drilling operations, and emissions of greenhouse gases
Water pollution due to contamination of surface and groundwater from drilling muds and chemical waste
Land degradation and deforestation during on-shore exploration and pipeline construction
Loss of biodiversity and disturbance to wildlife habitats, especially in sensitive regions
Climate change impacts due to increased carbon emissions from fossil fuel extraction and use

Also Read: Manganese Ore Distribution in India

Challenges in Enhancing Domestic Oil Production

Limited proven reserves: India holds less than 1% of global proven crude oil reserves, which restricts large-scale expansion of domestic output.
High import dependence: Domestic production meets only 15–18% of India’s crude oil demand, making the country heavily reliant on imports.
Declining production from mature fields: Major fields such as Mumbai High and Assam have crossed peak production, leading to falling output despite enhanced recovery efforts.
High cost of offshore and deep-water exploration: Deep-sea drilling involves advanced technology and high capital investment, increasing financial risk for operators.
Technological constraints: Limited access to advanced technologies for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and exploration of ultra-deep and unconventional resources.
Low exploration coverage: Out of India’s 26 sedimentary basins, several frontier and deep-water basins remain underexplored.
Long gestation period: Oil exploration projects take 10-15 years from exploration to commercial production, delaying output gains.
Regulatory and environmental hurdles: Multiple clearances and strict environmental norms often slow project execution.

Way Forward

Accelerate exploration in unexplored and frontier basins, especially deep-water and offshore regions
Adopt advanced technologies such as enhanced oil recovery (EOR), seismic imaging, and digital oilfields
Improve recovery from mature fields through secondary and tertiary recovery techniques
Simplify regulatory and clearance processes to reduce project delays
Encourage private and foreign investment by ensuring policy stability and risk-sharing mechanisms
Expand Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) to cushion against global supply disruptions
Strengthen overseas oil asset acquisitions to secure long-term crude supplies
Promote energy efficiency and conservation to moderate demand growth
Accelerate transition to renewable and alternative energy sources to reduce long-term oil dependence

Oil Reserves in India FAQs

Q1: Where are oil reserves mainly found in India?

Ans: Oil reserves in India are mainly found in Mumbai High (offshore), Assam, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, along with emerging reserves in the Krishna–Godavari and Cauvery basins.

Q2: Which is the largest oil-producing region in India?

Ans: Mumbai High, located in the Arabian Sea off the western coast, is the largest and most productive oil-producing region in India.

Q3: Which state is the largest on-shore oil producer in India?

Ans: Rajasthan is currently the largest on-shore oil-producing state due to major discoveries in the Barmer basin.

Q4: Why does India import most of its crude oil?

Ans: India imports most of its crude oil because domestic production meets only about 15–18% of total demand, while consumption continues to rise rapidly.

Q5: How many sedimentary basins does India have?

Ans: India has 26 sedimentary basins, covering both on-shore and off-shore areas with hydrocarbon potential.

Limited Liability Partnership (LLP), Meaning, Features, Significance

January 2, 2026

What is a Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)?

A Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) is a modern form of business organization that combines the operational flexibility of a traditional partnership with the limited liability benefits of a company. It was introduced in India through the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008 to support professionals, MSMEs, and startups.

Limited Liability Partnership Features

Separate Legal Entity: An LLP has a legal identity distinct from its partners and can own property, enter contracts, and sue or be sued in its own name.
Limited Liability of Partners: Partners are liable only to the extent of their agreed capital contribution, protecting personal assets from business losses.
Perpetual Succession: The existence of an LLP is not affected by the death, retirement, or insolvency of any partner.
Flexible Internal Management: The rights and duties of partners are governed by an LLP Agreement, allowing operational flexibility.
No Minimum Capital Requirement: LLPs can be formed without any prescribed minimum capital investment.
Lower Compliance Burden: Compared to companies, LLPs have fewer filing, disclosure, and procedural requirements.
Limited Liability for Partner Misconduct: A partner is not responsible for the wrongful acts or negligence of other partners.
Ease of Formation and Closure: LLP registration and winding up procedures are simpler and cost-effective.
FDI Permissibility: LLPs are allowed to receive Foreign Direct Investment in permitted sectors under the automatic route.

Recent Amendments in LLP Act

Register of Partners (2023): LLPs must maintain a detailed register of partners at the registered office.
Beneficial Ownership Declaration: LLPs must obtain and maintain declarations of individuals holding beneficial interest.
The Limited Liability Partnership (Amendment) Rules, 2024 include the Centre for Processing Accelerated Corporate Exit (C-PACE) in LLP dissolution procedures.
Decriminalisation: Minor offences shifted from criminal to civil penalties for easier compliance.
Small LLPs Concept: Special compliance relaxations for micro and startup LLPs based on turnover/capital.
Updated MCA Filing: Annual filings (Form 8 & 11) and beneficial ownership disclosures now through MCA V3 portal.
The LLP (Amendment) Act, 2021 introduced the concept of “Small LLPs” to encourage startups and micro-businesses.

Role of LLP in Promoting Ease of Doing Business

Rapid Growth in LLPs: LLP registrations rose to nearly 59,000 in FY 2023–24, showing increased adoption by entrepreneurs and small businesses.
Formalisation of Economy: LLPs encourage informal businesses to enter the regulated sector due to simplified rules.
Lower Compliance Burden: Compared to companies, LLPs have fewer statutory requirements, reducing regulatory costs.
Flexible and Cost-Effective Setup: LLPs can be incorporated online with minimal capital and documentation, supporting startups.
Limited Liability Protection: Partners’ personal assets are protected, encouraging risk-taking and new ventures.
Sector Preference: Majority of LLPs (over 70%) are in the services sector, including professionals and knowledge-based businesses.
Support for MSMEs and Solo Entrepreneurs: LLPs provide legal security and simplified governance for small and solo enterprises.

Also Read: Reserve Bank of India

Limited Liability Partnership Significance

Promotes Entrepreneurship: Limited liability reduces personal risk, encouraging individuals to start and expand businesses.
Supports MSME Growth: LLPs provide a flexible and legally secure structure for small and medium enterprises.
Improves Ease of Doing Business: Fewer compliance requirements and simplified procedures lower the cost of doing business.
Encourages Formalization of Economy: Helps transition informal partnership firms into the organized sector.
Enhances Professional Services Sector: Ideal structure for law firms, CA firms, consultants, and knowledge-based services.
Strengthens Corporate Governance: Balances operational flexibility with legal accountability.
Boosts Investor Confidence: Separate legal entity and limited liability improve trust among investors and stakeholders.
Aligns with Global Business Practices: Brings Indian business structures in line with international standards.

Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) FAQs

Q1: What law governs LLPs in India?

Ans: LLPs are governed by the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008, along with related rules and amendments.

Q2: Is LLP better than a partnership firm?

Ans: Yes, LLPs offer limited liability, separate legal identity, and better credibility compared to traditional partnership firms.

Q3: Can an LLP raise FDI?

Ans: Yes, LLPs can receive 100% FDI under the automatic route in sectors where FDI is permitted without performance conditions.

Q4: Is audit mandatory for LLPs?

Ans: Audit is mandatory only if turnover exceeds ₹40 lakh or capital contribution exceeds ₹25 lakh.

Q5: Can an LLP be converted into a company?

Ans: Yes, an LLP can be converted into a private or public limited company by following prescribed legal procedures.

Current Account Deficit, Meaning, Formula, Example, Causes

January 2, 2026

What is Current Account Deficit?

The Current Account Deficit (CAD) is a key economic indicator that shows whether a country is spending more on foreign goods, services, income, and transfers than it earns from them. It is part of the Balance of Payments (BoP) which records all transactions between residents of a country and the rest of the world.

When total imports exceed total exports along with other income outflows, the result is a deficit in the current account. A moderate CAD is manageable for a growing economy, but persistent deficits can strain foreign exchange reserves and affect currency stability.

Current Account Deficit Calculation

The Current Account Deficit (CAD) is calculated by comparing a country’s total foreign exchange earnings with its total foreign exchange payments under the current account. When total payments exceed total receipts, the result is a current account deficit.

Formula: Current Account Balance = (Exports of Goods + Exports of Services + Net Income + Net Transfers) − (Imports of Goods + Imports of Services)

Example: Suppose a country exports goods and services worth ₹100 crore, earns ₹10 crore as net income and transfers, but imports goods and services worth ₹125 crore.

Current Account Balance = (100 + 10) − 125 = −₹15 crore, which means the country has a Current Account Deficit of ₹15 crore.

Trends in India’s Current Account Deficit

In financial year 2024–25, India’s current account deficit narrowed significantly, reflecting strong services exports, rising remittances, and moderation in the merchandise trade gap. For the full year, the current account deficit was USD 23.3 billion, or about 0.6 % of GDP, lower than USD 26 billion (0.7 % of GDP) in FY2023–24, showing an improvement in external balance.

These trends indicate that while trade imbalances remain, strong performance in services and transfers helped moderate the current account deficit in 2024–25.

Current Account Deficit Causes

High Crude Oil Import Bill: India’s merchandise trade deficit remained elevated partly due to the high cost of crude oil imports. In FY 2024-25, crude oil imports were a major component of the overall import bill, about USD 166.73 billion, reflecting continued dependence on foreign energy sources.
Large Merchandise Trade Deficit: The goods trade gap widened in 2024-25. For example, India’s merchandise trade deficit was substantial in key months (e.g., $26.42 billion in April 2025), showing that imports of goods consistently exceeded exports.
Gold Imports: Gold continues to drive up the import bill. Over the first 11 months of FY 2024-25, India imported about USD 53.53 billion worth of gold, adding significantly to the overall deficit.
Electronics & Machinery Imports: High imports of electronic goods, machinery, and technology components persist due to limited domestic production capacity, increasing foreign exchange outflows and the trade gap.
Weak Merchandise Exports Relative to Imports: Even though exports increased modestly, merchandise exports in several months lagged behind import growth—e.g., exports around $35–$38 billion against imports over $60 billion in mid-2025—keeping the goods trade deficit large.
Global Commodity Price Volatility: Rising global prices of energy and other commodities elevated import costs, putting pressure on the current account. External shocks, such as crude price surges, can widen the CAD further.

How India Can Moderate Current Account Deficit?

Boost Merchandise Exports: Improve competitiveness of manufacturing sectors like electronics, textiles, chemicals, and engineering goods through better infrastructure, logistics, and export incentives.
Promote Services Exports: Strengthen high-value services such as IT, fintech, healthcare, education, and tourism, which generate large foreign exchange earnings.
Reduce Crude Oil Import Dependence: Expand renewable energy, ethanol blending, electric mobility, and domestic exploration to lower the oil import bill.
Encourage Import Substitution: Support domestic production of electronics, defence equipment, and capital goods to reduce reliance on foreign imports.
Control Gold Imports: Promote financial alternatives such as digital gold, sovereign gold bonds, and other investment options to curb physical gold demand.
Diversify Export Markets: Reduce dependence on a few regions by expanding trade with Africa, Latin America, and emerging Asian economies.
Improve Ease of Doing Business: Simplify regulations and reduce compliance costs to attract investment and boost export-oriented industries.
Maintain Adequate Forex Reserves: Use reserves prudently to manage external shocks and ensure confidence in external sector stability.

Current Account Deficit FAQs

Q1: What is a current account deficit?

Ans: A current account deficit occurs when a country’s total imports of goods, services, and income payments exceed its total exports and receipts from abroad.

Q2: Is a CAD always bad for the economy?

Ans: Not necessarily. A moderate and well-financed CAD can be sustainable and support higher investment and growth, as long as it is balanced by stable capital inflows.

Q3: What is considered a manageable CAD level?

Ans: Many economists view a CAD of around 1–2% of GDP as manageable for developing economies with strong growth prospects.

Q4: How can services exports reduce CAD?

Ans: Services such as IT, business outsourcing, tourism, and finance earn foreign exchange, improving invisibles receipts and reducing the overall deficit.

Q5: How does foreign exchange reserve help with CAD?

Ans: Foreign exchange reserves provide a buffer to finance deficits, stabilize the currency, and meet external payment obligations.

UPSC Daily Quiz 2 January 2026

January 2, 2026

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UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants, Definition, Classification

January 2, 2026

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants are essential elements required in different quantities. Plant growth, development, and reproduction depend on a precise supply of these nutrients as chemical elements obtained from air, water, and soil. According to Justus von Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, plant growth is controlled not by total resources available, but by the scarcest essential nutrient.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants

The nutrients are basically classified as Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants. Macronutrients are needed in large amounts and include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Micronutrients are required in trace amounts and include iron, boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, and nickel. There are 17 essential elements required for plants to complete their life cycle. The deficiency or excess of even one element disrupts normal growth, yield, and survival.

Also Read: Plant Tissue

Macronutrients for Plants Classification

Macronutrients are essential elements required in large quantities, collectively contributing over 95% of plant dry biomass and supporting core metabolic and structural processes. The detailed classification of Macronutrients and their functions has been highlighted below:

1. Carbon (C)

Carbon forms the backbone of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and cellulose. Through photosynthesis, plants fix atmospheric carbon dioxide into sugars, storing chemical energy essential for growth, respiration, and structural development. Carbon deficiency rarely occurs naturally due to atmospheric abundance. However, restricted carbon dioxide availability limits photosynthesis, reducing biomass production, carbohydrate synthesis, and overall plant productivity.

2. Hydrogen (H)

Hydrogen is obtained mainly from water and plays a critical role in sugar formation, photosynthesis, respiration, and maintenance of proton gradients driving ATP synthesis in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Hydrogen deficiency arises under severe water stress, impairing photosynthesis and respiration. Toxicity is uncommon, as excess hydrogen ions are regulated through cellular buffering systems.

3. Oxygen (O)

Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration and is a structural component of organic molecules. Plants absorb oxygen from air and soil water and release oxygen during photosynthesis. Oxygen deficiency occurs in waterlogged soils, limiting root respiration and nutrient uptake.

4. Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is a key component of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes, and chlorophyll. It constitutes 40-50% of plant protoplasm dry matter, driving vegetative growth and photosynthesis. Nitrogen deficiency causes stunted growth, chlorosis of older leaves, and anthocyanin accumulation. Excess nitrogen leads to excessive vegetative growth, delayed flowering, and nutrient imbalance.

5. Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus is vital for ATP formation, nucleic acids, phospholipids, enzyme activation, energy transfer, and root development. It accumulates in seeds to support germination. Deficiency results in slow growth, dark green or purplish leaves, and poor root systems.

6. Potassium (K)

Potassium regulates enzyme activation, osmotic balance, stomatal movement, photosynthesis, carbohydrate transport, and stress tolerance. It enhances drought resistance, fruit quality, and cold tolerance. Potassium deficiency causes leaf margin necrosis, weak stems, lodging, and reduced stress resistance. Excess potassium interferes with magnesium and calcium uptake.

7. Calcium (Ca)

Calcium stabilizes cell walls through calcium pectate formation, supports root development, cell division, membrane integrity, enzyme activation, and intracellular signaling. Calcium deficiency causes poor root growth, leaf curling, blossom end rot, and tissue necrosis. Excess of calcium may reduce magnesium availability.

8. Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is the central atom of chlorophyll and activates enzymes involved in respiration, photosynthesis, and nucleic acid synthesis. It facilitates phosphate transport within plants. Deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis in older leaves due to high mobility. Excess magnesium disrupts calcium uptake and soil structure.

9. Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is a constituent of amino acids like cysteine and methionine, vitamins, and iron-sulfur proteins. It supports chloroplast function, protein synthesis, and nitrogen metabolism. Sulfur deficiency appears in younger leaves as yellowing and stunted growth.

Also Read: Plant Kingdom

Micronutrients for Plants Classification

Micronutrients are required in trace amounts, typically measured in parts per million, yet they regulate critical enzymatic, physiological, and metabolic functions. The detailed classification and functions of the Micronutrients has been provided below:

1. Iron (Fe)

Iron acts as an enzyme cofactor in photosynthesis, respiration, and chlorophyll synthesis. It facilitates electron transport and redox reactions within plant cells. Deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis in young leaves. Toxicity may occur in acidic or waterlogged soils, damaging root systems.

2. Boron (B)

Boron supports cell wall formation, sugar transport, pollen germination, flowering, fruiting, and membrane integrity, influencing reproductive success. Deficiency leads to death of growing points, poor fruit set, and malformed tissues. Toxicity occurs above 1 ppm in soil water.

3. Chlorine (Cl)

Chlorine regulates osmotic balance, stomatal function, ionic equilibrium, and photosynthetic oxygen evolution, contributing to disease resistance. Deficiency is rare but affects wilting and root growth. Excess of chlorine causes leaf scorch in saline soils.

4. Manganese (Mn)

Manganese activates enzymes involved in photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism, and chloroplast formation, supporting carbohydrate synthesis. Deficiency causes discolored spots and interveinal chlorosis. Excessivity results in brown spots and reduced root growth.

5. Zinc (Zn)

Zinc regulates enzyme systems, DNA transcription, and auxin synthesis, controlling internode elongation and leaf expansion. Deficiency causes stunted growth and “little leaf” disorder. Excess zinc interferes with iron and manganese uptake.

6. Copper (Cu)

Copper participates in photosynthesis, respiration, lignin synthesis, and enzyme activity, supporting grain formation and structural strength. Deficiency leads to chlorosis and weak stems. Toxicity damages root membranes and reduces microbial activity.

7. Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum is essential for nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzymes, enabling nitrate reduction and biological nitrogen fixation. Deficiency impairs nitrogen metabolism and legume nodulation.

8. Nickel (Ni)

Nickel activates urease, preventing urea accumulation and supporting nitrogen metabolism, especially in nitrogen fixing plants. Deficiency causes urea toxicity and necrosis. Excess nickel inhibits enzyme function and root growth.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants FAQs

Q1: What are Macronutrients for Plants?

Ans: Macronutrients are essential elements required in large amounts, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Q2: What are Micronutrients for Plants?

Ans: Micronutrients are elements needed in very small quantities, such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, boron, molybdenum, chlorine, and nickel.

Q3: Why are Micronutrients important despite being required in trace amounts?

Ans: Micronutrients activate enzymes, regulate metabolism, and support photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen utilization in plants.

Q4: What happens if there is a deficiency of Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants?

Ans: Nutrient deficiencies cause poor growth, chlorosis, low yield, weak roots, and reduced resistance to stress and diseases.

Q5: How do plants obtain Macronutrients and Micronutrients?

Ans: Plants absorb nutrients mainly from soil solution through roots, while carbon and oxygen are obtained from air and hydrogen from water.

Manganese Ore Distribution in India, Map, State Wise Distribution

January 2, 2026

Manganese Ore Distribution in India plays a crucial role in the mineral economy of India. There are substantial manganese resources in India which are primarily associated with Pre Cambrian Rock systems such as the Dharwar and Kuddapa series. The Manganese Ore is used for steel production, alloy manufacturing and several chemical industries which makes it a strategic mineral for industrial growth and infrastructure development across the country.

Manganese Ore Distribution in India

Manganese Ore Distribution in India shows a clear regional concentration pattern shaped by geological history and metallogenic processes. India holds the world’s second largest manganese reserves after Zimbabwe; and ranks as the fifth largest global producer with increased production by 11.8% to 3.8 million metric tonnes in the FY 2024-25. Major deposits of the ore occur in central and eastern regions of India, especially in states such as Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

For the ease of understanding refer to the Map for Manganese Ore Distribution in India given below:

Manganese Ores

Manganese Ores occur in several mineralogical forms, each varying in manganese content and industrial suitability.

Pyrolusite (MnO₂): The most important manganese ore, containing about 63.2% manganese, widely used in steel making and dry cell batteries.
Psilomelane: A hydrated manganese oxide with 45% to 60% manganese, containing impurities of barium, potassium, and sodium, used mainly in alloy production.
Manganite (Mn₂O₃·H₂O): Contains about 62.4% manganese and occurs as crystalline aggregates associated with iron ores.
Braunite: A silicate rich manganese ore containing around 62% manganese and about 10% silica, found in metamorphosed sedimentary deposits.
Association with Iron and Laterite: Manganese is rarely found free and usually occurs alongside iron ore, laterite, and other oxide minerals.

Also Read: Iron Ore

Manganese Ore Distribution in India State Wise

Manganese ore distribution in India shows strong state wise variation based on geological belts and mining history. The contribution in production of Manganese Ores state wise data as per the FY 2019-20 reports has been given here:

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Manganese-Ore-Distribution-in-India-State-Wise.webp" size="full" align="none" width="auto" height="359px" alt="Manganese Ore Distribution in India State Wise" title="Manganese Ore Distribution in India State Wise"]

Odisha: Holds about 18.5% of India’s total manganese reserves, mainly in Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, and Koraput districts.
Karnataka: Accounts for around 11.5% of national reserves, with major deposits in Uttara Kannada, Ballari, Chitradurga, Shimoga, and Tumakuru districts.
Madhya Pradesh: Contributes nearly 33% of total reserves, with major mining belts in Balaghat and Chhindwara districts.
Maharashtra: Possesses about 24.8% of reserves, concentrated in Nagpur and Bhandara districts, with high grade ores in Ratnagiri.
Andhra Pradesh: Holds about 11.4% of reserves, mainly in Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts, with mining history dating back to 1892.
Other States: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Telangana, Goa, Jharkhand and West Bengal together account for the remaining 0.78% of manganese resources.

Manganese Ore Significance

Manganese ore plays a vital role in industrial production, strategic manufacturing, and economic development.

Steel Industry Backbone: About 6 kilograms of manganese ore are required to produce one tonne of steel, making it essential for deoxidation and desulfurisation.
Alloy Manufacturing: Used in producing ferromanganese and spiegeleisen alloys that enhance steel strength, hardness, and wear resistance.
Chemical Industry Use: Manganese compounds are used in bleaching powder, insecticides, fungicides, and glass decolourisation processes.
Battery Production: Pyrolusite is a key raw material for dry cell batteries used in electronics and energy storage.
Pigments and Paints: Manganese oxides act as black-brown pigments in paints and ceramics.
Railways and Defence: High manganese steel is used in railway tracks, rifle barrels, prison bars, and heavy duty safes.
Domestic Consumption Pattern: Nearly 4/5 of Manganese Production in India is consumed domestically due to expanding steel demand.
Export Trends: Exports have declined over time, with Japan being the largest importer, followed by the USA, Germany, France, and the UK.
Global Supply Context: About 70% of world manganese production is controlled by South Africa, Australia, China, and Gabon.
Future Demand Outlook: Global manganese demand closely tracks steel production and is expected to rise with infrastructure expansion and industrial growth.

Also Read: Water Resources in India

Manganese Ore Distribution in India Export

Manganese Ore Export in India plays a limited but strategic role. It is influenced by rising domestic steel demand, resource conservation priorities and changing global market conditions.

Domestic Consumption Priority: Majority of India’s manganese ore production is used within the country, mainly by steel and alloy industries.
Major Importing Countries: Japan remains the largest buyer of Indian manganese ore, followed by the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Norway.
Quality Based Exports: India primarily exports high grade manganese ore, while lower grades are reserved for domestic beneficiation and alloy production.
Policy Influence: Export volumes are influenced by government regulations aimed at ensuring long term availability of manganese for domestic industrial needs.

Manganese Ore Distribution in India FAQs

Q1: Which state has the largest Manganese Ore Reserves in India?

Ans: Odisha holds the largest share, accounting for about 44% of India’s total manganese ore reserves and resources.

Q2: Which are the major Manganese Ore Producing States in India?

Ans: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh are the leading manganese producing states in India.

Q3: In which geological formations is Manganese found in India?

Ans: Indian manganese deposits mainly occur in the Dharwar and Kuddapa groups of the Precambrian era.

Q4: Which state is the largest Manganese Ore Producer in India?

Ans: Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer, contributing around one third of India’s total Manganese Ore Production.

Q5: What is the most important Manganese Ore found in India?

Ans: Pyrolusite is the most important and commercially significant manganese ore found across Indian deposits.

Important Days in January 2026, National and International Days List

January 2, 2026

January is one of the most important months in the calendar year, especially for India. It marks new beginnings and includes major national festivals, international observances, and awareness days related to education, youth, technology, human rights, and public health. Important Days in January 2026 highlight Cultural Diversity of India through festivals like Lohri, Makar Sankranti, Pongal, and Magh Bihu, along with global observances such as World Braille Day and International Day of Education.

Important Days in January 2026

January 2026 includes several national and international days that are officially recognized for their historical, cultural, educational, and social importance. These days either have a strong impact on Indian society or are observed worldwide to spread awareness on global issues. They are crucial and help to understand history, values and social responsibilities.

List of Important Days in January 2026

The complete list of Important Days in January 2026 has been tabulated below:

Important Days in January 2026
Date	Day	Event	Significance
January 1	Thursday	New Year’s Day, Global Family Day	Marks the beginning of the new year and promotes peace and family unity worldwide.
January 4	Sunday	World Braille Day	Raises awareness about Braille and the rights of visually impaired people.
January 6	Tuesday	World Day of War Orphans	Focuses on the challenges faced by children affected by war.
January 9	Friday	Pravasi Bharatiya Divas	Celebrates the contribution of Non-Resident Indians to India’s development.
January 10	Saturday	World Hindi Day	Promotes the global use and recognition of the Hindi language.
January 12	Monday	National Youth Day (India)	Birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, inspiring youth empowerment.
January 13	Tuesday	Lohri	Marks the end of winter and is celebrated mainly in Punjab.
January 14	Wednesday	Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Magh Bihu	Celebrates harvest and the sun’s northward movement.
January 15	Thursday	Indian Army Day	Honors the bravery and service of the Indian Army.
January 16	Friday	National Startup Day (India)	Recognizes innovation and startup culture in India.
January 18	Sunday	World Religion Day	Encourages unity and understanding among all religions.
January 23	Friday	Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Jayanti	Birth anniversary of a great freedom fighter and leader.
January 24	Saturday	International Day of Education, National Girl Child Day (India)	Highlights education and the importance of the girl child.
January 25	Sunday	National Tourism Day, National Voters’ Day (India)	Promotes tourism and democratic participation.
January 25	Last Sunday	World Leprosy Day	Spreads awareness about leprosy and ending discrimination.
January 26	Monday	Republic Day (India), International Customs Day	Celebrates adoption of the Indian Constitution.
January 27	Tuesday	International Holocaust Remembrance Day	Remembers victims of the Holocaust.
January 28	Wednesday	Data Privacy Day	Raises awareness about personal data protection.
January 30	Friday	Martyr’s Day/ Shaheed Diwas	Observed in memory of Mahatma Gandhi.

Major Important Days in January 2026 Explained

The significance and relevance of the days that fall in the month of January 2026 has been described below:

January 1 - New Year’s Day and Global Family Day

New Year’s Day marks the beginning of a new calendar year and is celebrated across the world. People welcome the year with hope, new goals, and resolutions. The same day is also observed as Global Family Day, which promotes peace, unity, and love among families and communities worldwide.

January 4 - World Braille Day

World Braille Day highlights the importance of Braille as a communication tool for people who are blind or visually impaired. It reminds society that access to information is a basic human right and supports inclusive education.

January 9 - Pravasi Bharatiya Divas

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas honors the contribution of Indians living abroad. It is observed on this day because Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa on January 9, 1915. The day recognizes the role of the Indian diaspora in national growth.

January 12 - National Youth Day

National Youth Day is celebrated on the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda. The day inspires young people to follow his teachings on self confidence, discipline, and service to the nation. Schools and colleges organize motivational programs on this day.

January 13 - Lohri

Lohri is a popular winter festival in Punjab and northern India. It celebrates the harvest season and the end of cold winter days. People light bonfires, sing folk songs, and share traditional food.

January 14 - Makar Sankranti, Pongal, and Magh Bihu

This day marks the sun’s transition into the Makar rashi. It is celebrated across India under different names. Makar Sankranti symbolizes new beginnings, Pongal honors farmers in Tamil Nadu, and Magh Bihu marks the harvest festival in Assam.

January 15 - Indian Army Day

Indian Army Day pays tribute to the soldiers who protect the nation. It commemorates the day when Field Marshal K. M. Cariappa became the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army in 1949.

January 23 - Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Jayanti

This day marks the birth anniversary of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, a fearless leader of India’s freedom struggle. He is remembered for his leadership of the Indian National Army and his slogan “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

January 24 - International Day of Education and National Girl Child Day

The International Day of Education highlights the role of education in building a better future. National Girl Child Day in India focuses on girls’ rights, education, and equality.

January 26 - Republic Day

Republic Day is one of India’s most important national festivals. It celebrates the adoption of the Indian Constitution on January 26, 1950. The grand parade in New Delhi showcases India’s cultural diversity and military strength.

January 30 - Martyrs’ Day

Martyrs’ Day or Shaheed Diwas is observed on the death anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi. It honors all freedom fighters who sacrificed their lives for India’s independence. Silence is observed nationwide in remembrance.

Important Days in January 2026 FAQs

Q1: Why is January an important month in India?

Ans: January includes Republic Day, harvest festivals and national observances related to youth, education, and national unity.

Q2: Which is the most important National Day in January?

Ans: Republic Day on January 26 is the most important National Day in January in India.

Q3: Why is National Youth Day celebrated on January 12?

Ans: It marks the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda and inspires youth empowerment.

Q4: What festivals are celebrated on January 14?

Ans: Makar Sankranti, Pongal, and Magh Bihu are celebrated on January 14 across India.

Q5: What is the purpose of World Braille Day?

Ans: World Braille Day promotes awareness about Braille and supports the rights of visually impaired individuals.

Plant Tissue, Definition, Structure, Features, Classification, Functions

January 2, 2026

Plants are multicellular organisms that show a clear division of labour, where groups of similar cells work together to perform specific functions efficiently. Since plants are fixed in one place and cannot move, they require strong supportive structures to remain upright while carrying out processes like transport, storage, protection, and growth. These specialised cell groups are organised at specific locations in the plant body to maximise functional efficiency. This organised grouping of cells forms the basis of Plant Tissues, enabling survival, growth, and adaptation in diverse environments.

Plant Tissue

Plant Tissue refers to a group of structurally similar cells that work together to perform a particular function within the plant body. These cells originate from common meristematic regions and become specialised through differentiation. Unlike animals, plant growth is restricted to specific regions, making tissue organisation crucial for transport, support, protection, and food production. Examples of plant tissues include meristematic tissue, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem, and phloem.

Also Read: Plant Kingdom

Plant Tissue Features

Plant Tissue reflects sedentary adaptation, growth localisation, and functional efficiency across organs like roots, stems, and leaves, ensuring survival in terrestrial environments.

Cell Specialisation: Plant tissues consist of cells specialised for functions such as transport, storage, support, and protection, improving efficiency and reducing energy loss.
Localized Growth: Growth occurs only in specific regions due to the presence of meristematic tissues, unlike animals where growth is more uniform.
Supportive Dominance: A large proportion of plant tissues provide mechanical support, often composed of dead cells with thickened walls.
Division of Labour: Different tissues perform distinct roles like conduction, protection, and photosynthesis, preventing functional overlap.
Adaptation to Stationary Life: Tissue organisation supports upright growth, water transport against gravity, and reduced energy consumption.

Plant Tissue Structure

The structure of a Plant Tissue varies with function, cell type, and location, enabling efficient transport, support, protection, and metabolic activities.

Cell Wall Presence: Most plant tissues have cellulose rich cell walls, providing rigidity and resistance against mechanical stress.
Intercellular Spaces: Simple tissues like parenchyma possess large intercellular spaces facilitating gas exchange and storage.
Wall Thickening: Supportive tissues show uneven or lignin based wall thickening for flexibility or rigidity.
Living and Dead Cells: Some tissues remain living for metabolic activity, while others consist of dead cells for structural strength.
Vascular Organisation: Conducting tissues are arranged as vascular bundles, ensuring efficient internal transport.

Plant Tissue Classification

Plant Tissues are classified based on their ability to divide and the level of cellular specialisation. Majorly these are of two types:

Meristematic Plant Tissue (Growing)
Permanent Plant Tissue (Mature)
1. Simple Permanent Plant Tissue
2. Complex Permanent Plant Tissue

Meristematic Plant Tissue

Meristematic Plant Tissue consists of actively dividing cells responsible for continuous plant growth at specific regions. The figure of Meristematic Tissue has been given below for reference:

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Meristematic-Plant-Tissue.webp" size="full" align="none" width="auto" height="451px" alt="Meristematic Plant Tissue" title="Meristematic Plant Tissue"]

Apical Meristem: Located at root and shoot tips, it increases plant length by producing new cells for primary growth.
Lateral Meristem: Present as cambium, it increases stem and root thickness through secondary growth.
Intercalary Meristem: Found near nodes, it enables rapid elongation in plants like grasses.
Cell Characteristics: Cells are small, thin walled, dense in cytoplasm, have prominent nuclei, and lack vacuoles.

Permanent Plant Tissue

Permanent Plant Tissue arises when meristematic cells differentiate, lose the ability to divide, and acquire specific structures and functions. On the basis of functions, Permanent Tissues are classified as:

Dermal Tissue: It forms the outer layer of the plant. Eg: Epidermis.
Vascular Tissue: It performs the transportation of water and nutrients within the plant. Eg: Xylem and Phloem.
Ground Tissue: It forms the basic structure of the plant. Eg: Parenchyma, Chlorenchyma, Aerenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.

On the basis of structure, the Permanent Plant Tissue can be classified as: Simple and Complex Tissues as given below:

1. Simple Permanent Plant Tissue

Simple Permanent Plant Tissues consist of one type of cell performing a single major function.

The figure of simple permanent tissue has been given here:

Parenchyma: Living, thin walled cells with large spaces, primarily involved in food storage and basic metabolism.
Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma containing chlorophyll, enabling photosynthesis in leaves and green stems.
Aerenchyma: Parenchyma with large air cavities that aid buoyancy in aquatic plants.
Collenchyma: Living cells with unevenly thickened corners, providing flexibility and mechanical support.
Sclerenchyma: Dead cells with lignified walls, imparting hardness and strength to seeds, stems, and husks.
Epidermis: Single layered protective tissue preventing water loss, mechanical injury, and pathogen entry.
Stomata: Epidermal pores regulated by guard cells for gas exchange and transpiration.
Root Hairs: Epidermal extensions increasing surface area for water and mineral absorption.
Cork Tissue: Dead, compact cells with suberin, forming an impermeable protective layer in older stems.

2. Complex Permanent Plant Tissue

Complex Permanent Plant Tissues consist of different cell types working together for a common function. The diagram representing the Complex Permanent Tissue has been given here:

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Complex-Permanent-Plant-Tissue.webp" size="full" align="none" width="auto" height="549px" alt="Complex Permanent Plant Tissue" title="Complex Permanent Plant Tissue"]

Xylem: Conducts water and minerals upward using tracheids, vessels, parenchyma, and fibres.
Tracheids and Vessels: Thick walled tubular cells that enable vertical water transport.
Xylem Parenchyma: Stores food and assists lateral conduction.
Xylem Fibres: Provide mechanical strength to vascular bundles.
Phloem: Transports food from leaves to other plant parts.
Sieve Tubes: Tubular cells with perforated walls allowing nutrient flow.
Companion Cells: Regulate sieve tube function and metabolic control.
Phloem Parenchyma: Stores food and supports transport processes.
Phloem Fibres: Provide structural support and are the only dead cells in phloem.

Plant Tissue Functions

Plant Tissues collectively support growth, transport, protection, and metabolic efficiency essential for plant survival.

Growth Regulation: Meristematic tissues ensure continuous growth throughout the plant’s life.
Transport System: Xylem and phloem maintain internal circulation of water, minerals, and food.
Mechanical Support: Collenchyma and sclerenchyma maintain plant posture and resistance.
Photosynthesis: Chlorenchyma enables food production using sunlight.
Protection: Epidermis and cork prevent dehydration and pathogen invasion.
Storage: Parenchyma stores food, water, and metabolic products.

Plant Tissue FAQs

Q1: What is Plant Tissue?

Ans: Plant tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function like growth, transport, storage, or protection.

Q2: Why are Plant Tissues important?

Ans: Plant tissues ensure efficient division of labour, allowing plants to grow, transport food and water, and survive in different environments.

Q3: What are the main types of Plant Tissues?

Ans: Plant tissues are mainly classified into meristematic tissues (dividing/ growing tissues) and permanent tissues (non dividing/ mature tissues).

Q4: Which Plant Tissue is responsible for growth?

Ans: Meristematic tissue is responsible for plant growth as its cells continuously divide throughout the plant’s life.

Q5: What is the function of Vascular Plant Tissues?

Ans: Vascular tissues are Xylem and Phloem which transport water, minerals, and food to different parts of the plant.

Plate Tectonics Theory, Types, Diagram, Significance, Divisions

January 2, 2026

Plate tectonics is a geographical theory that covers the lithosphere, the outer layer of Earth and its division into large pieces that are known as tectonic plates. Tectonic plates move slowly beneath the Earth’s surface and are responsible for the formation of mountains, volcanoes and other geographical features that form and change over time. In this article, we are going to cover all about Plate Tectonic Theory.

The Plate Tectonics Theory evolved from Alfred Wegener’s early concept of continental drift, proposed in 1912. The modern, comprehensive version was developed during the 1950s and 1960s, with significant contributions from scientists like Harry Hess, who introduced seafloor spreading, W.J. Morgan, and Vine & Matthews, among others, ultimately formalizing the movement of Earth’s rigid plates.

Plate Tectonics Theory

A tectonic plate is a slab of solid rock that keeps shifting and causes changes in the lithosphere, that is the outermost layer of Earth. Tectonic plates are not static and move slowly over the asthenosphere, a semi-molten, ductile layer below the lithosphere that allows movement.

Tectonic Plates Types

Tectonic Plates are of the following types:

Continental Plates: Consists of granitic rocks, light but thicker
Oceanic Plates: Consists of basaltic rocks, dense but thin
Mixed Pates: Include both continental and oceanic crust

A tectonic plate can be categorised as continental or oceanic depending on the dominant type of crust that it contains. Example-

Pacific Plate- Oceanic Plate
Eurasian Plate- Continental Plate

Plate Tectonics Theory Significance

The Plate Tectonics Theory was given by Alfred Weneger in the mid 20th century. Plate- Tectonics is accepted as the most reasonable theory for large-scale Earth processes. The theory explains-

The origin and breakup of oceans and continents
Formation of mountains due to collision of plates
Occurrence of earthquakes due to fault lines
Eruption of volcanoes at subduction zones and mid-ocean ridges
This helps in understanding the dynamic surface of Earth

Plate Tectonics Major and Minor Divisions

The lithosphere layer of Earth is divided into seven major and minor plates:

Major Tectonic Plates:

Pacific Plate
Eurasian Plate
North American Plate
South American Plate
African Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
Antarctic Plate

Minor Tectonic Plates:

Cocos Plate – Between Central America & Pacific Plate
Nazca Plate – Between South America & Pacific Plate
Arabian Plate – Covers much of the Middle East
Philippine Plate – Between Asia & Pacific
Caroline Plate – North of New Guinea
Fuji Plate – Northeast of Australia

Plate Tectonics Diagram

The following diagram below explains the Theory of Plate Tectonics:

Forces Driving Plate Tectonics Movement

Plate Tectonics movement is caused by the energy of heat in the Earth’s interior. These forces include:

Asthenosphere Flow: Movement of tectonic plates due to convection currents in the semi-fluid asthenosphere.
Heat sources include radioactive decay of elements (uranium, thorium, potassium) and heat residual from Earth’s formation.
Convection Cells: Hot mantle material rises, spreads, cools and sinks leading to circular flow that pushes and pulls plates.
This idea, proposed by Arthur Holmes (1930s), laid the foundation for Harry Hess’ theory of seafloor spreading in the 1960s.

Plate Tectonics Boundaries

Plate Tectonics boundaries can be classified into three types:

Divergent Boundaries (Constructive)

Plates move apart, and new crust forms from rising magma.
Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge (North American Plate separating from Eurasian Plate).

Convergent Boundaries (Destructive)

Plates collide, leading to subduction or mountain-building.
- Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence: One oceanic plate subducts beneath the other Volcanic island arcs (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia).
- Oceanic–Continental Convergence: Denser oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate Volcanic mountains (e.g., Andes).
- Continental–Continental Convergence: Both plates collide Fold mountains (e.g., Himalayas, Alps).

Transform Boundaries (Conservative)

Plates slide past each other horizontally → causes earthquakes.
Example: San Andreas Fault in California.

Plate Tectonics and Continental Evolution

Alfred Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift (1912) says that all continents were once a part of a supercontinent that is Pangaea.
Over the years, through the studying of seafloor spreading and paleomagnetism, it was confirmed that continents were separated by tectonic plates.
Continents move constantly, collide, break apart and reshape the globe.
Example: The Indian subcontinent drifted from near Antarctica and collided with Asia, forming the Himalayas.

Plate Tectonics Theory FAQs

Q1: What is plate tectonic theory?

Ans: The plate tectonic theory explains the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere, shaping continents, oceans, mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

Q2: Who proposed the plate tectonic theory?

Ans: The plate tectonic theory was developed in the 1960s, building on Alfred Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis and Harry Hess’s seafloor spreading concept.

Q3: What is the 3 plate tectonic theory?

Ans: The three types of plate boundaries in plate tectonic theory are divergent (plates move apart), convergent (plates collide), and transform (plates slide past each other).

Q4: How many types of plate tectonics are there?

Ans: There are three main types of plate tectonic boundaries—divergent, convergent, and transform.

Q5: What are the transform boundaries of Plate tectonics?

Ans: Transform boundaries are places where two plates slide past each other horizontally, neither creating nor destroying crust, e.g., San Andreas Fault in California.

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 January 2026

January 2, 2026

Mandating Student Presence, Erasing Learning

Context

The Delhi High Court’s decision allowing law students to appear for examinations without fulfilling rigid attendance requirements has revived a critical debate in Indian higher education.
While administrators fear a decline in discipline, the ruling exposes a deeper misunderstanding of how learning occurs.
Compulsory attendance equates obedience with learning, reflecting a bureaucratic and paternalistic model of education.
Rather than weakening academic standards, the judgment challenges universities to reconsider whether education should rely on surveillance or on curiosity, autonomy, and intellectual engagement.

The Fallacy of Attendance as a Measure of Learning

Attendance is often treated as evidence of seriousness and commitment, yet physical presence guarantees neither attention nor understanding.
Attendance measures compliance, not intellectual engagement. This fixation thrives where classrooms have been reduced to routine delivery of notes and predictable content.
When teaching lacks vitality, institutions substitute inspiration with enforcement.
Instead of examining why students disengage, responsibility is displaced onto attendance policies that conceal pedagogical inadequacies.

Pedagogy, Autonomy, and the Role of the Teacher

Coercive education produces neither depth nor seriousness. Meaningful pedagogy demands confidence in the teacher’s ability to create intellectual value.
Absence should provoke reflection, not punishment. This view aligns with Paulo Freire’s rejection of the banking model of education, which treats students as passive recipients.
For Freire, learning emerges through dialogue, questioning, and shared inquiry. Education thrives on autonomy and dialogue, not compulsion.
Compulsory attendance undermines this vision by privileging discipline over thought.

Exemplary Teaching and the Power of Voluntary Engagement

The history of education demonstrates that great teachers never relied on enforcement.
Figures such as Isaiah Berlin, Terry Eagleton, Germaine Greer, Christopher Bayly, and Frank Kermode drew students through intellectual craftsmanship, originality, and passion.
Their lectures were meticulously prepared, emotionally resonant, and intellectually provocative. Students attended not out of obligation but anticipation.
Such teaching rendered absence unnecessary by making learning compelling.

Learning Beyond the Classroom

Transformative learning often occurs when institutional rigidity dissolves.
Reading Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey within natural landscapes or engaging with Thoreau’s Walden outdoors allows texts to emerge as living provocations rather than static artefacts.
Students interpret, debate, and reflect independently.
These experiences reveal learning in its most fundamental form, rooted in curiosity, dialogue, and personal engagement rather than prescribed metrics.

Contemporary Knowledge and the Obsolescence of Coercion

In an age of digital archives, open-access scholarship, and artificial intelligence tools, compulsory physical presence appears increasingly outdated.
Leading global universities trust students’ intellectual maturity and rely on pedagogical quality rather than surveillance.
Their authority stems from confidence in teaching, not monitoring. In contrast, Indian universities have become burdened by bureaucratic overreach and administrative control.
Mandatory attendance functions within this framework as a tool of pacification, restricting autonomy and critical inquiry.

The Philosophical Stakes of the Attendance Debate

The attendance debate is fundamentally philosophical. It asks whether universities regard students as autonomous thinkers or as wards requiring constant supervision.
Institutions that prioritise attendance over engagement betray their purpose of cultivating critical minds capable of questioning society.
Coercion emerges where pedagogy lacks confidence. The High Court’s ruling challenges this erosion by restoring trust in students’ intellectual agency.

Conclusion

By separating attendance from examination eligibility, the Delhi High Court affirms a foundational educational principle: Intellectual engagement cannot be legislated.
Learning flourishes only where freedom, curiosity, and dialogue are central. The ruling compels educators to rethink teaching itself and encourages institutions to replace coercion with creativity.
If embraced earnestly, it offers Indian higher education an opportunity to reclaim the university as a space of inquiry, discovery, and intellectual vitality rather than bureaucratic discipline.

Mandating Student Presence, Erasing Learning FAQs

Q1. Why does compulsory attendance fail as a measure of learning?
Ans. Compulsory attendance measures physical presence and compliance but does not guarantee intellectual engagement or understanding.

Q2. What educational model does the essay criticise through the attendance debate?
Ans. The essay criticises a bureaucratic and paternalistic model that prioritises control over curiosity and autonomy.

Q3. How does Paulo Freire’s philosophy relate to the argument against compulsory attendance?
Ans. Paulo Freire’s philosophy emphasises dialogue and critical inquiry, which are undermined by coercive attendance policies.

Q4. Why did renowned teachers not need to enforce attendance?
Ans. Renowned teachers attracted students through intellectually compelling and well-crafted teaching rather than administrative compulsion.

Q5. What broader opportunity does the High Court ruling create for universities?
Ans. The ruling creates an opportunity for universities to rethink pedagogy and prioritise meaningful engagement over surveillance.

Source: The Hindu

EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) - Implications for India’s Steel and Aluminium Exports

Context:

From 1 January 2026, the European Union (EU) will effectively impose a carbon-linked import tax under the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) on select carbon-intensive products, including steel and aluminium.
Though certificate payments begin in 2027, the price impact starts immediately in 2026, significantly affecting Indian exporters.
This marks a structural shift in global trade, where carbon intensity becomes a determinant of competitiveness.

What is CBAM:

CBAM is the EU’s instrument to extend its carbon pricing regime (EU Emissions Trading System – ETS) to imports, preventing carbon leakage (shifting production to countries with weaker climate norms).
Covered sectors (Phase I): Steel, Aluminium, Cement, Fertilisers, Electricity, Hydrogen (and more sectors likely to be added).
Key objective: It will ensure a level playing field between EU producers and foreign exporters by pricing carbon emissions embedded in imports.

How CBAM Works:

Basis of taxation: CBAM liability depends on -
- Plant-level carbon emissions during production.
- EU carbon price (equivalent to €80 per tonne of CO₂):
  - Only Scope 1 (direct fuel) and Scope 2 (electricity) emissions are counted.
  - No company-wide averages; only the exact supplying plant matters.
  - Emissions from mining, transport, or product use are excluded.
- Who pays:
  - EU importers officially buy CBAM certificates.
  - Actual burden is passed to Indian exporters through lower prices and tougher contracts.

Impact on Indian Steel and Aluminium Exports:

Shrinking margins:
- 16–22% reduction in realised prices.
- Example:
  - Blast Furnace–Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF) steel emits almost 2.4 tonnes CO₂/tonne
  - CBAM cost equivalent to €192 per tonne
  - Exporter bears €95–€133 per tonne after cost pass-through
  - €600 sale price falls to €467–505
- Export decline:
  - In FY2025, India exported $5.8 billion worth of steel and aluminium to the EU — 24% lower than the previous year — despite no carbon tax.
  - The decline began after new EU rules took effect in October 2023, requiring exporters to report plant-level carbon emissions under CBAM’s transition phase.
  - Compliance costs, data gaps, and verification hurdles forced many Indian firms to scale back exports well before CBAM formally became a tax.

Compliance and Verification Challenges:

Mandatory plant-level emissions reporting.
Risk of default CBAM values (30–80% higher than actual emissions) if data is missing.
From 2026, data must be verified by ISO 14065 / EU-approved auditors.
Limited availability of eligible Indian auditors.

Impacts:

On contracts and trade practices:
- Renegotiation of long-term contracts.
- Introduction of CBAM adjustment clauses, dual pricing (base price + CBAM-linked price), and price revisions linked to changes in EU carbon prices.
- Reduced bargaining power of Indian exporters.
Production routes and differential impact:
- CBAM rewards cleaner production -
  - Highest burden: Coal-based BF–BOF steel
  - Moderate burden: Gas-based DRI
  - Lowest burden: Scrap-based / Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steel
Equity and protectionism concerns:
- EU carbon price (almost €80) applied uniformly, even to developing countries.
- Comparison: China’s carbon price is equivalent to 10% of EU level. India has no nationwide carbon tax.
- Raises concerns of climate inequity, disguised protectionism, and revenue generation under the garb of climate action.
- Irony: Steel and aluminium (equivalent to 10% of global emissions) are now among the most protected sectors in developed economies (EU CBAM + US 50% tariff).

Challenges for India:

Absence of a national carbon pricing mechanism.
High dependence on coal-based steel.
Weak carbon accounting and verification ecosystem.
Risk of losing EU market share (22% of India’s steel and aluminium exports).
Slower industrial growth with minimal global emission reduction impact.

Way Forward:

At the international level: Seek CBAM resolution or exemptions in India–EU FTA negotiations. Push for differentiated responsibilities reflecting development levels.
At the domestic level:
- Strengthen carbon accounting frameworks.
- Build capacity of emissions auditors.
- Support transition to gas-based DRI, scrap-based or electric arc furnace (EAF) steel
- Encourage green steel through incentives, technology upgrades, and financing.
- Prepare exporters for data discipline and contract restructuring.

Conclusion:

CBAM is not a temporary compliance hurdle, but a fundamental reordering of global trade rules where carbon becomes a trade currency.
For Indian steel and aluminium exporters, continued access to the EU market will depend on accurate emissions measurement, verified data, cleaner production routes, and strategic trade negotiations.
In the emerging low-carbon trade regime, competitiveness will be defined not only by cost efficiency, but by carbon efficiency — a critical insight for India’s industrial and trade policy going forward.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) FAQs

Q1. What is the CBAM and why has the EU introduced it?

Ans. CBAM is an EU mechanism that taxes imports based on embedded carbon emissions to prevent carbon leakage.

Q2. How will CBAM impact India’s steel and aluminium exports to the EU?

Ans. CBAM is likely to reduce Indian exporters’ realised prices by 16–22%, weaken bargaining power, etc.

Q3. Why does the absence of a nationwide carbon pricing mechanism in India increase CBAM’s burden on Indian exporters?

Ans. Since India does not price carbon domestically, EU importers cannot claim deductions, forcing Indian exporters to bear the full CBAM charge.

Q4. Why is plant-level emissions data critical for Indian exporters under CBAM?

Ans. CBAM is based on verified plant-specific Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions, and lack of data leads to inflated default values.

Q5. In what way does CBAM influence production choices and industrial strategy in India?

Ans. CBAM incentivises a shift from coal-based BF–BOF steel to cleaner routes such as gas-based DRI to remain globally competitive.

Source: IE

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 January 2026 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Cyclone Ditwah, Origin, Naming, IMD Forecast, Impact

January 2, 2026

Cyclone Ditwah is the latest tropical cyclone to form over the Southwest Bay of Bengal in November 2025. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has issued multiple alerts for Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh as the system continues to intensify.

The article below discusses the origin, naming, IMD Forecast and Impact of Cyclone Ditwah.

Cyclone Ditwah Origin

Cyclone Ditwah originated from a well-marked low-pressure area over the Southwest Bay of Bengal on 26 November 2025.

Key developing factors include:

Warm Sea Surface Temperatures (28-30°C): essential energy source for cyclogenesis.
Low Vertical Wind Shear (10-15 knots): enabling vertical development of clouds.
Moisture-rich monsoonal winds feed the system.
The system intensified from a low-pressure system to a depression to a deep depression and finally converted into a cyclonic storm within 24-36 hours.

Cyclone Ditwah Naming

“Ditwah” is a name given by Yemen, as per the WMO-ESCAP (World Meteorological Organization & UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific) cyclone naming list.
The name refers to Detwah Lagoon, an ecologically significant coastal waterbody located in the Socotra Archipelago.
Names are assigned sequentially from a pre-approved list contributed by 13 member countries, which includes Bangladesh, India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Cyclone Ditwah IMD Forecast

According to the latest IMD bulletins:

The system is likely to move north-northwestwards towards the Tamil Nadu-Puducherry-South Andhra Pradesh coast.
Expected peak wind speeds: 70-90 km/h, with possible higher gusts near the centre.
Landfall prediction: Around 30 November 2025, depending on its track and intensification.
IMD has issued:
- Red Alert for heavy to very heavy rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu & Puducherry.
- Orange Alert for South Andhra Pradesh districts.
- Fishermen Warning: Total suspension of fishing in the Southwest and West-Central Bay of Bengal.
- Sea Condition: Very rough to high.

Cyclone Ditwah and Operation Sagar Bandhu

India has expressed heartfelt condolences to the people of Sri Lanka affected by Cyclone Ditwah and wished for their safety and quick recovery.

To support emergency needs, India has urgently dispatched relief materials and HADR assistance under Operation Sagar Bandhu. Guided by the Neighbourhood First policy and Vision MAHASAGAR, India remains committed to helping Sri Lanka during this crisis.

Why Cyclones Mostly Form in the Bay of Bengal

The Bay of Bengal is a major cyclogenesis zone, especially in the post-monsoon months (October–December).

Reasons include:

Higher Sea Surface Temperatures than the Arabian Sea due to weaker heat dissipation.
Freshwater influx from major rivers (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy) creating layered warm water, ideal for cyclone formation.
Low vertical wind shear in the region.
Favourable Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) phases enhancing convection.
Geographical funnel-shape, amplifying wind convergence.
Warm ocean eddies that energize depressions.

Because of these factors, nearly 75% of North Indian Ocean cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal.

Cyclone Ditwah Impact

Cyclone Ditwah Impact on Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has already faced widespread flooding, landslides, and severe storm damage.
As per early reports: 120+ deaths, dozens injured, and significant displacement.
Transport routes, bridges, and communication lines were disrupted in multiple districts.

Cyclone Ditwah Expected Impact on India

Heavy to extremely heavy rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh.
Urban flooding likely in Chennai, Cuddalore, and Puducherry.
Strong winds may uproot trees, disrupt power supply, and damage kutcha structures.
Agricultural losses possible in paddy fields, banana crops, and coastal fisheries.
High waves & storm surge threatening low-lying coastal belts.

Cyclone Ditwah FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Ditwah?

Ans: A tropical cyclone that formed over the Southwest Bay of Bengal in and is moving towards the South Indian coast.

Q2: Who named the cyclone “Ditwah”?

Ans: Yemen. The name refers to Detwah Lagoon in the Socotra Archipelago.

Q3: Which states in India will be affected?

Ans: Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh are expected to see heavy rainfall, strong winds, and rough seas.

Q4: Why do more cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal?

Ans: Due to warm sea temperatures, low wind shear, humid monsoonal winds, riverine freshwater layers, and favourable geography.

Q5: Will Cyclone Ditwah impact North India?

Ans: No major impact expected. Only minor temperature or wind changes may occur depending on the system’s movement.

Local Winds in India, Formation, Types, Examples, Importance

January 2, 2026

Local Winds are winds that blow over short distances and are shaped by geographic features such as mountains, valleys, coastlines, or deserts. Unlike global winds, which circulate over vast regions, local winds are temporary, predictable, and specific to a particular area.

They form due to differences in temperature and air pressure within a localized region, for example, between land and water or between high and low elevations. These Local Winds play an important role in influencing daily weather patterns.

Local Winds

Local Winds occur across the world and differ from global winds such as the trade winds or westerlies. They blow over small areas and usually last for a short period. Their direction and strength are influenced by local landforms, sea temperatures, and prevailing weather conditions.

These winds are especially common in coastal regions, mountain valleys, and deserts. They are generally predictable, often following regular patterns depending on the time of day or season. Farmers, fishermen, and travelers frequently rely on local winds for planning and safety.

Many Local Winds have distinct names and characteristics. Examples include the Loo in India and the Chinook in North America. These winds play a key role in shaping regional climates and daily weather patterns.

Local Winds Formation

Local winds are primarily shaped by temperature-driven pressure differences, terrain features, and surface characteristics such as vegetation and urban areas. These winds develop over specific regions and often follow predictable patterns:

Temperature-Driven Pressure Gradients: Land heats and cools faster than water, giving rise to sea breezes during the day, when cool air moves from sea to land, and land breezes at night, when cool air flows from land to sea. Similarly, valleys and mountains produce valley breezes, as warm air rises up slopes during the day, and mountain breezes, when cool air descends at night.
Topographic Influence: Slopes and elevation changes generate anabatic winds (upward-moving warm air) and katabatic winds (downward-moving cold air, such as the strong gusts in Antarctica). Mountain ranges can also force air to ascend and cool, producing Foehn winds warm, dry winds on the leeward side of mountains, exemplified by the Chinook in North America.
Urban and Vegetation Effects: Cities create urban heat islands, where hot air rises from buildings, generating localized winds. Forested areas can produce katabatic winds as cooled air flows downward into valleys.

Local Winds Types

Local Winds vary based on direction, region, and season. Some of the most common types around the world include:

Sea Breeze: Blows from the sea toward the land during the day. It brings cooler air, lowering temperatures in coastal areas.
Land Breeze: Moves from land to sea at night. It is cooler and drier compared to the sea breeze.
Valley Breeze: Occurs during the day as warm air rises from the valley floor and moves uphill.
Mountain Breeze: Happens at night when cool air flows down slopes into the valley.
Loo: A hot, dry wind in northern India during summer. It can cause heatstroke and damage crops.
Chinook: A warm, dry wind on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It quickly melts snow and raises temperatures.

Local Winds Examples

Some of the well-known Local Winds from different regions are:

Local Winds Examples
Name	Nature of Wind	Location/Region	Effects/Impact
Chinook	Hot, dry	Eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains (North America)	Rapid snowmelt, temperature rise, drying of soil
Foehn	Hot, dry	The Alps (Europe)	Warms the leeward side of mountains, reduces humidity, can trigger avalanches
Mistral	Cold, strong	France and the Alps	Lowers temperature, clears clouds, brings dry conditions
Sirocco	Hot, moist (sometimes dry)	Sahara to the Mediterranean Sea	Causes dust storms, high humidity, and discomfort
Bora	Cold, dry, gusty	Eastern Europe to northeastern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia	Sudden temperature drop, strong gusts, hazardous for shipping
Harmattan	Hot, dry, dusty	West Africa	Reduces humidity, carries dust, affects health and visibility
Santa Ana	Hot, dry	Southern California	Raises wildfire risk, heats the region, dries out vegetation
Khamsin	Hot, dry	Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean	Sandstorms, high temperatures, discomfort, affects agriculture
Loo	Hot, dry	Northern India and Pakistan	Heatwaves, crop damage, health risks like heatstroke
Cape Doctor	Dry, southeasterly	South African coast	Clears air pollution, dries vegetation, influences coastal weather

Local Winds in India

The table below provides an overview of some of the most prominent Local Winds in India, highlighting their nature, regions of occurrence, seasonal patterns, and impacts. These winds play a significant role in shaping local weather and climate, influencing agriculture, daily life, and regional temperature variations.

Local Winds in India
Name	Nature	Region	Season	Impact/Effects
Loo	Hot, dry, dusty	Northern India (Indo-Gangetic plains)	Summer (April–June)	Causes extreme heat, discomfort, health risks like heatstroke
Mango Showers	Pre-monsoon rains, sometimes with thunderstorms	Southern India (Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)	Late April–June	Helps ripening of mangoes, signals onset of southwest monsoon
Nor’westers (Kal Baisakhi)	Violent thunderstorms with strong winds and hail	West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, surrounding areas	Pre-monsoon (April–May)	Can damage crops and property; provides relief from summer heat
Sea Breeze / Land Breeze	Gentle winds: sea to land (day) and land to sea (night)	Coastal areas (Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata)	Throughout the year, pronounced in summer	Moderates coastal temperatures
Aandhi	Dust storms with strong winds	Northern and northwestern India (Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, UP)	Pre-monsoon (April–June)	Reduces visibility, respiratory problems, hazardous for travelers

Role of Local Winds in Weather and Climate Patterns

India experiences a diverse range of local winds due to its varied topography, coastline, and climatic zones. These winds are generally short-lived and region-specific, but they have a significant impact on local weather, agriculture, and daily life. From the scorching and dusty Loo of the northern plains to the cooling sea breezes along the coasts, and from pre-monsoon storms like Nor’westers to seasonal showers such as Mango Showers, local winds in India shape temperature, rainfall patterns, and even crop cycles across different regions.

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Local Winds FAQs

Q1: What are the 4 types of local winds?

Ans: Local winds include land and sea breezes, mountain and valley winds, katabatic winds, and foehn/Chinook winds, varying due to topography and temperature differences.

Q2: What are local winds?

Ans: Local winds are winds blowing over short distances, influenced by terrain, temperature, and pressure differences, unlike global winds that follow planetary circulation patterns.

Q3: What are the local winds of India?

Ans: India’s local winds include Loo (summer plains), Mountain and Valley winds (Himalayas), Sea and Land breezes (coasts), and Foehn winds (Himalayan leeward side).

Q4: What are the 4 types of wind?

Ans: Winds are classified as local, seasonal (monsoon), global (trade, westerlies, polar), and periodic winds based on scale, duration, and origin.

Q5: What are category 4 winds?

Ans: Category 4 winds refer to cyclone classification on the Saffir-Simpson scale, with wind speeds 209-251 km/h causing severe damage.

Government Budgeting, Meaning, Types, Components, Facts

January 2, 2026

Government Budgeting is the process by which the government plans, allocates and monitors the public fund. The process involves estimating revenues from taxes, fees, borrowings and planning the expenditures required to achieve policy objectives within a fixed fiscal period, generally one year.

Government Budgeting in India

The Government Budgeting in India is a comprehensive exercise undertaken by both the Central and the state levels. For the discussion, the focus is on the union budget, that is the annual financial statement of the Central Government.

Union Budget of India

The Constitution of India has the following provisions when it comes to the Union Budget:

According to Article 112 of the Indian Constitution, the Union Budget refers to the Annual Financial Statement of the Central Government. This statement provides details of estimated receipts and expenditures for the financial year.
The Union Budget can be sub divided into three categories:
1. Budget Estimates (BE): Projections for the upcoming fiscal year.
2. Revised Estimates (RE): Updated estimates for the current fiscal year.
3. Provisional Actuals (PA): Actual receipts and expenditures of the previous fiscal year.

Union Budget of India Important Facts

The Union Budget is presented in the Parliament on 1st February every year since 2017-18.
Before this, the budget was always presented in the last week of February.
The Railway Budget, earlier presented separately since 1924 (Acworth Committee recommendation), was merged with the General Budget in 2017–18 (Bibek Debroy Committee).
The Nodal Agency managing the Union Budget is the Budget Division of the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance.

Government Budgeting Stages in India

Government Budgeting in India is divided into four phases:

Budget Formulation: Preparation of estimates of receipts and expenditures.
Budget Enactment: Legislative approval through Finance Bill & Appropriation Bill.
Budget Execution: Collection of revenues and spending as per approvals.
Legislative Review: Post-budget audits and scrutiny by Parliament.

Procedure of Union Budget Enactment

The Union Budget is passed in the Parliament by by following procedure:

The President fixes the date of the budget presentation.
The Budget is laid down in the Lok Sabha by the Union Finance Minister, followed by laying it before the Rajya Sabha.
The Budget is then put up for debate on the basis of principles and priorities without voting.
The Standing Committees examine Demands for Grants in detail and submit reports.
Voting on Demands for Grants (Lok Sabha only):
- Lok Sabha votes on expenditure demands, converting them into Grants.
- Rajya Sabha can only discuss, not vote.
- Cut Motions:
  - Policy Cut Motion – reduce demand to ₹1 (policy disapproval).
  - Economy Cut Motion – reduce demand by a specific amount (suggest savings).
  - Token Cut Motion – reduce demand by ₹100 (raise a grievance).
The Appropriation Bill is passed after grants are approved. This bill authorises withdrawals from the Consolidated Funds of India.
The Finance Bill legalises tax proposals and revenue measures.
Finally with the Presidential assent to Appropriation and Finance Acts, the Budget is finally enforceable.

Government Budget Components

The Government Budget is sub-divided into two main components- Revenue Budget and Capital Budget

1. Revenue Budget

The Revenue Budget details the government’s revenue receipts and revenue expenditure.

(a) Revenue Receipts

Income received by the government that is not repayable.

Tax Revenue includes:
- Direct Taxes: e.g., Income Tax, Corporation Tax
- Indirect Taxes: e.g., Customs Duties, Excise Duties, Service Tax, GST
- Other Direct Taxes: Wealth Tax, Gift Tax, etc.
Non-Tax Revenue
- Interest receipts on loans
- Dividends & profits from government investments
- Fees & service charges
- Spectrum revenue
- Grants from foreign countries/institutions

(b) Revenue Expenditure

Revenue Expenditure neither creates assets nor generates future returns.
Examples: Salaries, pensions, subsidies, interest payments, grants to states/UTs, and daily functioning of government departments.

2. Capital Budget

The Capital Budget reflects the assets and liabilities of the government and funds required for long-term development.

(a) Capital Receipts

Funds that either create liabilities or reduce assets.

Debt-Creating: Fresh loans and borrowings
Non-Debt Creating: Recovery of loans, disinvestment proceeds

(b) Capital Expenditure

Capital Expenditure is the spending that leads to creation of assets or investments.
Examples: Infrastructure (roads, schools, hospitals), equity in PSUs, loans to states/UTs, and repayment of loan principal.

Budget Types

The Union Budget is of the following types:

Balanced Budget – Receipts = Expenditure (rare in practice).
Surplus Budget – Receipts > Expenditure (used to control inflation).
Deficit Budget – Expenditure > Receipts (used during recession/depression).

Budget Deficits

The Deficits in Budget is of the following types:

Budget Deficit = Total Expenditure – Total Receipts (rarely used now).
Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts (indicates non-asset spending).
Effective Revenue Deficit (ERD) = Revenue Deficit – Grants for Capital Assets (introduced in 2012–13).
Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Capital Receipts).
Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit – Interest Payments.
Monetized Deficit = Borrowings from RBI + Cash drawdown (leads to increase in money supply).

Government Budgeting Types

Government Budgeting is of the following types:

Line-Item Budgeting : Lists expenditures by categories
Performance Budgeting : Links spending to measurable performance.
Zero-Based Budgeting : Introduced in 1987-88 and every program reviewed afresh from "zero" each year.
Outcome Budgeting : Introduced in 2005 and consolidated in 2017-18, it focuses on results achieved rather than inputs.
Gender Budgeting : introduced in 2005-06, it examines budgets from a gender perspective to promote equality.

Government Budgeting FAQs

Q1: What does the government budget mean?

Ans: A government budget is an annual financial statement of estimated revenue and expenditure for a fiscal year.

Q2: What are the types of government budgets?

Ans: The three types are Balanced Budget, Surplus Budget, and Deficit Budget.

Q3: What are the 4 types of budgeting?

Ans: The four types are Line-Item Budgeting, Performance Budgeting, Zero-Based Budgeting, and Outcome Budgeting.

Q4: What is the revenue deficit?

Ans: Revenue deficit is the excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts.

Q5: How do you calculate the fiscal deficit?

Ans: Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Capital Receipts).

Rise of Nationalism in India, Major Events, Significance

January 2, 2026

The Rise of Nationalism in India marked a turning point in the country’s history. It began taking shape in the late 19th century, when Indians started developing a shared sense of identity and purpose against British rule. What began as an awakening of collective unity soon grew into a powerful movement that challenged colonial domination. This spirit of nationalism not only inspired reforms and resistance but also laid the groundwork for the freedom struggle that contributed to independence in 1947.

Nationalism in India

Nationalism is the belief and movement that stresses loyalty and devotion to one’s nation. It calls on people to unite around shared identity, history, language, culture, and common aspirations. Often, nationalism grows stronger when a country faces domination or injustice at the hands of outside powers. At its core, it stands for self-rule and collective unity.

Nationalism in India took shape as a response to British colonial rule. The experience of foreign exploitation gradually made Indians recognize their shared past and common future. Literature, social reform, and cultural revival nurtured this collective spirit. Over time, this idea of unity transformed into a powerful movement that bound Indians together in the struggle for independence.

Rise of Nationalism in India

Several developments in the 19th and early 20th centuries pushed Indians toward nationalism:

British Rule and Exploitation: Heavy taxation, economic drain, and racial discrimination bred deep resentment.
Western Education: Exposure to ideas of liberty, equality, and democracy from European revolutions inspired educated Indians to demand similar rights.
Economic Hardship: The collapse of Indian handicrafts, decline of industries, and suffering of farmers revealed the exploitative nature of colonial rule.
Social and Religious Reform Movements: Thinkers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda fought social evils and revived cultural pride, fostering unity.
Rise of the Press: Regional newspapers and journals spread nationalist thought, evaluate British policies, and mobilise public opinion.
Indian National Congress (1885): Provided a common political platform for Indians to voice grievances and demand reforms.
Racial Discrimination: Unequal treatment in jobs, education, and law reinforced the need for collective resistance.

Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events

The growth of nationalism in India was not sudden but shaped through a series of turning points. Each major event deepened the people’s resolve against colonial rule and brought India closer to freedom. The table below highlights Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events:

Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events
Event	Year	Significance
Formation of Indian National Congress	1885	Created a political platform for Indians; initially sought reforms but later led the independence struggle.
Partition of Bengal	1905	Sparked the Swadeshi Movement; promoted boycott of British goods and use of indigenous products.
Home Rule Movement	1916	Led by Tilak and Annie Besant, popularized the demand for self-rule across India.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre	1919	Massacre of unarmed civilians by British troops in Amritsar; intensified anti-British sentiment.
Non-Cooperation Movement	1920-22	Gandhi’s nationwide movement; boycott of British institutions and goods; united masses in resistance.
Civil Disobedience Movement (Salt March)	1930-34	Gandhi’s Salt March challenged colonial salt laws; inspired widespread nonviolent protest.
Quit India Movement	1942	“Do or Die” call by Gandhi; demanded immediate independence; marked the final mass struggle before 1947.

Legacy of Indian Nationalism

The Indian Nationalist Movement left behind more than just independence in 1947, it gave Indians a new sense of identity and purpose. Its impact can be seen in several ways:

Unity in Diversity: It brought together people across castes, religions, and regions, shaping a collective national identity.
Democratic Foundations: The values of liberty, justice, and democracy that guided the struggle later became pillars of the Indian Constitution.
Social Reform and Awareness: The movement raised awareness against caste discrimination, untouchability, and gender inequality.
Inspiration for Future Movements: It became a model for other colonies, proving that peaceful mass resistance could succeed.

Empowerment of Common People: Farmers, workers, students, and women actively participated, discovering their ability to drive change.

Rise of Nationalism in India FAQs

Q1: What is the rise of nationalism in India?

Ans: The rise of nationalism in India was the growing unity and political consciousness against British rule, leading to movements for independence and self-determination.

Q2: What was the main idea of the rise of nationalism?

Ans: The main idea was to unite Indians across regions, religions, and languages against colonial exploitation, demanding political rights, economic freedom, and ultimately self-rule and independence.

Q3: What was the rise of nationalism in 10th class?

Ans: In 10th class history, rise of nationalism explains how colonial oppression, social reforms, and movements like Swadeshi inspired unity, political awakening, and struggles for India’s freedom.

Q4: When was nationalism started in India?

Ans: Nationalism in India started in the late 19th century with the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, slowly uniting Indians against British dominance.

Q5: Who is the father of nationalism?

Ans: Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the father of Indian nationalism for his assertive politics, inspiring slogan “Swaraj is my birthright,” and leadership in independence movements.

Inclusive Growth, Meaning, Need, Features, Factors Affecting

January 2, 2026

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines Inclusive Growth as both the process and the result of ensuring that all groups of people are able to participate in economic growth and share its benefits equally. It emphasizes that growth must not be limited to a few, but should expand opportunities for everyone, especially the marginalized.

This idea directly connects with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10, which seeks to reduce inequality within and among countries. SDG 10 highlights the importance of providing equal opportunities and addressing unequal outcomes by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies, and practices. It also calls for proactive steps through legislation, reforms, and social measures to promote fairness and equity in development.

Inclusive Growth

Inclusive Growth ensures that economic growth benefits all sections of society, reducing poverty and inequality. It is not only about the pace of growth but also about its pattern, how it creates opportunities and distributes benefits. The goal is to expand productive employment rather than merely redistribute income.

Inclusiveness means equal access to markets, resources, and a fair regulatory environment for both individuals and businesses. Growth strategies must be modified to each country’s unique socio-economic conditions. Market forces largely drive inclusive growth, but government intervention is vital to provide support, regulation, and infrastructure.

Focus remains on improving productivity alongside job creation, ensuring long-term and sustainable development.

Inclusive Growth Need

Reduce Poverty and Inequality: Rapid growth alone has not guaranteed poverty reduction; inclusiveness ensures benefits reach marginalized groups.
Balanced Regional Development: Disparities across states and rural-urban divides call for growth that spreads evenly.
Social Justice and Equity: Ensures equal access to opportunities, resources, and markets, upholding constitutional values.
Human Development: Better education, healthcare, nutrition, and skill development raise overall productivity.
Employment Generation: Moves beyond income redistribution to create quality jobs, especially in agriculture and informal sectors.
Sustainable Growth: Focus on environmentally sound and socially inclusive policies avoids long-term risks.
Political and Social Stability: Reduces unrest by bringing disadvantaged groups into the growth process.

Inclusive Growth Features

Equitable Opportunities: Ensures access to resources and markets for all, regardless of socio-economic background.
Reducing Inequality: Seeks to narrow income and wealth gaps, promoting social balance and stability.
Social Safety Nets: Strengthens support systems for vulnerable groups during crises or economic transitions.
Education and Skill Development: Focuses on quality education and training to enhance employability and productivity.
Employment Generation: Prioritizes creation of decent and diverse jobs, especially for marginalized communities.
Infrastructure Expansion: Improves healthcare, roads, sanitation, and housing to raise living standards.
Gender Equality: Promotes women’s participation and empowerment across sectors.
Rural-Urban Linkages: Encourages balanced development to reduce distress migration.
Sustainability: Integrates ecological concerns into growth strategies.
Participatory Approach: Involves all stakeholders, government, business, and civil society in shaping policies.

Factors Affecting Inclusive Growth

Inequality:
- Inequalities in society go beyond individual differences; they are sustained by socio-economic and political structures.
- Rapid globalization has widened these inequities, creating fresh challenges for inclusion.
- Marginalized groups such as minorities, women, the disabled, and the poor remain excluded unless specific equity-focused measures are taken.
Social Exclusion
- Exclusion is rooted in social structures that deny certain groups full participation in economic and social life.
- Even developed economies face exclusion, proving that growth alone doesn’t guarantee inclusion.
- Marginalization limits opportunities and deepens disadvantage.
Poverty
- Poverty is multidimensional, covering not just income but health, education, and dignity.
- The poor face systemic barriers in decision-making and access to resources.
- Inclusion is necessary to enhance their capabilities, productivity, and incomes.
Disparities
- Regional, gender, caste, and class disparities remain pervasive.
- Natural factors (climate, geography), socio-cultural norms, and government policies all shape these gaps.
- Addressing these disparities is crucial for balanced and equitable growth.
Displacement
- Forced displacements due to projects, conflicts, or disasters disrupt livelihoods and culture.
- They result in economic loss, social suffering, and resistance movements, slowing inclusive development.

Inclusive Growth Policy Measures

Constitutional Provisions
- Article 15: Prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
- Article 16: Guarantees equality of opportunity in public employment.
- 16(4): Allows reservation in promotion for SCs and STs.
- 16(5): Permits religious/denominational institutions to appoint officeholders from specific faiths.
- 16(6): Provides for 10% reservation in jobs/education for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
National Rehabilitation Policy
- Designed to protect and rehabilitate displaced persons due to development projects.
- Focuses on compensation, livelihood support, and social security for affected families.
Women Empowerment Measures
- Institutions like the National Commission for Women (NCW) and the National Council for Empowerment of Women safeguard women’s rights.
- 33% reservation in local self-government bodies ensures grassroots political participation.
Reservation Policies
- SCs, STs, and OBCs enjoy reservation in education and public sector employment.
- Reserved seats in Parliament and State Assemblies promote political inclusion.
- Minority Commissions address welfare and rights of religious minorities.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
- Launched in 2005 to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to rural households.
- Ensures 33% participation of women in the workforce.
- Focuses on irrigation and development works benefiting SCs and STs.

Measures to Promote Inclusive Growth in India

Inclusive Growth requires a holistic approach that touches all key dimensions of development, education, healthcare, employment, infrastructure, and social equality. Below are some major strategies:

Education and Skill Development
- Expand access to quality education for all sections of society.
- Improve the functioning of government schools and promote vocational training centers.
- Provide scholarships and financial aid for underprivileged students to ensure equity in higher education.
Healthcare Accessibility
- Ensure affordable healthcare services for all citizens, especially the marginalized.
- Strengthen healthcare infrastructure in rural and remote areas.
- Expand coverage of health insurance schemes to reduce out-of-pocket expenses.
Poverty Alleviation
- Design targeted poverty reduction programs for economically weaker sections.
- Promote direct cash transfers, microfinance support, and livelihood schemes.
- Focus on sustainable employment generation to reduce dependence on subsidies.
Rural Development
- Invest in agricultural infrastructure, irrigation, and rural industries.
- Encourage sustainable farming practices and promote rural entrepreneurship.
- Provide easy credit and financial support to farmers and rural enterprises.
Women Empowerment
- Promote gender equality through education, skill training, and entrepreneurship opportunities.
- Guarantee equal access to healthcare, legal aid, and jobs for women.
- Implement women-focused welfare programs to reduce gender disparities.
Infrastructure Development
- Expand transport, electricity, digital connectivity, and sanitation networks across the country.
- Reduce regional disparities by focusing on backward and underdeveloped regions.
- Use infrastructure as a driver of economic activity and job creation.
Inclusive Governance
- Encourage citizen participation in policymaking and strengthen transparency.
- Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governments.
- Involve marginalized communities directly in the decision-making process.
Private Sector Engagement
- Promote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives focusing on education, healthcare, and rural development.
- Encourage businesses to invest in social sectors alongside profit-making activities.
- Promote public-private partnerships for inclusive projects.
Sensitization and Awareness
- Conduct campaigns, workshops, and programs to address biases and stereotypes.
- Promote awareness of the importance of inclusivity and equal opportunity.
- Encourage a culture of social acceptance and equity across communities.

Inclusive Growth FAQs

Q1: What are the three pillars of inclusive growth?

Ans: The three pillars are economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability, ensuring prosperity reaches all sections while safeguarding resources for future generations.

Q2: What is the meaning of inclusion for growth?

Ans: Inclusion for growth means providing equal access to opportunities, resources, and benefits of development so marginalized groups also participate and share economic progress.

Q3: What do you mean by exclusive growth?

Ans: Exclusive growth benefits only certain sections of society, creating inequality, leaving vulnerable groups behind, and widening social, economic, and regional disparities in development outcomes.

Q4: What is the concept of inclusive growth?

Ans: Inclusive growth emphasizes equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, and access, ensuring sustainable development where every individual contributes to and benefits from overall progress.

Q5: What are the three fundamental pillars of SDG?

Ans: The three pillars are economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection, forming the foundation of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals for global well-being.

Important Battles in Indian History, List, Year, Outcomes

January 2, 2026

The important battles in Indian History cover all the major events and battles that took place during ancient, medieval and modern history. Given the long history of conquering and invasion, India has witnessed a huge number of wars which were fought for the quest of power, religious domination and territorial control. In this article, we are going to look into these wars and their important dates and significance.

Important Battles in Indian History

The important battles in Indian history are the ones that have left a lasting impact on the topography, culture and political environment of India. The battles in Indian history can be divided into three periods:

Ancient period
Medieval period
Modern period

Important Battles in Ancient India History

Ancient Indian History has witnessed some important battles that reflect on the culture, philosophies and flourishing economy of that period. Once known as the “sone ki chidiya”, India was invaded by some powerful dynasties, with the intention of expansion and power control.

Battle Name	Year	Between	Outcome
Battle of the Ten Kings	14th century BCE	King of Bharatas vs. a confederation of ten tribes	Bharatas emerged victorious, leading to the establishment of the Kuru Kingdom.
Battle of Hydaspes	326 BCE	Alexander the Great vs. King Porus	Alexander won but respected Porus, allowing him to retain his kingdom.
Seleucid–Mauryan War	305–303 BCE	Chandragupta Maurya vs. Seleucus I Nicator	Chandragupta secured territories and a marriage alliance with Seleucus.
Kalinga War	261 BCE	Ashoka vs. Raja Anantha Padmanabha	Ashoka won but adopted Buddhism due to the war's brutality.
Battle of Pullalur	618–619 CE	Chalukya King Pulakesin II vs. Pallava King Mahendravarman I	Pulakesin II defeated the Pallavas.

Important Battles in Medieval Indian History

Medieval India saw the invasion of the Mughal Empire and the Delhi Sultanate both constituting powerful empires. Both being powerful kingdoms, this period saw a rise in political struggles for supremacy in India and military conflicts. List of important battles in Medieval Indian History include:

Battle	Year	Between	Outcome
First Battle of Tarain	1191 CE	Prithviraj Chauhan vs. Muhammad Ghori	Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori, showcasing Rajput strength.
Second Battle of Tarain	1192 CE	Muhammad Ghori vs. Prithviraj Chauhan	Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj, marking the start of Muslim rule in North India.
Battle of Chandawar	1194 CE	Muhammad Ghori vs. Jaichandra	Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichandra, consolidating his power in northern India.
Battle of Kili	1299 CE	Mongols (Chagatai Khanate) vs. Delhi Sultanate	Delhi Sultanate, under Alauddin Khilji, successfully repelled the Mongol invasion.
Battle of Delhi	1398 CE	Timur (Timurids) vs. Tughlaq Dynasty	Timur sacked Delhi, causing widespread destruction and weakening the Tughlaq dynasty.
First Battle of Panipat	1526 CE	Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi	Babur's victory established the Mughal Empire in India.
Battle of Khanwa	1527 CE	Babur vs. Rana Sanga	Babur defeated Rana Sanga, solidifying Mughal control over northern India.
Battle of Chanderi	1528 CE	Babur vs. Medini Rai	Babur captured Chanderi, further consolidating Mughal power in central India.
Second Battle of Panipat	1556 CE	Akbar (Mughals) vs. Hemu	Akbar's forces defeated Hemu, ensuring Mughal dominance in northern India.
Battle of Haldighati	1576 CE	Maharana Pratap of Mewar vs. Mughal forces (led by Man Singh I)	Mughals emerged victorious, Maharana Pratap's guerrilla warfare tactics continued.

List of Important Battles in Modern Indian History

Modern History of India constitutes a major power supremacy of the British and their ruling. The wars fought during this period shaped the political landscape of India and also acknowledged the wars fought by Indians against the British to get freedom from colonial rule. Important battles in Modern Indian History include:

Battle Name	Year	Between	Outcome
Battle of Plassey	1757 CE	British East India Company vs. Siraj-ud-Daulah	Marked the beginning of British political dominance in India.
Battle of Buxar	1764 CE	British East India Company vs. Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Shah Alam II	Consolidated British control over Bengal and established the Company's dominance in India.
Third Battle of Panipat	1761 CE	Marathas vs. Ahmad Shah Abdali	Decisive defeat of the Marathas, leading to a decline in their power.
Battle of Wandiwash	1760 CE	British vs. French	Ended French ambitions in India during the Carnatic Wars.
Anglo-Mysore Wars	1767–1799 CE	British East India Company vs. Mysore (Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan)	Series of wars that led to the fall of Mysore and strengthened British control.
Anglo-Maratha Wars	1775–1818 CE	British East India Company vs. Maratha Empire	Led to the dissolution of the Maratha Empire and British supremacy.
Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence)	1857 CE	Indian rebels vs. British East India Company	Marked the end of Company rule and the beginning of direct British Crown rule.

Top 10 Battles in Indian History

Here is a list of the top 10 most important battles in Indian history, based on their historical impact and legacy:

Battle of Kurukshetra (Mahabharata)

Date: Legendary (circa 3000 BCE)
Significance: Fought between the Pandavas and Kauravas, the battle of Kurukshetra is a mythological battle which shaped the narrative in Indian culture about the Mahabharata and its philosophy.

Battle of Hydaspes

Date: 326 BCE
Combatants: Alexander the Great vs. King Porus of Paurava
Significance: fought on the banks of Jhelum River, the Battle of Hydaspes was one of the biggest victories of Alexander. However, while King Porus was defeated, his efforts to resist were appreciated by Alexander.

Kalinga War

Date: 261 BCE
Combatants: Emperor Ashoka and the kingdom of Kalinga.
Significance: Ashoka is remembered to play an important role in preaching and promoting Buddhism in India as well in other nations. After the casualties that occured in the Kalinga War, Ashoka gave up on violence and decided to follow a non-violence life and embrace buddhism.

Battle of Panipat

Date: April 21, 1526
Combatants: Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi
Significance: The beginning of Mughal Empire in India witnessed the first battle of Panipat that was fought in between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi. This war played a significant role in shaping Indian history by marking the start of Mughal Rule in India.

Battle of Talikota

Date: January 26, 1565
Combatants: Deccan Sultanates vs. Vijayanagara Empire
Significance: Battle of Talikota marked the collapse of Vijayanagara empire by a combined effort of the Deccan sultanate to fight against the power in south India.

Battle of Plassey

Date: June 23, 1757
Combatants: British East India Company vs. Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula
Significance:
This battle marked the beginning of British rule in India. The British victory, largely due to treachery within the Nawab’s ranks, led to British domination of Bengal and, eventually, most of India.

Battle of Buxar

Date: October 22, 1764
Combatants: British East India Company vs. Shuja-ud-Daula, Mir Qasim, and the Nawab of Oudh
Significance: This war increased the influence of British over India and led to the expansion of British Colonial power, strengthening the control of British East India Company over Bengal territory.

Battle of Kolhapur

Year: 1779
Combatants: Marathas vs. British East India Company
Significance: Showed the resilience of Maratha Empire through the key battle of maratha-british conflict. After this war, the Marathas emerged as a powerful empire in Indian politics.

First Battle of Indian Independence

Year: 1857
Combatants: Indian rebels (Sepoys) vs. British East India Company
Significance: The Revolt against British Rule was the first war of Indian Independence. All the wars after this event were inspired from this war of 1857.

Battle of Kohima

Date: April 4 to June 22, 1944
Combatants: British-Indian forces vs. Imperial Japanese Army
Significance: A turning point in World War II where British-Indian troops halted Japan’s advance into India, shifting momentum in favor of the Allies in Southeast Asia.

All Battles fought in the past have played an important role in impacting the cultural and political history of India, whether it involved struggle of independence, spread of religious changes, and territorial dominance.

Important Battles of Indian History FAQs

Q1: What was the greatest battle in Indian history?

Ans: The Battle of Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761) had a massive impact on Indian history, shaping empires and dynasties.

Q2: Which part of history is most important for UPSC Mains?

Ans: Modern Indian History (1757–1947), especially British rule, freedom struggle, and post-independence developments.

Q3: What was the most famous battle in history?

Ans: The Battle of Kurukshetra (from Mahabharata) is legendary, while the Battle of Panipat (1761) is historically significant.

Q4: When and between whom did the major wars of Indian history take place?

Ans: Major battles like Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761), Buxar (1764), Plassey (1757), and 1857 Revolt were fought between Indian rulers and foreign powers like the Mughals, Marathas, British, and Afghans.

Q5: What was India called 1000 years ago?

Ans: India was known as "Bharat", "Aryavarta", and "Jambudweep" in ancient texts.

Himalayan Region in India, Formation, Types, Significance

January 2, 2026

The Himalayas are fold mountains that were formed due to the convergence of two tectonic plates. Acting as a dividing range between the Tibetan Plateau in the north and India in the south, the Himalayas constitute one of the 5 physiographic divisions of India. The mountains also act as a barrier guarding India’s frontiers.

Formation of Himalayas

The Himalayas were formed several years ago due to the convergence of the Indo-Australian Tectonic Plate with Eurasian Tectonic Plate. The evolution of the Himalayas is as follows:

The Pangea Landscape was surrounded by the Panthalassa waterbody about 250 million years ago. Later, about 150 years later, the Pangea subcontinent further broke into pieces into further two parts:
Laurasia and Angaraland: The northern part was called Angaraland or Laurasia. It consists of present day North America, Europe and Asia.
The South part is called Gondawanaland and consists of Africa, Australia, Antarctica and South America.
The Tethys Sea in between Dondwanaland and Angaraland, was created by the division of Pangea.
Millions of years ago, Gondwanaland and Angaraland began breaking apart into smaller landmasses. The Indo-Australian Plate (now India and Australia) separated from Gondwanaland, while the Eurasian Plate (comprising Europe and Northern Asia) emerged from Angaraland.
Driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, the Indo-Australian Plate drifted northward, gradually colliding with the Eurasian Plate across the Tethys Sea. As they converged, the Tethys Sea shrank, and its seabed sediments were compressed and pushed upward, forming folds.
Over time, these rising folds gave birth to the Himalayas, a process that continues even today. The collision of these plates still causes the Himalayas to rise by about 5 mm per year, shaping the world’s highest mountain range.

Types of Himalayas

Himalayas happen to be one of the youngest mountain ranges in the words and are divided into four different types according to their geological and geographical characteristics:

Trans- Himalayas: they are on the north of Great Himalayas and consist of arid landscapes and high plateaus
Greater Himalayas (Himadri): this is the most prominent himalayan range, consisting of the Mount Everest and kanchenjunga
Lesser Himalayas (Himachal): includes Shimla and Darjeeling and rugged terrains
Shivalik Hills are the youngest range lying on the low-altitude foothills
The Himalayas act as a natural barrier and are important for balancing Indian climates, water resources and biodiversity.

Longitudinal Division of Himalayas

According to the longitudinal division, the Himalayas can be divided into 3 divisions:

The Trans-Himalayas

The Trans-Himalayas lie north of the Great Himalayas, stretching 1,000 km from east to west.
Their average elevation is around 3,000 meters above sea level.
The major ranges include the Karakoram Range, Ladakh Range, and Zaskar Range.

Karakoram Range

The northernmost Trans-Himalayan range in India, forming a natural boundary with Afghanistan and China.
It spans 110-130 km in width and houses some of the world’s highest peaks and largest glaciers.
K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen), at 8,611m, is the second-highest peak in the world.
Major glaciers include the Siachen Glacier and Remo Glacier.

Ladakh Range

A southeastern extension of the Karakoram Range.
Runs from Shyok River in North Kashmir to the Indo-Tibetan border.
The Deosai Mountains in POK and the Kailash Range in Tibet are often considered part of this range.

Zaskar Range

Runs parallel to the Great Himalayas, extending southeast from the Suru River to the Upper Karnali River.
Kamet Peak (25,446 ft) is the highest peak in this range.

The Himalayan Ranges

The Himalayan Ranges are divided into different ranges like Himavan, Himadri, Shivalik Range etc. Being the youngest mountains, the Himalayas consist of uplifted Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks.The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by Karakoram and Hindu Kush Ranges on the North by the Tibetan Plateau and Indo-Gangetic Plains on south.

The mountains range over 2,400 km from Indus Gorge In west to Brahmaputra Gorge in the east.

1. The Greater Himalayas (Himadri/Inner Himalayas/Central Himalayas)

Composed of Archaean rocks like granite, gneiss, and schist.
Orientation changes across regions:
- Southeast across northern Pakistan, India, and Nepal.
- Eastward across Sikkim and Bhutan.
- Northeast across northern Arunachal Pradesh.
Home to several of the world’s highest peaks, including:
- Nanga Parbat, Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Namcha Barwa.
The slopes are steep in the north and gentler in the south.

2. The Middle Himalayas (Lesser/Lowe Himalayas)

Elevation: 3,500 to 5,000 meters | Width: 60 to 80 km.
Major ranges: Nag Tibba, Mahabharat Range, Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Mussoorie Range.
Rivers like Jhelum and Chenab pass through this range.
Kashmir Valley lies between Pir Panjal and Zanskar Range.
Famous hill stations: Shimla, Chail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Nainital, Almora.
Karewas (fluvioglacial deposits) are found between the Greater and Middle Himalayas.

3. The Outer Himalayas (Shiwalik Hills)

Southernmost Himalayan range, lying between the Middle Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Rises abruptly from the plains of the Indus and Ganges rivers.
Churia Range is the portion of Shiwaliks in Nepal.
Wider in the west, narrower in the east.
Known for the formation of Doons and Duars:
- Created by rivers depositing fertile alluvial soils after cutting through the Shiwaliks.
- Doons (western India) & Duars (eastern India) are important for tea cultivation.

4. The Eastern Hills (Purvanchal)

Formed by a southward bend of the Himalayas at the Dihang Gorge (Syntaxial Bend).
Extends from Arunachal Pradesh to Mizoram, forming India’s border with Myanmar.
Major ranges:
- Patkai Bum – Along the Arunachal Pradesh-Myanmar border.
- Naga Hills – South of Patkai Bum, forms a watershed with Myanmar.
- Manipur Hills – South of Naga Hills, separated by Barail Range.
- Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills) – Southernmost range of Purvanchal.

Himalayan Mountains Significance

The importance of Himalayas is as follows:

Climatic Influence: The Himalayas shape India’s climate by blocking cold Siberian winds and triggering monsoonal rainfall through their altitude and orientation.
Natural Defense: Acting as a formidable barrier, they have historically protected India from invasions and external threats.
Water Source: These mountains sustain major Indian rivers, supporting agriculture and daily life across northern India.
Forest Wealth: The region is rich in forests, providing fuelwood and raw materials for various industries.
Agriculture: While large plains are scarce, terraced farming on slopes supports cultivation.
Mineral Resources: The Himalayas contain valuable minerals like copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, and gemstones.
Hydroelectric Potential: Rugged terrain and fast-flowing rivers make the region ideal for hydroelectric power generation.

Beyond their geographical importance, the Himalayas face critical ecological challenges, including climate change, deforestation, and unregulated tourism. Ensuring their sustainability is vital not only for India but for global environmental balance. A sustainable approach is the way forward.

Himalayan Region of India FAQs

Q1: Where is the Himalayan region?

Ans: The Himalayan region stretches across northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet, forming a natural border between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.

Q2: What are the 4 Himalayan ranges?

Ans: The four Himalayan ranges are Trans-Himalayas, Greater Himalayas (Himadri), Lesser Himalayas (Middle Himalayas), and Shiwalik (Outer Himalayas).

Q3: What is the Himalayan region Class 9?

Ans: The Himalayan region is a vast mountain system in northern India, consisting of parallel ranges that influence climate, biodiversity, and river systems.

Q4: What are the 5 divisions of the Himalayas?

Ans: The five divisions of the Himalayas are Punjab Himalayas, Kumaon Himalayas, Nepal Himalayas, Assam Himalayas, and Eastern Hills (Purvanchal).

Q5: What are the 11 Himalayan states in India?

Ans: The 11 Himalayan states in India are Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya.

Green Revolution in India, History, Impact, Advantages

January 2, 2026

The Green Revolution brought a major shift in the agriculture sector during the 1960s and 70s, especially in countries like India. It introduced high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, improved irrigation, and machines like tractors. This helped in increasing the food production and reduced dependence on imports. Regions like Punjab and Haryana saw huge gains in production. Poorer farmers who weren’t financially stable were deprived of the benefits and over time, the heavy use of chemicals damaged soil and water though the Green Revolution helped prevent famines and made India self-sufficient in grains.

Green Revolution In India

The Green Revolution was a turning point for agriculture in many developing countries, especially during the 1960s and 70s. It focused on increasing food production using high-yielding seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and modern irrigation techniques. Tractors and other machines also replaced traditional farming tools in several regions.

The Green Revolution Objectives were to avoid food shortages and make countries less dependent on imports. This initiative helped to increase the food production and reduce hunger crisis, it also created gaps, small farmers couldn’t always afford the new methods, and the overuse of chemicals harmed the environment and the soil.

Green Revolution In India History

The Green Revolution in India was introduced during the 1960s when food scarcity had become a serious national concern. To tackle this, scientists introduced high-yielding seeds for crops like wheat and rice, which were first developed in places like Mexico and the Philippines.

Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the Father of Green Revolution played a key role in bringing these changes to India, with support from Norman Borlaug. Farmers in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh quickly adopted the new methods using chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and better irrigation. It helped India achieve food security, but over time, problems like soil damage and water overuse also came to light.

Green Revolution in India Components

Several key factors laid the foundation for the Green Revolution in India which includes:

High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs): The revolution focused on the use of HYV seeds mainly for wheat and rice. These were dwarf, high-output varieties that produced 2 to 3 times more than traditional crops. But they weren’t low-maintenance. These seeds needed more water, more fertiliser, and more protection from pests.

Irrigation Facilities: In 1960, only about 30 million hectares of land in India were irrigated. Expanding irrigation was essential to support the water-intensive HYVs.

Credit and Financing: Farmers couldn’t afford modern seeds, fertilisers, or machinery on their own. A strong rural credit system, including co-operative banks and microfinance institutions, became important to fund the shift.

Commercialisation of Agriculture: For the first time, farming became market-driven. With the government introducing Minimum Support Prices (MSP), farmers now had guaranteed returns. This changed their approach from growing just enough for survival to growing for profit.

Farm Mechanisation: New technology like tractors, threshers, and harvesters became part of the farming landscape. Mechanisation saved time, reduced labour costs, and made large-scale farming feasible.

Command Area Development Programme (CADP) - 1974: The CADP pushed for infrastructure development in irrigated areas. It had two parts:

On-farm development like levelling land, building water channels, and preparing the soil.

Off-farm development, by improving the infrastructure such as roads, markets, and rural transport to move produce efficiently.

Chemical Fertilisers and Pesticides: Indian soils, especially in intensively farmed regions, lacked sufficient nitrogen. To address this, NPK (Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium) fertilisers were recommended in a 4:2:1 ratio. Alongside, insecticides and herbicides were used to protect crops.

Also Read: Blue Revolution

Green Revolution in India Phases

The Green Revolution evolved in phases, each responding to the needs and challenges of the time. It started as a response to food shortages and gradually expanded to tackle regional differences, ecological concerns, and the diversification of agriculture.

Phase I (1965-66 to 1980)

India's first phase of the Green Revolution was driven by an urgent need for food security. The country was heavily dependent on food imports, and the threat of famine was high. This phase focused on wheat production and was largely limited to regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, where irrigation and infrastructure were already in place, and natural hazards were minimal.

Programs like the Intensive Agriculture Development Program (IADP) and Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP) were launched. But the real game-changer was the High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) program introduced in 1965-66. By 1980, food grain production had around 100 million tonnes, up from just 33 MT in 1965 and 25 MT in 1950.

Phase II (1980-1991)

With wheat production stable, attention turned to rice production during the 6th and 7th Five-Year Plans. This phase aimed to replicate the success of Phase I in wetter regions like West Bengal, Bihar, Eastern UP, Assam, and coastal areas with over 100 cm of rainfall.

While areas like the Krishna-Godavari delta, Cauvery basin, and parts of West Bengal saw progress, the impact was uneven. In Bihar, only a few regions like Bhojpur benefitted.

Phase III (1991-2003)

By the 1990s, the revolution aimed to reach India's semi-arid and dryland regions. Crops like cotton, oilseeds, pulses, and millets were targeted under the 8th and 9th Five-Year Plans.

Efforts like the Integrated Watershed Management Programme tried to improve water usage in dry areas. A few regions like the Narmada-Tapi doab, Tungabhadra basin, and Bhima-Krishna basin showed success but overall, the results were limited.

Green Revolution in India Impact

The Green Revolution may have solved India’s immediate food crisis, but it came with long-term impact. It mostly benefited a few regions like Punjab, Haryana, and western UP, leaving other parts of the country behind. Rich farmers grew richer; small ones lost land and became labourers. Heavy use of chemicals damaged soil and water, and mechanisation reduced rural jobs.

Economic Impact

The Green Revolution increased social and economic differences. As some regions like Punjab and western UP prospered, others like eastern UP and Bihar were left behind. This growth created interpersonal, inter-regional, and interstate disparities. People in high-yield areas earned more, invested more, and pulled further ahead. Meanwhile, farmers in left-out zones struggled to compete.

In regions including Punjab and Bihar during 1960, both had similar crop output. By 1990, Punjab was miles ahead by utilising early access to HYVs, irrigation, and capital. On the other hand, many small farmers took informal credit to keep up, falling into debt cycles.

Social Impact

Rural landlessness increased as small and marginal farmers, unable to purchase new technology instruments, sold their land. Many ended up working as agricultural labourers in wealthy owner’s fields. That shift increased poverty, worsened health conditions, and made rural communities more vulnerable.

Machines including tractors, harvesters, and threshers contributed to utilise less human capital needed in the field, so the lands became efficient yet the employment level declined Rural unemployment increased especially among the unskilled.

Ecological Impact

Initially soil degradation was a serious problem, the push for higher yields led to farming practices that ignored the land’s natural limits. Over-irrigation, poor drainage, and heavy chemical use resulted in salinisation, alkalisation, and the formation of unproductive soils like reh and kallar especially in regions like Punjab and Haryana.

Waterlogging became another side-effect. Excessive canal irrigation, without proper drainage systems which damaged soil structure over time. The chemical overload by the utilisation of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, and weedicides poisoned the soil. Over time, soil microbes died off, fertility declined, and the land became dependent on chemical inputs to stay productive.

Rivers, ponds, tanks, and reservoirs in the Green Revolution started showing signs of pollution. There was large-scale deforestation. Forests in the Punjab, Tarai, and Bhabhar zones were cleared to make way for farmland. This wiped out biodiversity and weakened ecological balance in those regions.

Green Revolution in India Advantages

The Green Revolution helped in tackling the chronic food shortage during a time of rapid population growth in India.
Eliminated recurring famines and brought food security to millions allowing farmers to generate surplus production, which led to agricultural commercialisation.
The government improved rural infrastructure including roads, irrigation, storage which became essential support systems for the producers.
The Green Revolution made India self-sufficient in food grain production which reduced the import dependence, freeing up funds for poverty alleviation schemes like IRDP and Tribal Area Development.
Rising farm wages increased rural cash flow which helped in promoting the agro and food-processing industries. It also enabled land reforms like land consolidation and ceiling implementation.

Green Revolution in India Disadvantages

Overuse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides degraded soil health and polluted water bodies like rivers and canals through disposals of the chemicals.
Intensive irrigation practices led to groundwater depletion and even the surface water sources such as wells.
Majorly wealthy farmers with the benefits of the initiatives introduced by the government with land and capital, leaving small and marginal farmers behind.
Economic inequality in rural areas increased, with resource-rich regions advancing while others stagnated.
Crop diversity declined due to the focus on a few high-yield varieties, increasing vulnerability to pests and diseases.

Green Revolution in India FAQs

Q1: Who is the Father of the Green Revolution in India?

Ans: Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, supported by Norman Borlaug’s work on wheat HYVs, led the efforts.

Q2: What crops were central to the Green Revolution?

Ans: Primarily wheat and rice; later phases included jowar, bajra, maize, and dryland crops like pulses and oilseeds.

Q3: Why did the Green Revolution succeed only in parts of India?

Ans: Failure to implement irrigation, credit and land reforms limited adoption in rain‑fed and eastern regions.

Q4: What is meant by monoculture in this context?

Ans: Growing the same crop (wheat or rice) repeatedly over large areas leading to biodiversity loss and increased vulnerability to pests.

Q5: Can India feed itself indefinitely with Green Revolution methods?

Ans: Not sustainably. Groundwater depletion, soil degradation, and climate stress mean that India needs a new, eco‑sensitive model often called Green Revolution 2.0 or Evergreen Revolution.

Sirkeer Malkoha

January 2, 2026

Sirkeer Malkoha Latest News

The rare Sirkeer Malkoha (Taccocua leschenaultii), a bird species typically found in Uttarakhand's plains, has been recently recorded for the first time in the Uttarkashi district.

About Sirkeer Malkoha

The sirkeer malkoha, or sirkeer cuckoo, is a special type of cuckoo bird.
Scientific Name: Taccocua leschenaultii
Unlike some cuckoos, it does not lay its eggs in other birds' nests.
Distribution: This species is widespread across the sub-Himalayan Indian subcontinent, extending into Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and, more patchily, into Pakistan and Rajasthan.
Habitat: It is typically found in scrub and thin forest habitats, often favoring hilly terrain but generally residing below an altitude of about 1500 meters above sea level.

Features of Sirkeer Malkoha

It is about 42–44 centimetres long.
It is notable for its long tail and the rich olive-brown plumage adorning its upper side.
The underparts are typically a lighter shade, sometimes with a yellowish tinge.
It has a unique curved red beak with a yellow tip.
Its legs are grey.
These birds are very quiet, and male and female sirkeer malkohas look exactly alike.
These birds have special feet called zygodactyle feet. This means two toes point forward and two point backward. This helps them grip branches and move on the ground.
They eat small lizards, insects, and sometimes berries and seeds.
Conservation Status: IUCN Red List: Least Concern

Source: TOI

Sirkeer Malkoha FAQs

Q1: What is the primary habitat of the Sirkeer Malkoha?

Ans: Dry scrub forest and open woodland

Q2: What is distinctive about the Sirkeer Malkoha's beak?

Ans: It's curved red with a yellow tip

Q3: What is the Sirkeer Malkoha's primary food source?

Ans: Insects and small lizards

Q4: How does the Sirkeer Malkoha typically forage for food?

Ans: On the ground or in bushes

Q5: What is unique about the Sirkeer Malkoha's breeding habits?

Ans: It builds its own nest

Appiko Movement, History, Background, Objectives, Impact

January 2, 2026

Appiko means "to embrace" in Kannada, similar movement initiated just like the famous Chipko Movement in North India. In 1983, villagers from Salkani village in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, hugged trees and refused to let them be felled. Leading this southern "hug the trees" movement was environmentalist Panduranga Hegde. Over the next months, their grassroots campaign protected crucial parts of the Western Ghats, reversed deforestation policies, and promoted a broader ecological awakening.

Appiko Movement About

The Appiko Movement took place in September 1983, when men, women, and children gathered to prevent loggers from cutting trees in the Kalase forest near Salkani. It was a peaceful, culturally rooted protest. This movement succeeded in protecting tree felling through nonviolent, direct action and community resolve.

Appiko Movement History

In 1950, the forests of Uttara Kannada covered over 81% of its land. Over the decades, this rich forest was cleared to make way for pulp and paper mills, plywood factories, and hydropower projects, industries that removed both trees and livelihoods.
By 1980, less than 25% of original natural forests remained. Farmers suffered too: spice cultivation depended on leaf manure, dam projects displaced local communities, and bamboo were disappearing.
People recognized the link between environmental degradation and poverty. Development has become similar to exploitation which resulted in villagers initiating a Chipko-style resistance, demanding a stop to green‑tree felling.

Who Started the Appiko Movement?

Appiko Movement was initiated by Panduranga Hegde, a local environmentalist trained in Delhi and inspired by the Chipko Movement. On 8 September 1983, hundreds from Sirsi Taluk marched 8 km into Kalase forest and began surrounding trees to stop the loggers from cutting them.The practice of hugging trees took on a uniquely Kannada life as Appiko Chaluvali.

Appiko Movement Key Figures

Panduranga Hegde was the movement leader and environmentalist whose leadership, research, and mobilizing skills brought clarity, discipline, and direction.
Sunderlal Bahuguna was a Chipko veteran who visited Karnataka in 1979, supported Appiko's philosophy and helped it gain national momentum. His partnership with Hegde led to a 1989 ban on green felling in Western Ghats forests.

Appiko Movement Causes

Appiko Movement Causes are complex ecological, economic, and social stresses which includes:

Cutting trees for timber, paper, plywood, and dams led to massive forest loss transforming renewable resources into non‑renewable scars.
Deforestation caused soil erosion, disrupted water systems, and reduced yields in agriculture and spice cultivation.
Tribal families and farmers who needed bamboo, leaf manure, fuelwood, herbs saw their survival under threat.
State-led forestry ignored traditional rights, neglected the forest communities.
The success of the Chipko Movement provided both a model and moral courage to act in the south.

Appiko Movement Objectives

Built around the incentives to Ulisu, Belasu, Balasu ("Save, Grow, Use rationally"), Appiko focused on:

Protecting existing forest cover
Promoting natural regeneration of indigenous species
Ensuring sustainable use of non-timber forest resources such as bamboo and medicinal plants.
Through cultural performances, educational slideshows, marches, street theatre in forests and villages.
Planting fast-yielding native saplings of the "Five F's": Fruit, Fodder, Fuelwood, Fertilizer (leaf litter), Fiber.

Appiko Movement Methods and Strategies

The Appiko Movement involves a range of innovative, community-driven methods to protect forests and promote environmental awareness. Rooted in nonviolent resistance, its strategies combined traditional practices with modern outreach techniques. The following table highlights key Appiko Movement Methods and Strategies and their descriptions that was impactful and unique in India’s environmental history.

Appiko Movement Methods and Strategies
Tactic/Strategy	Description
Tree-Hugging	Nonviolent resistance by forming human chains around trees marked for felling
Padayatras & Cultural Outreach	Awareness through village walks, street plays, folk performances, and festivals to connect with locals
Educational Campaigns	Use of slideshows and exhibits in forest interiors to explain ecological importance scientifically
Tree-Growing Schemes	Community-led afforestation—e.g., 1.2 million saplings planted in Sirsi (1984–85)
Policy Engagement	Hegde's collaboration with forest departments and DFID led to Karnataka’s green-felling ban in 1990

Appiko Movement Impact

Karnataka responded in 1990 with a ban on green‑tree cutting in its evergreen forests which was a win for Appiko.
The emphasis on traditional sapling planting fruitful, fodder-yielding, fiber-producing reconnected livelihoods with conservation.
Saving bamboo, medicinal species, and forest fruits secured jobs and incomes for local artisans and farmers.
Appiko sparked campaigns in Karnataka, Goa, Eastern Tamil Nadu, and also inspired similar movements elsewhere, reinforcing the power of decentralized people's movements.
It helped communities reclaim rights over forest resources, prompted forest policy reforms, and shaped national discourse on sustainable development.

Appiko Movement FAQs

Q1: How did Appiko differ from Chipko?

Ans: Chipko began in the Himalayas in 1973; Appiko followed in 1983 in Southern India. Though both used tree-hugging, Appiko added cultural outreach and community-based regeneration reflecting the Western Ghats context.

Q2: Who was Panduranga Hegde?

Ans: A chartered accountant-turned-activist, trained in Delhi and Gandhian philosophy. Hegde pioneered Appiko, collaborated with Bahuguna, and influenced forest conservation policy at multiple levels.

Q3: What does “Ulisu, Belasu, Balasu” mean?

Ans: A Kannada slogan meaning “Save, Grow, Use Rationally” that guided Appiko’s approach to forest conservation and livelihoods.

Q4: Why was bamboo significant?

Ans: Bamboo was a staple resource for local crafts, construction, and income. Its decline threatened local economies and cultural practices.

Q5: What was the long-term result of Appiko?

Ans: Beyond the 1990 felling ban, Appiko helped institutionalize community engagement in forestry and inspired policy and legal frameworks that granted villages a stake in forest management.

Asian Countries, List, Capitals, Currency, Area, Population

January 2, 2026

List of Asian Countries: Asia, the world's largest and most populous continent, with huge diversity. There are 48 countries in Asia, making it the largest and most populous continent in the world. It covers about 30% of the Earth’s land area and is home to nearly 60% of the global population. Each country tells a unique story through its capital city, currency, and regional identity. This article includes the List of Asian Countries, showcasing their capitals, regions, and other interesting details.

Asian Countries

Asia, the world’s largest continent, spans 44.58 million square kilometres, covering 30% of Earth’s land area and hosting 60% of its population. Located in the northern and eastern hemispheres, it is bordered by the Pacific Ocean (east), Indian Ocean (south), and Arctic Ocean (north). It connects to Europe through the Ural Mountains and links to Africa via the Isthmus of Suez. Its immense diversity and strategic location make it a vital region in understanding global development, both historically and in contemporary times.

Asian Countries
Divisions	Countries
Central Asia	Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Eastern Asia	China, Hong Kong, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Macau, Mongolia, Taiwan
Northern Asia	Russia
South-eastern Asia	Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Vietnam.
Southern Asia	Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.
Western Asia	Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

List of Asian Countries, Capital and Currency

Asia, the Largest Continent in the World, is home to 48 countries, as recognized by the United Nations. Spanning a massive land area of over 44.58 million km², the continent showcases diverse geographical, cultural, and political characteristics.

Among these nations, Russia holds the title of the largest Asian country by area, covering approximately 13 million km², which accounts for 77% of Asia's landmass. Next in line is China, having an area of 9.6 million km². On the other hand, the smallest Asian nation is the island country of Maldives, which spans just 298 km².

List of Asian Countries, Capital and Currency
Country	Capital	Region	Currency	Population (2024 Estimate)
Afghanistan	Kabul	South Asia	Afghan Afghani (AFN)	41.8 million
Armenia	Yerevan	West Asia	Armenian Dram (AMD)	2.8 million
Azerbaijan	Baku	West Asia	Azerbaijani Manat (AZN)	10.4 million
Bahrain	Manama	West Asia	Bahraini Dinar (BHD)	1.8 million
Bangladesh	Dhaka	South Asia	Bangladeshi Taka (BDT)	171.2 million
Bhutan	Thimphu	South Asia	Bhutanese Ngultrum (BTN)	777,000
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Southeast Asia	Brunei Dollar (BND)	450,000
Cambodia	Phnom Penh	Southeast Asia	Cambodian Riel (KHR)	17.1 million
China	Beijing	East Asia	Chinese Yuan (CNY)	1.41 billion
Cyprus	Nicosia	West Asia	Euro (EUR)	1.2 million
Georgia	Tbilisi	West Asia	Georgian Lari (GEL)	3.7 million
India	New Delhi	South Asia	Indian Rupee (INR)	1.44 billion
Indonesia	Jakarta	Southeast Asia	Indonesian Rupiah (IDR)	278.7 million
Iran	Tehran	West Asia	Iranian Rial (IRR)	88.2 million
Iraq	Baghdad	West Asia	Iraqi Dinar (IQD)	45.6 million
Israel	Jerusalem	West Asia	Israeli New Shekel (ILS)	9.6 million
Japan	Tokyo	East Asia	Japanese Yen (JPY)	124.7 million
Jordan	Amman	West Asia	Jordanian Dinar (JOD)	11.4 million
Kazakhstan	Astana	Central Asia	Kazakhstani Tenge (KZT)	19.7 million
Kuwait	Kuwait City	West Asia	Kuwaiti Dinar (KWD)	4.5 million
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek	Central Asia	Kyrgyzstani Som (KGS)	6.9 million
Laos	Vientiane	Southeast Asia	Lao Kip (LAK)	7.7 million
Lebanon	Beirut	West Asia	Lebanese Pound (LBP)	6.5 million
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Southeast Asia	Malaysian Ringgit (MYR)	34.4 million
Maldives	Malé	South Asia	Maldivian Rufiyaa (MVR)	557,000
Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar	East Asia	Mongolian Tugrik (MNT)	3.5 million
Myanmar	Naypyidaw	Southeast Asia	Burmese Kyat (MMK)	55.5 million
Nepal	Kathmandu	South Asia	Nepalese Rupee (NPR)	31.1 million
North Korea	Pyongyang	East Asia	North Korean Won (KPW)	26.1 million
Oman	Muscat	West Asia	Omani Rial (OMR)	5.4 million
Pakistan	Islamabad	South Asia	Pakistani Rupee (PKR)	247.5 million
Palestine	Ramallah	West Asia	Israeli New Shekel (ILS)	5.4 million
Philippines	Manila	Southeast Asia	Philippine Peso (PHP)	119.9 million
Qatar	Doha	West Asia	Qatari Riyal (QAR)	2.9 million
Russia*	Moscow	Eurasia	Russian Ruble (RUB)	143.5 million
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh	West Asia	Saudi Riyal (SAR)	36.5 million
Singapore	Singapore	Southeast Asia	Singapore Dollar (SGD)	5.7 million
South Korea	Seoul	East Asia	South Korean Won (KRW)	51.7 million
Sri Lanka	Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte	South Asia	Sri Lankan Rupee (LKR)	21.4 million
Syria	Damascus	West Asia	Syrian Pound (SYP)	19.8 million
Taiwan	Taipei	East Asia	New Taiwan Dollar (TWD)	23.6 million
Tajikistan	Dushanbe	Central Asia	Tajikistani Somoni (TJS)	10.1 million
Thailand	Bangkok	Southeast Asia	Thai Baht (THB)	71.9 million
Timor-Leste	Dili	Southeast Asia	US Dollar (USD)	1.4 million
Turkey*	Ankara	Eurasia	Turkish Lira (TRY)	88.6 million
Turkmenistan	Ashgabat	Central Asia	Turkmenistan Manat (TMT)	6.4 million
United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi	West Asia	UAE Dirham (AED)	10.2 million
Uzbekistan	Tashkent	Central Asia	Uzbekistani Som (UZS)	36.3 million
Vietnam	Hanoi	Southeast Asia	Vietnamese Dong (VND)	103.7 million
Yemen	Sana’a	West Asia	Yemeni Rial (YER)	34.3 million

Top 10 Asian Countries Area Wise

Water covers about 71% of the Earth's surface, while landmass occupies the remaining 29%. When it comes to the largest countries by land area in Asia, Russia takes the lead, spanning an impressive 17,125,000 square kilometres. The following are the Top 10 Asian Countries (Area Wise):

Top 10 Asian Countries Area Wise
Asian Countries	Area covered
Russia	17,125,000 ²km
Canada	9,984,670 ²km
China	9,572,900 ²km
United States of America	9,525,067 ²km
Brazil	8,515,767 ²km
Australia	7,692,202 ²km
India	3,166,391 ²km
Argentina	2,780,400 ²km
Kazakhstan	2,724,900 ²km
Algeria	2,381,741 ²km

Top 10 Asian Countries Population Wise

Asia contributes the most when it comes to the global population, accounting for approximately 60%. Among its vast nations, China and India stand out as the most populous. China, with its population of 1.37 billion, leads the continent. The following are the Top 10 Asian Countries (Population Wise):

Top 10 Asian Countries Population Wise
Asian Countries	Population
China	1.37 billion
India	1.299 billion
Indonesia	255.46 million
Pakistan	191.78 million
Bangladesh	158.76 million
Japan	126.89 million
The Philippines	102.96 million
Vietnam	91.81 million
Iran	78.77 million
Turkey	78.21 million

Asian Countries and Populations

Asia, the largest and most populous continent on the Earth, is divided into six distinct geographical regions based on physiographic features. Each of these regions encompasses a variety of countries with diverse landscapes, cultures, and populations. Below is a List of Asian Countries categorised by their respective regions, along with details about their population sizes.

Asian Countries and Population
Regions	Asian Countries	Populations
Northern Asia	Russia (Siberia)	146,085,586
Western Asia	Armenia	2,963,243
	Azerbaijan	10,139,177
	Bahrain	1,701,575
	Cyprus	1,207,359
	Georgia	3,989,167
	Iran	83,992,949
	Iraq	40,222,493
	Israel	8,655,535
	Jordan	10,203,134
	Kuwait	4,270,571
	Lebanon	6,825,445
	Oman	5,106,626
	Qatar	2,881,053
	Saudi Arabia	34,813,871
	State of Palestine	5,101,414
	Syria	17,500,658
	Turkey	84,339,067
	United Arab Emirates	9,890,402
	Jordan	10,203,134
	Kuwait	4,270,571
	Oman	5,106,626
	Qatar	2,881,053
	Saudi Arabia	34,813,871
	State of Palestine	5,101,414
	Syria	17,500,658
	Turkey	84,339,067
	United Arab Emirates	9,890,402
	Yemen	29,825,964
Central Asia	Kazakhstan	18,776,707
	Kyrgyzstan	6,524,195
	Tajikistan	9,537,645
	Turkmenistan	6,031,200
	Uzbekistan	33,469,203
East Asia	China	1,439,323,776
	China, Hong Kong SAR	7,496,981
	China, Macao SAR	649,335
	Japan	126,476,461
	North Korea	25,778,816
	South Korea	51,269,185
	Mongolia	3,278,290
	Taiwan	23,816,775
South Asia	Afghanistan	38,928,346
	Bangladesh	164,689,383
	Bhutan	771,608
	India	1,380,004,385
	Maldives	540,544
	Nepal	29,136,808
	Pakistan	220,892,340
	Sri Lanka	21,413,249
Southeast Asia	Brunei Darussalam	437,479
	Cambodia	16,718,965
	Indonesia	273,523,615
	Lao PDR	7,275,560
	Malaysia	32,365,999
	Myanmar (Burma)	54,409,800
	Philippines	109,581,078
	Singapore	5,850,342
	Thailand	69,799,978
	Timor-Leste (East Timor)	1,318,445
	Vietnam	97,338,579

Asian Countries Map

This Asian Countries Map depicts a political division of Asia, showcasing all countries with clear boundaries and capitals. Asia, covering around 49.7 million km² (≈30 % of Earth's land area), is bordered by the Arctic Ocean in the north, Pacific Ocean to the east, Indian Ocean to the south, and connects with Europe via the Ural Mountains and Caucasus. Asia’s landmass features transcontinental nations such as Russia, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, which straddle both Europe and Asia.

Asian Countries Features

Diverse Economies: Asia has economic powerhouses like China, Japan, and India, alongside emerging markets such as Vietnam and Bangladesh that are rapidly industrializing.
Cultural Richness: Home to ancient civilizations and spiritual traditions, Asia features deep cultural roots in countries like China, India, Thailand, and Indonesia.
Population Giants: China and India together make up more than one-third of the world’s population, with each exceeding one billion people.

Economic and Cultural Diversity in Asia

Economic and Cultural Diversity in Asia is remarkably diverse. The continent includes advanced economies like Japan, Singapore, and South Korea, alongside rapidly developing countries striving for growth. Culturally, Asia showcases a rich variety of languages, religions, traditions, and social norms, highlighting its vast historical and societal depth across regions.

Asian Countries FAQs

Q1: How many countries in Asia?

Ans: Currently, there are 48 countries in the Asian continent according to the United Nations.

Q2: List the top 3 countries in terms of area globally?

Ans: The top 3 countries in terms of area are- Russia, Canada and China.

Q3: List the top 3 countries in terms of population globally?

Ans: The top 3 countries in terms of population are- China, India and Indonesia.

Q4: What are the subregions of Asian Countries?

Ans: The six geographical regions of Asian countries are, namely, Northern Asia, Western Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southern Asia, and Southeast Asia.

Q5: Which countries are covered in Southern Asian Countries?

Ans: The countries covered under southern Asian countries are- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

Presidents of India, List from 1950 to 2025, Tenure, Key Facts

January 2, 2026

List of President of India from 1950 to 2025: Draupadi Murmu serves as the 15th President of India, marking a historic moment as the first tribal woman to hold this esteemed position. Her candidacy received substantial backing from various political groups, particularly the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). From the beginning, her victory over Yashwant Sinha, the opposition-backed candidate, was widely anticipated.

President of India

The President of India is the constitutional head of the country and symbolises the unity and integrity of the nation. Article 52 of the Indian Constitution states that "there shall be a President of India." While the President is the head of state, their role is largely ceremonial, with executive powers exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. The President acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and performs functions like assenting to bills, appointing key officials, and representing India in international agreements.

Since India's independence, several leaders have served as the President of India. The first President, Dr Rajendra Prasad, played a vital role in shaping the office's legacy. The current President of India is Droupadi Murmu, who made history by being the first tribal woman to hold the position. She succeeded Shri Ram Nath Kovind after his term ended.

List of Presidents of India from 1950 to 2025

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India, serving from 1950 to 1962, while Droupadi Murmu is the current President, having assumed office in 2022. Below is the List of all 15 Presidents of India from 1950 to 2025:

All Presidents of India from 1950 to 2025
Name	Starting date	Ending date	Profiles
Dr. Rajendra Prasad	January 26th, 1950	May 13th, 1962	He was the first President of republic of India.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan	May 13th, 1962	May 13th, 1967	He was the 2nd President of India.
Dr.the Zakir Hussain	May 13th, 1967	May 3rd, 1969	He was the 3rd President of India.
Varahagiri Venkata Giri	May 3rd, 1969	July 20th, 1969	He was acting President because of Hussain’s death.
Mohammad Hidayatullah	July 20th, 1969	August 24th, 1969	He was acting President till Giri’s presidency.
Varahagiri Venkata Giri	August 24th, 1969	August 24th, 1974	He was the 4th President of India.
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed	August 24th, 1974	February 11th, 1977	He was the 5th President of India.
Basappa Danappa Jatti	February 11th, 1977	July 25th, 1977	He was a chief minister of the Mysore but got elected as President, After the death of Ahmed.
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy	July 25th, 1977	July 25th, 1982	Reddy was the 6th President of India unopposed.
Giani Zail Singh	July 25th, 1982	July 25th, 1987	He was the 7th President of India and was also a member of the Congress party.
Ramaswamy Venkataraman	July 25th, 1987	July 25th, 1992	He was the 8th President of India. He was also a lawyer and a professional politician.
Shankar Dayal Sharma	July 25th, 1992	July 25th, 1997	He was the 9th President of India, and he was also a member of the National Congress party of India.
Kocheril Raman Narayanan	July 25th, 1997	July 25th, 2002	He was the 10th President of India and the best diplomat in India.
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam	July 25th, 2002	July 25th, 2007	He was the 11th President of India, and he was a great scientist. He worked in ISRO and DRDO organizations.
Pratibha Patil	July 25th, 2007	July 25th, 2012	She was the 12th President of India, and she was the first woman to be President.
Pranab Mukherjee	July 25th, 2012	July 25th, 2017	He was the 13th President of India, and he was also a senior leader of the National Congress party.
Shri Ram Nath Kovind	July 25th, 2017	July 21st, 2022	He was the 14th President of India, and he was also ex-governor Of Bihar.
Droupadi Murmu	July 21st, 2022	Working	She is the 15th President of India and was a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party

List of Presidents of India 2025

Dr. Rajendra Prasad
- First President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad served two full terms and played an important role in the freedom movement.
- He also presided over the Constituent Assembly and was honoured with the Bharat Ratna in 1962 for his contributions to nation-building.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
- A renowned philosopher and academic, Dr. Radhakrishnan was Second President of India.
- His birthday is celebrated as Teacher’s Day in India, and he was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954.
Dr. Zakir Husain
- The First Muslim President of India, Dr. Zakir Husain was an educationist who passed away while in office.
- He co-founded Jamia Millia Islamia University and is remembered for his commitment to modern education.
V. V. Giri
- V.V. Giri was the only President elected as an independent candidate and had earlier served as Vice President.
- He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1975.
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
- Fifth President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, is remembered for declaring the Emergency under Article 352.
- He was the second Indian President to die in office, after Dr. Zakir Husain.
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy
- The Sixth President of India, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, was the youngest to assume office and the only one elected unopposed.
- He also served as the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh and later as Lok Sabha Speaker.
Giani Zail Singh
- Giani Zail Singh served as President during tough period in Indian history, including Operation Blue Star.
- He was also Chief Minister of Punjab and known for exercising the pocket veto power during his term.
R. Venkataraman
- R. Venkataraman served as President from 1987 to 1992 and was earlier Vice President and Defence Minister of India.
- A freedom fighter, he was known for his legal insights and received global honours including the Soviet Land Prize.
Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma
- Before his presidency, Dr. Sharma served as Bhopal’s Chief Minister and as Vice President of India.
- He received the ‘Living Legend of Law’ award and was respected for his legal and academic contributions.
K. R. Narayanan
- K.R. Narayanan was First Dalit President of India and a distinguished diplomat in the Indian Foreign Service.
- He was the first Indian President to vote in a general election while in office.
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
- Known as the “Missile Man of India,” Dr. Kalam was a scientist and the first scientist to become President.
- He played an important role in India’s 1998 nuclear tests and inspired millions through his speeches and books.
Smt. Pratibha Patil
- Smt. Pratibha Patil was First Woman President of India and served as Governor of Rajasthan before her presidency.
- She made history by becoming the first woman head of state to fly a Sukhoi fighter jet.
Pranab Mukherjee
- Pranab Mukherjee held key ministries and was known as the “man for all seasons” in Indian politics.
- He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2008 and earned wide respect across political lines.
Ram Nath Kovind
- Ram Nath Kovind, a lawyer and former Governor of Bihar, served as India’s 14th President from 2017.
- He focused on social justice, and during his tenure, he advocated for transparency and inclusive governance.
Droupadi Murmu
- Droupadi Murmu became First Tribal President of India and second female President in 2022.
- A former Jharkhand Governor, she is known for her dedication to tribal welfare and grassroots leadership.

President of India Eligibility Criteria

Article 58 of the Indian Constitution provides a clear framework regarding the qualifications required for an individual to be eligible for the esteemed position of the President of India. The key qualifications are as follows:

Citizenship

The candidate must be a citizen of India. This requirement emphasizes the importance of national allegiance and ensures that the President has a clear interest in the country's welfare.

Age Requirement

The individual must be at least 35 years of age at the time of the election. This criteria ensures that the candidate possesses the maturity and experience required for such a critical role.

Parliamentary Qualification

The candidate should be eligible for election as a member of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament. This means they must meet all the qualifications set under Article 84 of the Constitution, which includes factors such as citizenship, age, and other specified qualifications.

No Office of Profit

The candidate must not hold any office of profit under the Union Government, State Government, or any local or public authority. However, exceptions include positions such as President, Vice President, Governor of a State, or Minister for the Union or State. This provision ensures that the President remains neutral and does not have conflicts of interest arising from other official roles.

President of India Powers

The President of India is the head of the legislature, executive, and judiciary.
The President serves a five-year term but can resign at any time or be removed through impeachment.
The President can continue in office beyond the five-year term until a successor takes over.
The President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of Members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
Members of the Electoral College use preferential voting with single transferable votes.

President of India Important Points

The President of India is the ceremonial head of the state within the parliamentary system of government. Although the President represents the nation at the national and international levels, they do not have the executive power. Instead, the real executive authority rests with the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. The President serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces.

The President is elected through an electoral college consisting of:

Elected members from both Houses of Parliament.
Elected members from the legislative assemblies of the states.
Elected members from the Legislative Assemblies of Delhi and Puducherry (following the 70th Amendment Act of 1992).
The term of office for the President is five years, with the possibility of re-election. There is no limit on the number of terms a President can serve.

In the event of a breach of the Constitution, the President can be removed from office through an impeachment process, which may be initiated in either House of Parliament.

In the absence of the President due to death, resignation, impeachment, or other reasons, the Vice President of India assumes the role of Acting President. If the position of the Vice President is also vacant, the Chief Justice of India steps in as the Acting President until a new President is elected.

President of India Facts

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the inaugural President of India, serving for two consecutive terms. He holds the distinction of being the longest-serving President in the country's history.
V.V. Giri stepped in as an interim President after the passing of Dr. Zakir Husain. He remains unique in holding the position of both President and Acting President at the same time.
India has had three Acting Presidents, in addition to the fourteen Presidents who served full terms.
Both Dr. Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed tragically passed away while in office, marking significant moments in India's presidential history.
The President of India holds a ceremonial position within the government, with executive powers vested in the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
Unlike most democracies, the President of India is elected by the members of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies, not directly by the citizens.
In 2007, Pratibha Patil made history by becoming the first woman President of India.

Also Check Related Post
Vice Presidents of India	Education Ministers of India
Foreign Ministers of India	Finance Ministers of India
Cabinet Ministers of India	Prime Ministers of India
Deputy Prime Minister of India	Presidents of India
Ministry of External Affairs

Presidents of India FAQs

Q1: Who elects the President of India?

Ans: The President is elected by an Electoral College.

Q2: What is the term of the office of the President?

Ans: The President shall hold office for a term of 5 years.

Q3: Who conducts the election of President of India?

Ans: The Election Commission of India conducts the election of the President of India.

Q4: Who was the first President of India?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the First President of India.

Q5: Who is the present president of India?

Ans: Droupadi Murmu is the present president of India.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Objectives, Provisions, Significance

January 2, 2026

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is one of India’s most important environmental legislation, providing an important turning point in India’s approach to biodiversity conservation. The act provided a framework to conserve ecosystems, protect endangered species and regulate human interaction with wildlife. This law continues to be a foundation of India’s wildlife conservation strategy and its implementation has evolved through amendments, particularly in line with global conventions such as CITES. In this article, we are going to cover the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, its provisions and objectives its effectiveness.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 was enacted by the Government of India, 1972 and came into force in 1973.

It provides a framework to protect wild animals, birds, plants and their habitats.
Regulates activities like hunting, poaching and trade of wildlife products.
Creates protected areas such as National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Objectives

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has the following objectives:

Protection of endangered species and prevention of extinction.
Regulation of hunting and safeguarding wildlife against poaching.
Control of trade and commerce in wildlife and its derivatives.
Creation of protected areas to conserve biodiversity in natural habitats.
Promotion of coexistence between humans and wildlife.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Key Provisions

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has the following provisions:

Wildlife includes animals (terrestrial and aquatic), plants, insects, fish, and vegetation forming part of any habitat.

2. Establishment of Wildlife Advisory Boards

Constituted at the state level to advise on:
- Selection and management of Sanctuaries and National Parks.
- Conservation policies for wildlife and plants.
- Harmonizing tribal needs with conservation goals.

3. Schedules of the WPA

The Act categorizes flora and fauna into six schedules with varying levels of protection.

Schedule I & II: Endangered species; absolute protection; highest penalties (1–6 years imprisonment + fine). Example: Tiger, Elephant.
Schedule III & IV: Species not endangered; lesser penalties. Example: Hyena, Nilgai.
Schedule V: Vermin species that may be hunted with license. Example: Crows, Rats.
Schedule VI: Regulation of cultivation and trade of specific plants. Example: Beddomes’ cycad.

4. Hunting Regulations

General ban on hunting animals from Schedules I–IV.
Chief Wildlife Warden may grant permits if animals pose danger or are diseased.
Permits can also be issued for education, scientific research, and zoological purposes.

5. Wildlife Sanctuaries

Declared by State Governments.
Protect ecologically significant areas.
Certain activities may be permitted with regulation.

6. National Parks

Declared by State Legislatures.
No alteration of boundaries without legislative approval.
Prohibited activities: hunting, grazing, habitat destruction, and exploitation.

7. Central Zoo Authority

Supervises zoos across India.
Ensures proper care and conservation practices for captive animals.

8. Ownership of Wildlife & Trophies

All wildlife (other than vermin), trophies, and animal products are state property.
Illegal possession, trade, or transfer is punishable.

Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act, 2021

CITES Implementation: Expanded protection for species under international trade regulation.
Rationalized Schedules: Reduced from six to four for clarity:
- Schedule I: Highest protection.
- Schedule II: Lesser protection.
- Schedule III: Protected plants.
- Schedule IV: CITES species.
Regulation of Invasive Alien Species: Government empowered to prohibit or control them.
Increased Penalties: General fine raised from ₹25,000 to ₹1,00,000.
Stronger Management of Sanctuaries: Gram Sabha consultation made mandatory in scheduled areas.
Voluntary Surrender: Captive animals and trophies can be surrendered without compensation.
Controversial Clause: Commercial trade in live elephants permitted under certain conditions.

Wildlife Protection Act 2021 Amendment Significance

Wildlife Protection Act 2021 has the following significance:

Aligns India’s wildlife laws with global conservation standards (CITES).
Provides clarity by simplifying schedules.
Strengthens community participation in wildlife management.
Introduces better penalties and enforcement mechanisms.
Recognizes modern conservation challenges like invasive alien species.

Wildlife Protection Act FAQs

Q1: What is the Wildlife Protection Act 1972?

Ans: The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Indian law enacted to protect wild animals, plants, and their habitats by creating a legal framework for conservation.

Q2: What are the protected areas under the Wildlife Protection Act?

Ans: Protected areas under the Act include National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.

Q3: What are the objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972?

Ans: Its objectives are to protect endangered species, regulate hunting, control wildlife trade, and establish protected areas.

Q4: What is Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972?

Ans: Schedule I provides absolute protection to endangered species, with the highest penalties for violations.

Q5: What is CITES?

Ans: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international treaty regulating trade in endangered species to ensure it does not threaten their survival.

Fiscal Policy in India, Objectives, Instruments, Types, Role

January 2, 2026

Fiscal Policy in India forms the bedrock of the nation’s economic governance, guiding the country through various stages of growth, development, and challenges. It acts as a vital instrument in achieving macroeconomic stability, ensuring inclusive development, and addressing socio-economic inequalities. By controlling government expenditure, taxation, and public debt, fiscal policy determines how the state intervenes in the economy to promote sustainable growth and stability. In this article, we are going to cover Fiscal Policy in India, its meaning, objectives, instruments, types and cyclical nature of Fiscal Policy in India along with important concepts that shape India’s economic policy framework.

Fiscal Policy in India

Fiscal Policy refers to the policy decisions of the government concerning public expenditure, taxation, and public borrowing. It is the mechanism through which the government adjusts its spending and taxation levels to influence a nation’s overall economic activity.

The concept is rooted in Keynesian economics, which argues that during periods of economic instability like recessions or inflation government intervention through fiscal measures can help restore balance. For instance, increasing spending or cutting taxes can boost demand during a slowdown, while reducing spending or raising taxes can help cool inflationary pressures.

Thus, Fiscal Policy acts as both a stabilizing and developmental tool, shaping India’s economic trajectory and ensuring that growth translates into social welfare.

Fiscal Policy in India Objectives

The objectives of India’s Fiscal Policy are wide-ranging and interlinked, reflecting both developmental and stabilizing roles:

Mobilization of Resources: To channel financial resources into socially necessary and productive sectors such as infrastructure, education, and health.
Economic Stability: To counter cyclical fluctuations and maintain macroeconomic balance.
Price Stability: To control inflationary and deflationary trends and ensure stable purchasing power.
Sustained Growth Rate: To maintain a consistent and balanced rate of economic growth.
Balance of Payments Equilibrium: To prevent excessive dependence on foreign capital and ensure external stability.
Raising Living Standards: To improve public welfare through employment generation and social development.
Reducing Inequality: To minimize disparities in income and wealth through progressive taxation and redistributive policies.
Encouraging Private Sector Growth: To provide incentives and a conducive environment for private investment and entrepreneurship.

Fiscal Policy in India Instruments

Fiscal Policy operates mainly through three major instruments that includes Public Expenditure, Taxation, and Public Borrowing along with other supplementary measures.

1. Public Expenditure

This includes all government spending on goods, services, infrastructure, and welfare programmes.

Role: By altering expenditure levels, the government can directly affect economic activity.
Example: During slowdowns, higher public spending on rural employment or infrastructure creates jobs and boosts demand.

2. Taxation

Taxation is one of the most powerful fiscal tools that influences disposable income, investment, and savings.

Reducing Taxes: Increases consumption and investment, spurring growth.
Increasing Taxes: Helps curb inflation and reduce excessive demand.

3. Public Borrowing

When expenditures exceed revenues, governments borrow internally (from citizens, banks, etc.) or externally (from foreign institutions).

Purpose: To fund infrastructure, welfare schemes, or deficit financing.
Instruments: Bonds, Treasury Bills, National Savings Certificates, etc.

4. Other Fiscal Measures

Additional tools include:

Price and wage controls
Subsidy reforms
Encouragement of production and exports
Regulation of consumption through duties and levies

Difference between Fiscal Policy and Monetary Policy

Fiscal Policy and Monetary Policy have the following differences:

Aspect	Fiscal Policy	Monetary Policy
Definition	Government’s policy related to expenditure, taxation, and borrowing to influence the economy.	Policy framed by the Central Bank to regulate money supply and interest rates.
Authority	Managed by the Government (Ministry of Finance).	Managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
Objective	To influence overall economic activity and achieve growth and stability.	To control inflation and ensure monetary stability.
Major Tools	Public expenditure, taxation, and borrowing.	Bank Rate, Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), etc.

Both policies work in coordination. Fiscal Policy ensures demand creation and developmental spending, while Monetary Policy maintains liquidity and price stability.

Fiscal Policy in India Types

Depending on economic conditions and objectives, Fiscal Policy can be classified into three types:

1. Expansionary Fiscal Policy

Mechanism: Involves higher government spending or lower taxes to stimulate demand.
Objective: To reduce unemployment and boost GDP growth.
When Used: During recessions or economic slowdowns.
Caution: May lead to inflation if demand exceeds supply.

2. Contractionary (Tight) Fiscal Policy

Mechanism: Reduces spending or increases taxes to lower aggregate demand.
Objective: To control inflation and reduce fiscal deficit.
When Used: During periods of high inflation or overheating economy.
Caution: May increase unemployment temporarily.

3. Neutral Fiscal Policy

Mechanism: Keeps government revenue and expenditure balanced.
Objective: To maintain economic stability without stimulating or restricting growth.
When Used: When the economy is in equilibrium.

Cyclicality of Fiscal Policy

Fiscal Policy often responds to the phases of the business cycle—expansion, peak, contraction, and trough. Its direction of influence gives rise to two types of cyclical behavior:

1. Counter-Cyclical Fiscal Policy

Moves opposite to the business cycle.
During a slowdown, the government increases spending and reduces taxes (expansionary).
During a boom, it cuts spending or raises taxes (contractionary).
Example: India’s fiscal stimulus packages during the 2008 global financial crisis and COVID-19 pandemic.

2. Pro-Cyclical Fiscal Policy

Moves in the same direction as the business cycle.
Expansionary in booms and contractionary during recessions.
Considered risky as it may deepen economic volatility and social distress.

Fiscal Policy in India Key Related Concepts

1. Fiscal Deficit

The Fiscal Deficit is the difference between the government’s total expenditure and total non-borrowed revenue in a financial year.
It is expressed as a percentage of GDP and serves as a key indicator of fiscal health. A high deficit implies greater borrowing, which may increase future debt burden.

2. Fiscal Consolidation

Refers to the process of improving government finances by reducing fiscal deficit through prudent spending, better revenue collection, and structural reforms.
India’s Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act aims to institutionalize fiscal discipline and reduce deficits sustainably.

3. Fiscal Drag

Fiscal Drag occurs when inflation or income growth pushes taxpayers into higher tax brackets without a real increase in purchasing power reducing disposable income and demand.
This phenomenon often occurs under progressive taxation systems.

4. Fiscal Neutrality

When the government’s taxing and spending decisions are designed to have no net effect on overall demand. For example, if new welfare spending is exactly matched by equivalent tax revenue, the fiscal stance remains neutral.

5. Crowding Out Effect

This theory suggests that excessive government borrowing or spending can reduce private investment. When the government borrows heavily, interest rates rise, making it costlier for businesses to borrow and invest.

6. Pump Priming

Pump Priming refers to the government’s deliberate effort to inject funds into a sluggish economy through public expenditure or tax incentives to stimulate growth.mIt was first used during the Great Depression to describe Keynesian-style economic recovery measures.

7. Economic Stimulus

An economic stimulus package involves fiscal or monetary interventions aimed at reviving growth during a slowdown. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, India launched the Atma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, comprising three tranches of stimulus measures, to support businesses, workers, and vulnerable populations.

Fiscal Policy in India UPSC

Fiscal Policy in India remains the government’s most powerful economic instrument—balancing the dual objectives of growth and stability. It not only helps in managing inflation and unemployment but also plays a transformative role in achieving social equity and sustainable development.

In recent years, India’s fiscal strategy has evolved towards greater transparency, efficiency, and responsibility under frameworks like the FRBM Act, targeted subsidies, and digital reforms. Going forward, a well-calibrated fiscal policy complemented by effective monetary measures will continue to steer India toward inclusive growth, fiscal prudence, and long-term economic resilience.

Also Check Other Posts
Care Economy	Mutual Funds
Alternative Investment Funds	GDP Deflator

Fiscal Policy in India FAQs

Q1: What are the fiscal policies of India?

Ans: Fiscal policies of India are government strategies involving taxation, public expenditure, and borrowing to influence the country’s economy.

Q2: What are the three types of fiscal policy?

Ans: The three types are Expansionary, Contractionary (Tight), and Neutral fiscal policies.

Q3: What is fiscal policy?

Ans: Fiscal policy is the government’s use of spending, taxation, and borrowing to manage and influence economic activity.

Q4: What is monetary policy?

Ans: Monetary policy is the central bank’s regulation of money supply and interest rates to control inflation and stabilize the economy.

Q5: What are the objectives of fiscal policy?

Ans: The objectives include promoting economic growth, maintaining price stability, ensuring employment, reducing income inequality, and managing public resources efficiently.

Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine

January 2, 2026

Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine Latest News

The Ministry of Defence recently signed defence procurement contracts worth ₹4,666 crore for the acquisition of Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbines for the Indian Army and Navy and Heavyweight Torpedoes for the Indian Navy.

About Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine

The 5.56 x 45 mm CQB Carbine is an indigenously designed, developed, and manufactured (IDDM) compact firearm.
It has been designed by DRDO’s Armament Research & Development Establishment (ARDE), Pune, and is being manufactured by Bharat Forge Ltd (a Pune based Indian multinational).
CQB carbines are compact, lightweight weapons designed specifically for urban warfare, close-range engagements and counter-terrorism operations.
Their reduced size compared to standard rifles offers enhanced manoeuvrability in confined spaces whilst maintaining operational effectiveness.
It weighs approximately 3.3 kilograms and has an effective range of 200 meters.
The weapon also uses a 30-round curved magazine to ensure reliable feeding during rapid fire.
It can fire both NATO-standard and INSAS ammunition.

Source: TH

Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine FAQs

Q1: What is the primary use of a CQB Carbine?

Ans: Close quarter combat

Q2: What is a key feature of a CQB Carbine?

Ans: Short barrel and compact design

Q3: What is the primary advantage of a CQB Carbine?

Ans: Maneuverability in tight spaces

Mountain Ranges in India, List, Map, Key Features, Details

January 2, 2026

India is home to some of the most magnificent and ancient mountain ranges in the world. These Mountain Ranges in India define the country's geography, influence its climate, shape its river systems, and play a key role in cultural and spiritual traditions. From the towering Himalayas in the north to the scenic Nilgiris in the south, each range tells a story of geological evolution and natural beauty.

In this detailed guide, we will understand the major Mountain Ranges in India, their location, formation, highest peaks, and unique geographical features.

Mountain Ranges in India

India is a land of many beautiful mountain ranges that cover almost every part of the country. From the high Himalayas in the north to the green hills of the Western and Eastern Ghats in the south, these ranges add to India’s natural beauty. They also play an important role in climate, rivers, and rich wildlife. The details of all the important Mountain Ranges in India has been shared below.

1. The Himalayas

The Himalayas are among the most prominent and youngest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed by the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate millions of years ago. Stretching over 2,500 km from west to east, they form a natural barrier between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.

Length: ~2,500 km
Width: 160-400 km
Highest Peak: Mount Everest (8,848.86 meters)
Spread Across: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Pakistan
Borders: Karakoram & Hindu Kush (NW), Tibetan Plateau (N), Indo-Gangetic Plain (S)

The Himalayas are divided into three main parallel ranges (from north to south):

Greater Himalayas (Himadri)
Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)
Outer Himalayas (Shivalik)

I. The Greater Himalayas (Himadri)

The Greater Himalayas, also known as Himadri or the Inner Himalayas, form the northernmost and highest range of the Himalayan system. This range has an average elevation of around 6,000 meters, containing many of the world’s tallest peaks such as Mount Everest (8,849 m), Kanchenjunga (8,598 m), and Nanga Parbat. It is the permanent snow-covered zone and the origin of major glaciers like Gangotri and Satopanth, which give rise to sacred rivers such as the Ganga and Yamuna.

II. Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)

The Lesser Himalayas, also known as the Himachal Range or Middle Himalayas, lie to the south of the Himadri. They have an average elevation ranging from 3,700 to 4,500 meters and consist of rugged terrain with deep valleys and forested slopes. Major mountain ranges like the Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, and Nag Tibba belong to this region. It is home to several popular hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, and Dharamshala, making it a prominent zone for tourism and habitation.

III. Outer Himalayas (Shivalik)

The Outer Himalayas, also known as the Shivalik Hills, form the southernmost and youngest range of the Himalayan system. They stretch for about 2,400 km from the Indus Gorge in the northwest to the Brahmaputra valley in the east, with an average height of 1,500-2,000 meters. The range is composed mainly of loose sediments and gravel, making it prone to erosion. It features fertile Doon and Duar valleys (like Dehradun), and is known by local names such as Dafla Hills, Dundwa Range, and Churia Hills in different regions.

2. The Karakoram Range

The Karakoram Range, located in the northern region of India (Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir), is one of the most rugged and high-altitude mountain systems in the world. Stretching across India, Pakistan, and China, it features some of the highest peaks on Earth, including K2 (8,611 meters), the second-highest peak in the world. The range is also home to vast glaciers like the Siachen Glacier, which is the longest glacier outside the polar regions.

Location: Northern India (Ladakh & J&K), extending into Pakistan and China
Highest Peak: K2 (8,611 m), world’s second-highest mountain
Major Glaciers: Siachen, Baltoro, Biafo, and Hispar
Importance: Acts as a natural barrier and holds great strategic and defense significance for India

3. The Purvanchal Range

The Purvanchal Range, also known as the Eastern Hills, is an extension of the Himalayas located in northeastern India, curving southward beyond the Dihang River. It runs along the borders of Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Assam, forming a scenic landscape of lush hills and dense forests. The region is known for its rich biodiversity, humid climate, and tribal culture, making it an ecological hotspot. These ranges also play a key role in preventing soil erosion and maintaining the stability of the northeastern terrain.

Location: Northeastern India (Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura)
Highest Peak: Dapha Bum (4,570 m)
Major Hills: Patkai, Naga, Mizo, and Manipur Hills
Significance: Rich in biodiversity, cultural diversity, and ecological importance

4. The Aravalli Range

The Aravalli Range, one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, stretches for about 700 km from Delhi and Haryana through Rajasthan to Gujarat. Formed during the Precambrian era, it is a residual mountain range that has been heavily eroded over millions of years. Despite its age, the Aravallis play a vital role in blocking the expansion of the Thar Desert, supporting biodiversity, and maintaining ecological balance in northwestern India. The famous Mount Abu hill station and Guru Shikhar (1,722 m), its highest peak, lie within this range.

Location: Extends across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat
Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar (1,722 m) in Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Type: Ancient fold (residual) mountains
Significance: Prevents desert spread, rich in minerals, and hosts historical sites

5. The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills, run parallel to the western coast of India for about 1,600 km from Gujarat to Kerala. This mountain range is one of the eight biodiversity hotspots in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It plays a major role in influencing the Indian monsoon, maintaining ecological balance, and supporting diverse flora and fauna. The region is home to scenic hill stations like Munnar, Wayanad, and Mahabaleshwar, as well as Anamudi (2,695 m), the highest peak in South India.

Location: Extends through Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu
Highest Peak: Anamudi (2,695 m), Kerala
Local Names: Sahyadri (Maharashtra), Nilgiri, Anaimalai, and Cardamom Hills (South)
Significance: Regulates monsoon, rich biodiversity, UNESCO World Heritage Site

6. The Eastern Ghats

The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous and eroded mountain range running along the eastern coast of India from Odisha to Tamil Nadu. Unlike the Western Ghats, they are not continuous and are intersected by major east-flowing rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. These ancient hills are rich in minerals, forests, and biodiversity, playing a crucial role in the ecology and agriculture of eastern India. The Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m) in Andhra Pradesh is the highest point in the Eastern Ghats.

Location: Extends through Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu
Highest Peak: Jindhagada Peak or Arma Konda or Sitamma Konda(1,690 m), Andhra Pradesh
Major Hills: Javadi, Nallamala, Palkonda, Seshachalam, and Shevaroy Hills
Significance: Source of east-flowing rivers, rich in minerals and forest resources

7. The Vindhya Range

The Vindhya Range is a discontinuous chain of hills and plateaus located in central India, extending across Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Bihar and Chhattisgarh. It runs almost parallel to the Narmada River and forms a natural boundary between North and South India. The range holds great mythological and cultural significance, being mentioned in many ancient Hindu scriptures as the southern limit of the Aryavarta region. Its terrain consists of rocky ridges and forested plateaus, rich in minerals and wildlife.

Location: Central India - Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh
Highest Peak: Sad-Bhawna Shikhar (752 m)
Type: Discontinuous and ancient mountain range
Significance: Marks the boundary between North and South India; rich in mineral and cultural heritage

8. The Satpura Range

The Satpura Range lies to the south of the Vindhya Range and extends through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh. It consists of a series of flat-topped plateaus and rugged hills, with an average elevation of 600-900 meters. The range is known for its dense forests, rich biodiversity, and significant role in separating the Narmada and Tapi river valleys. Its highest peak, Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh, is also the highest point in Central India.

Location: Extends through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh
Highest Peak: Dhupgarh (1,350 m), near Pachmarhi
Type: Relict (eroded) mountain range formed by plateaus
Significance: Source of major rivers, rich in forests and wildlife sanctuaries like Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

9. The Nilgiri Hills

The Nilgiri Hills, meaning “Blue Mountains,” are located at the junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka, forming part of the Western Ghats. These hills are known for their rolling tea gardens, pleasant climate, and rich biodiversity. The Doddabetta Peak (2,637 m) is the highest point in the Nilgiri range and one of the highest in South India. The Nilgiris also serve as a meeting point of the Eastern and Western Ghats, making them a vital ecological and geographical link in southern India.

Location: Junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka
Highest Peak: Doddabetta (2,637 m), Tamil Nadu
Known For: Tea plantations, scenic beauty, and biodiversity
Significance: Connects Eastern and Western Ghats; major hill stations like Ooty and Coonoor

Mountain Ranges in India Map

The Mountain Ranges in India Map clearly shows how these ranges are spread across the country, shaping its geography and climate. In the north, the Himalayas and Karakoram dominate, while the Aravalli, Vindhya, and Satpura ranges define central India’s terrain. The Western and Eastern Ghats run along the peninsular coasts, and the Purvanchal hills mark the country’s eastern frontier. Together, these ranges form the backbone of India’s physical landscape.

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List of Mountain Ranges in India

India has many famous mountain ranges that make the country rich in natural beauty. From the great Himalayas in the north to the green Ghats in the south, each range is special in its own way. They are home to rivers, forests, and many beautiful places to visit. All the Important mountain ranges of India have been shared below.

Mountain Ranges in North India (North to South)

The Mountain Ranges in North India are dominated by some of the world’s highest and most majestic mountain ranges, including the Himalayas and the Karakoram. Stretching from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh, these ranges form a natural barrier against cold winds from Central Asia and play a vital role in shaping India’s climate, rivers, and biodiversity.

Mountain Ranges in North India (North to South)
Mountain Range	Location/State
Saltoro Mountains	Ladakh
Karakoram Range	Ladakh
Deosai Mountain	Jammu & Kashmir
Ladakh Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Zanskar Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Pir Panjal Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Zabarwan Range	Jammu & Kashmir
Dhauladhar Range	Himachal Pradesh
Kishtwar Himalaya	Jammu & Kashmir
Garhwal Himalaya	Uttarakhand
Dundwa Range	Northern Uttar Pradesh

Mountain Ranges in Central India (West to East)

The Mountain Ranges in Central India are mostly folded and eroded hills, rich in minerals and dense forests. Stretching from Rajasthan in the west to Jharkhand in the east, they play a key role in influencing local climate, drainage patterns, and biodiversity.

Mountain Ranges in Central India (West to East)
Mountain Range	Location/State
Aravalli Range	Rajasthan to Haryana
Vindhya Range	Madhya Pradesh to Uttar Pradesh
Satpura Range	Madhya Pradesh to Maharashtra
Maikal Range	Madhya Pradesh to Chhattisgarh
Rajmahal Hills	Jharkhand

Mountain Ranges in North East India (North to South)

The Mountain Ranges in North East India are part of the Eastern Himalayas and Patkai hills, forming a natural boundary with Myanmar and China. These ranges are rich in biodiversity, covered with dense forests, and home to many tribal communities. The region includes significant ranges like Patkai, Naga, Mizo, Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia Hills, known for their scenic beauty and cultural diversity.

Mountain Ranges in Central India (West to East)
Mountain Range	Location (State/Region)	Highest Peak	Approx. Height (m)
Patkai Range	Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland	Mount Saramati	3,841 m
Naga Hills	Nagaland	Mount Saramati	3,841 m
Khasi Hills	Meghalaya	Lum Shyllong	1,965 m
Jaintia Hills	Meghalaya	Smit Peak	1,700 m
Garo Hills	Meghalaya	Nokrek Peak	1,412 m
Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills)	Mizoram	Blue Mountain (Phawngpui)	2,157 m

Western Ghats Mountains (North to South)

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Range, run parallel to India’s western coast from Gujarat to Kerala. These mountains form one of the world’s eight biodiversity hotspots, known for their lush forests, waterfalls, and diverse wildlife. Here is the list of Western Ghats Mountains (North to South).

Western Ghats Mountains (North to South)
Mountain Range	States
Satmala Hills	Maharashtra
Ajanta Hills	Maharashtra
Harishchandra Range	Maharashtra
Balaghat Range	Maharashtra
Kudremukh	Karnataka
Baba Budan Hills	Karnataka
Nilgiri Mountains	Tamil Nadu
Akamala Machad Hills	Kerala
Anaimalai Hills	Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Palani Hills	Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Cardamom Hills	Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Varushnad Hills	Tamil Nadu

Eastern Ghats Mountains (North to South)

The Eastern Ghats run parallel to India’s eastern coast, extending from Odisha in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. These discontinuous and ancient hill ranges are lower than the Western Ghats and are rich in minerals, forests, and scenic river valleys like those of the Godavari and Krishna.

Eastern Ghats Mountains (North to South)
Mountain Range	States
Nayagarh Hills	Odisha
Bastar Plateau	Chhattisgarh
Nallamala Hills	Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Erramala Hills	Andhra Pradesh
Velikonda Range	Andhra Pradesh
Palkonda Range	Andhra Pradesh
Seshachalam Hills	Andhra Pradesh
Nagari Hills	Andhra Pradesh
Javedi Hills	Tamil Nadu
Melagiri Range	Tamil Nadu
Shevaroy Hills	Tamil Nadu
Pachaimalai Hills	Tamil Nadu
Sirumalai Hills	Tamil Nadu

Mountain Peaks in India FAQs

Q1: Which is the oldest mountain range in India?

Ans: The Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India and one of the oldest geological formations in the world, dating back to around 2.5 billion years.

Q2: Which is the highest mountain range in India?

Ans: The Greater Himalayas (Himadri) is the highest mountain range in India, containing peaks like Mount Everest (on the border) and Kanchenjunga (within India).

Q3: Which mountain range separates Northern and Southern India?

Ans: The Vindhya Range acts as a natural divide between North and South India, influencing both geography and climate.

Q4: What are the 7 major mountain ranges of India?

Ans: The 7 major mountain ranges in India are the Himalayas, Karakoram, Aravalli, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Vindhya, and Satpura ranges.

Q5: Which is the 2nd highest peak in India?

Ans: Nanda Devi is the second-highest peak in India at 7,816 meters.

Copper

January 2, 2026

Copper Latest News

Recently, copper prices recorded a fresh all-time high in December, with the benchmark price climbing to over $12,000 per tonne on the London Metal Exchange (LME).

About Copper

Copper is a naturally occurring chemical element with the symbol Cu.
It is a highly versatile and essential metal, and has been at the core of human development for over 10,000 years.
Occurrence: It is found as a free metal in nature. It also occurs in minerals like chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and bornite.

Properties of Copper

Physical Properties: It is known for its high conductivity, malleability, and corrosion resistance.
Recyclability: Copper is 100% recyclable without any loss in quality, making it an eco-friendly metal.

Major Copper Reserves in India and World

Rajasthan: Khetri and Jhunjhunu belt.
Madhya Pradesh: Malanjkhand mine, the largest open-pit copper mine in India.
Jharkhand: Singhbhum copper belt.
Major Countries with Copper Reserve: Chile, Australia, Peru and Russia

Applications of Copper

Electrical Industry: Used in wiring, motors, and transformers due to its high conductivity.
Construction: Roofing, plumbing, and heating systems utilize copper.
Automobile Industry: Essential for wiring, radiators, and connectors.
Electronics: It is used in integrated circuits and semiconductors rely heavily on copper.
Renewable Energy: It is crucial for wind turbines, solar panels, and electric vehicles.

Source: IE

Copper FAQs

Q1: What is the primary ore of copper?

Ans: Chalcopyrite

Q2: Which country is the largest producer of copper?

Ans: Chile

PathGennie

January 2, 2026

PathGennie Latest News

Recently, the Ministry of Science and Technology has developed new open-source software called PathGennie.

About PathGennie

It is a novel computational framework developed by scientists that can significantly accelerate the simulation of rare molecular events.
It is open source software developed for fast tracking of drug discovery.
It is aimed at fast-tracking the drug discovery process by accurately tracking molecular unbinding pathways.
It addresses a long-standing challenge in molecular simulations — accurately modelling how drug molecules detach from their target proteins.
- This process, known as ligand unbinding, plays a key role in determining a drug’s “residence time”, which is often more relevant to therapeutic effectiveness than binding strength alone.
It predicts the potential drugs unbind from their protein targets without the artificial distortions commonly used in standard methods.
It mimics natural selection on a microscopic scale instead of forcing the molecule to move.

Features of PathGennie

It captures rare molecular events without artificial acceleration.
It generates multiple competitive unbinding pathways.
It estimates residence time of drug molecules.
It eliminates bias introduced by external force-based simulations

Potential Applications of PathGennie

It addresses problems such as chemical reactions, catalytic processes, phase transitions, or self-assembly phenomena.
It is also compatible with modern machine-learning techniques which ensures integration into diverse simulation pipelines.

Source: News On Air

PathGennie FAQs

Q1: Which institute developed PathGennie?

Ans: S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences

Q2: What is the primary application of PathGennie?

Ans: Simulating drug-protein interactions.

Neighbouring Countries of India, List, Capital, Physical Features

January 2, 2026

Neighbouring Countries of India: India, a prominent South Asian nation, stands out as one of the largest countries in the world. Positioned in both the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, India ranks as the seventh-largest globally by land area. India's land boundaries extend to approximately 15,106.7 kilometers, encompassing a coastline of around 7,516.6 kilometers. This extensive border area offers unique access to neighboring countries, connecting India with cultures, economies, and ecosystems that enhance its regional significance.

Neighbouring Countries of India

India shares over 15,106.7 kilometers of land borders with six countries: Pakistan to the west, China and Nepal to the north, Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. This geographical spread makes India a central player in South Asian geopolitics.

In addition to its land borders, India has a coastline stretching 7,516.6 kilometers, providing it with direct access to the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean. This coastal expanse connects India to international waters, giving it a strategic marine position that supports trade routes linking the Middle East, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Important ports like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata facilitate extensive trade and cultural exchange, solidifying India's role in the global economy.

Neighbouring Countries of India Overview

India shares its borders with nine countries: seven land borders (Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Afghanistan) and two maritime borders (Sri Lanka and the Maldives). This geographical knowledge is vital for competitive exams, especially in the General Awareness section.

Neighbouring Countries of India Overview
Total Neighbouring Countries Of India	9
Neighbouring Countries Of India	Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives and MyanmarTotal
Total Land Border Of India	15,106.7 k.m.
Total Length Of Indian Coastline	7516.6 km

List of Neighbouring Countries of India With Capital

India shares its borders with 9 countries, each with distinct geographical, cultural, and economic ties. Below is a List of Neighbouring Countries of India With Capital the capital, border length, and bordering states.

List of Neighbouring Countries of India With Capital
Country	Capital	Border Length	Bordering States
Afghanistan	Kabul	106 Km	Ladakh (PoK)
Bangladesh	Dhaka	4096.7 Km	West Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Assam
Bhutan	Thimphu	699 Km	West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh & Assam
China	Beijing	3488 Km	Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
Myanmar	Naypyidaw, Yangon	1643 Km	Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur
Nepal	Kathmandu	1751 Km	Bihar, Uttarakhand, UP, Sikkim and West Bengal
Pakistan	Islamabad	3323 Km	Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Sri Lanka	Colombo (Commercial), Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (Legislative)	Sea Border	It is separated to India by Gulf of Mannar
Maldives	Male	Sea Border	It lies in the south-west part of India Ocean below the Lakshadweep Island

Neighbouring Countries of India Physical Features

India shares its land and maritime boundaries with several countries, each having distinct physical features that influence geopolitics, trade, and regional cooperation. India shares land borders with seven countries and maritime boundaries with two. The Neighbouring Countries of India Physical Features has been discussed in the table below:

Neighbouring Countries of India Physical Features
Country	Geographical & Climatic Features	Energy & Natural Resources	India’s Strategic Interests
Afghanistan	Mountainous terrain influences cold winters and seismic activity due to tectonic plate location.	Rich in minerals and water but lacks infrastructure in remote regions.	Acts as a corridor for India to Central Asia, enhancing connectivity and economic cooperation.
Bangladesh	Dense river network vital for agriculture, but vulnerable to monsoons and floods; seismic risk exists.	Investing in solar energy to meet growing demands; high population strains resources.	Important trade partner in textiles and agriculture; collaboration on river management is crucial.
Bhutan	High-altitude mountainous country; experiences cold winters and occasional earthquakes.	Major hydropower potential; rivers are tapped for electricity generation.	India imports hydropower from Bhutan, vital for energy supply in northeastern states.
China	Geographically diverse, with deserts, tropical zones, and the Tibetan Plateau; earthquake-prone zones.	Global leader in renewable and nuclear energy production.	Trade ties benefit India in goods and tech, though geopolitical relations are complex and sensitive.
Myanmar	Tropical climate with intense monsoons; situated near earthquake fault lines.	Exploring geothermal and wind energy; rich in river-based water resources.	Strategic for India’s Act East policy; access to ports strengthens trade and regional integration.
Nepal	Dominated by the Himalayas; experiences altitude-driven cold weather and frequent quakes.	Excellent hydropower potential; solar energy initiatives are rising in remote areas.	Access to Nepal’s rivers for electricity benefits India’s northern power grid and water-sharing cooperation.
Pakistan	Diverse terrain with deserts and fertile plains; northern areas face high seismic activity.	Water-stressed despite major rivers; exploring wind and solar solutions.	Cooperation essential for managing shared rivers like the Indus; has energy and climate impact implications.
Sri Lanka	Island nation with tropical monsoons; affected by Indian Ocean climate and tsunami risk.	Expanding use of solar energy; coastal ecosystems critical for livelihood.	Strategic location aids India in maritime security, trade routes, and regional diplomacy.
Maldives	The low-lying island nation, highly threatened by sea-level rise, has a tropical marine climate.	Depends largely on solar energy; rich marine biodiversity in coral reefs.	Important for India’s maritime diplomacy and security in the Indian Ocean; enhances regional influence.

9 Neighbouring Countries of India

India shares its borders with nine neighbouring countries, including Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Among them, seven share land borders: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Afghanistan, while Sri Lanka and the Maldives are India’s maritime neighbours. These countries together reflect India’s vast geopolitical landscape, cultural diversity, and regional influence.

1. Pakistan

Pakistan lies to the northwest of India, sharing a 3,323 km long border. The two countries were part of undivided British India until 1947. Key border crossings include Wagah (Punjab) and Attari (Amritsar). While relations have been politically strained, they share strong cultural and linguistic links.

2. China

China borders India to the north and northeast with a border length of 3,488 km. The boundary passes through Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Both countries are ancient civilizations and major Asian powers. However, the border areas like Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh remain disputed.

3. Nepal

Nepal lies to the north of India, bordered by Bihar, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, sharing an open border of 1,770 km. Citizens of both countries can travel and work freely across borders. The two nations share deep cultural, linguistic, and religious ties. Mount Everest and the Himalayas further connect their geography and tourism.

4. Bhutan

Bhutan is a landlocked Himalayan kingdom situated to the northeast of India, sharing a 699 km border. It touches Indian states like Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and West Bengal. Relations between India and Bhutan are marked by friendship, trust, and cooperation. India assists Bhutan in defense, trade, and hydropower development.

5. Bangladesh

Bangladesh lies to the east of India and shares the longest international border with India, about 4,096 km. It borders West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. The two countries share strong historical and cultural bonds, with Bengali as a common language. India supported Bangladesh’s independence movement in 1971.

6. Myanmar (Burma)

Myanmar shares a 1,643 km border with India, touching Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. It acts as India’s gateway to Southeast Asia under the “Act East Policy.” The Moreh–Tamu border point facilitates trade and cross-border cooperation. India and Myanmar also collaborate in defense and counter-insurgency operations.

7. Afghanistan

Afghanistan shares a 106 km border with India, though it currently lies in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). Historically, India and Afghanistan had strong trade and cultural connections through the Silk Route. India has helped rebuild Afghanistan through infrastructure and education projects. The region is strategically vital for South Asian geopolitics.

8. Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is India’s southern maritime neighbor, separated by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. The shortest distance between them is around 30 km through Adam’s Bridge (Rama’s Bridge). The two nations share close historical, cultural, and religious ties, especially through Buddhism and Hinduism. Trade and tourism link both economies strongly.

9. Maldives

The Maldives lies to the southwest of India in the Indian Ocean, about 700 km from the Lakshadweep Islands. Though separated by sea, it is a key maritime neighbor of India. The two countries maintain friendly ties focused on security, trade, and tourism. India often assists the Maldives in disaster relief and defense cooperation.

Neighbouring Countries of India Facts

India-China Relations

India and China share a historical bond that spans thousands of years, marked by significant cultural and trade exchanges. In modern times, the two nations signed the Panchsheel Agreement in 1954, emphasizing mutual respect and peaceful coexistence. However, the relationship has been marred by a border conflict in 1962, which has led to long-standing disputes over territorial boundaries.

India-Pakistan Relations

The relationship between India and Pakistan is deeply rooted in a shared history, marked by the partition of British India in 1947. Despite cultural and historical similarities, the two nations have faced tensions, especially after conflicts such as the 1965 war and the Kargil conflict in 1999. Diplomatic channels remain open, with a focus on reducing tensions and fostering stability in the region.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Established in 1985, SAARC was formed with the goal of promoting regional cooperation and advancing economic, social, and cultural development across South Asia. Comprising eight member states, including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, SAARC aims to create a unified approach to addressing regional challenges such as poverty, education, and climate change. The organization has played a significant role in fostering peace and collaboration, though political disagreements have sometimes hindered its full potential.

India-Bangladesh Relations

India's support for Bangladesh's independence in 1971 laid the foundation for a strong bilateral relationship. Since then, India and Bangladesh have developed close ties in political, economic, and cultural spheres. Both countries share a commitment to regional peace and stability, with cooperation in areas like trade, water-sharing agreements, and counterterrorism.

India-Sri Lanka Relations

India and Sri Lanka have long standing historical and cultural ties that have shaped their bilateral relationship. The two nations share deep connections through religion, language, and trade. While challenges related to the Indian-origin Tamil population in Sri Lanka have occasionally strained relations, both countries continue to maintain positive political and economic ties. Cooperation in areas such as defense, trade, and infrastructure development has strengthened the partnership, with efforts focused on resolving issues diplomatically.

Neighbouring Countries of India FAQs

Q1: How many neighbouring countries of India?

Ans: There are 9 neighbouring countries of India.

Q2: Which country has the longest boundary with India?

Ans: Bangladesh has the longest boundary with India.

Q3: Which country has the shortest boundary with India?

Ans: Afghanistan has the shortest boundary with India.

Q4: How many states share boundaries with China?

Ans: China shares a boundary with 5 Indian states.

Q5: How many states share boundary with Bangladesh?

Ans: Bangladesh share boundary with 5 Indian states.

National Commission for Men Bill 2025, Objectives, Provisions, Criticism

January 2, 2026

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 is a private member bill, introduced in the Rajya Sabha on December 6th 2025, by Member of Parliament Dr. Ashok Kumar Mittal. It is the first major legislative attempt to create a statutory body focused specifically on issues affecting men in India. The Bill proposes an institutional mechanism to examine legal discrimination, mental health concerns, family law biases, and misuse of certain criminal provisions. It has generated wide debate on constitutional equality, gender justice, and balancing protection with accountability within India’s legal framework.

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Objectives

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 aims to create a statutory institution to protect men’s rights and address systemic legal and social challenges.

Establish an independent National Commission for Men
Review laws that disproportionately impact men
Address mental health and suicide among men
Ensure gender-neutral access to justice
Promote fairness in family and criminal laws

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Provisions

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 introduces structural, legal, social, and financial reforms to address men’s welfare comprehensively.

Institutional Structure

Statutory body under the Ministry of Law and Justice
Chairperson appointed by the President of India
Six members with gender balance (three men, three women)
Legal Advisor nominated by the Chief Justice of India
Powers similar to existing statutory commissions

Section 498A IPC Safeguards

However replaced by- Section 85 (and 86) of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)
Mandatory preliminary police investigation within 30 days before arrest
Section 498A to be made bailable and compoundable
Penalties for proven false complaints:
- Up to five years’ imprisonment
- Fine up to ₹25 lakh
- Compensation for reputational and career damage

Gender-Neutral Legal Reforms

Extension of domestic violence protections to male victims
Gender-neutral framework for workplace sexual harassment
Gender-neutral sexual offence provisions
Punishment for false rape allegations:
- Seven to ten years’ imprisonment
- Fine up to ₹10 lakh

Child Custody and Family Law Reforms

Shared parenting as the default arrangement after separation
Equal parental rights unless abuse or neglect is proven
Anti-parental alienation provisions:
- Up to two years’ imprisonment
- Fine up to ₹10 lakh
Continued focus on the welfare of the child

Rapid Courts Jurisdictions

Special courts for false accusation cases and custody disputes
Mandatory disposal within six months
Faster relief for both genuine victims and falsely accused persons

Media Regulation

Ban on declaring guilt before judicial determination
Penalties for prejudicial reporting:
- ₹50 lakh fine for media houses
- Mandatory public apology
Social media penalties for spreading unverified allegations:
- Three years’ imprisonment
- Fine up to ₹25 lakh
Platforms to remove defamatory content within 24 hours of court orders

Financial Allocation

₹3,650 crore allocated for 2025-2030

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Significance

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 seeks to address documented legal, mental health, and family law challenges affecting men through institutional reform.

Responds to rising male suicide rates
Codifies judicial safeguards into legislation
Promotes constitutional equality under Article 14
Addresses custody and parental alienation concerns
Fills the institutional gap in gender-focused policymaking

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Criticism

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 faces several criticisms with debates that it may unintentionally weaken existing protections and overlook structural gender inequalities.

Fear of discouraging genuine complaints
Risk of counter-case intimidation
Concerns over dilution of women-centric laws
Mandatory shared parenting may endanger abuse victims
Private Member Bill faces low legislative success rate

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 FAQs

Q1: Who introduced the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: The Bill was introduced by Rajya Sabha Member of Parliament Dr. Ashok Kumar Mittal as a private member bill.

Q2: Does the National Commission for Men Bill 2025 remove protections for women?

Ans: No, it proposes additional safeguards for men without repealing existing protections for women.

Q3: What is the proposed budget for the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: A financial allocation of ₹3,650 crore is proposed for the period 2025-2030.

Q4: Why is Section 498A addressed in the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: Due to high acquittal rates, misuse concerns, and repeated judicial calls for procedural safeguards under the Section 498A of IPC (85-86 of BNS).

Q5: What is the current status of the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: It is a Private Member Bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha in Dec 2025 and requires broad parliamentary support to pass.

Parliamentary Form of Government, History, Advantages, Disadvantages

January 2, 2026

A Parliamentary Form of Government is a form of democracy in which the political party that wins the most seats in a national election forms the ruling government. In this system, the executive is drawn from the legislature and is accountable to it. India follows a parliamentary system similar to that of the United Kingdom.

In a parliamentary system, there is a close relationship between the executive and legislative branches, with the executive being dependent on the confidence of the legislature. This arrangement ensures greater accountability and makes the Parliament the central institution of governance.

Parliamentary Form of Government History

Since ancient times, councils of headmen, whose decisions were guided by village elders, existed in tribal societies. These early consultative bodies gradually evolved into modern parliamentary institutions. In 1188, King Alfonso IX of León (Spain) convened the Cortes of León, considered one of Europe’s first parliaments. A proto-parliamentary system also emerged during the Dutch Revolt (1581), when the States-General assumed power from King Philip II of Spain. The modern parliamentary framework developed in the United Kingdom (1707-1800) and Sweden (1721-1772), gaining broader acceptance across Europe after World War I.

Adoption in the Indian Constitution: India adopted the parliamentary system from Britain after thorough deliberations. During the Constituent Assembly debates, different models including Presidential and Parliamentary systems were discussed. The parliamentary model was preferred for its capacity to provide strong leadership while ensuring accountability to the elected legislature.
Notable Opinions

- Professor K. T. Shah emphasized that parliamentary government connects the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary effectively.
- Shri K. Hanumanthaiya argued that the parliamentary system was better suited to India’s needs than a Presidential system.

Parliamentary Form of Government Features

Real and Nominal Executives: The President acts as the formal or nominal executive, while the Prime Minister serves as the actual (de facto) executive. In this arrangement, the President represents the State, whereas the Prime Minister runs the government’s day-to-day affairs.
Dual Membership: The executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) is drawn from the legislature (Parliament). Members of Parliament elect the Prime Minister and other cabinet ministers, linking the executive and legislative branches closely.
Collective Responsibility: The Council of Ministers is collectively accountable to the legislature. This principle ensures that all ministers share responsibility for government policies and decisions, even if individual ministers are directly responsible for their departments.
Secret Procedure: Cabinet discussions and deliberations are conducted in private and are not disclosed publicly, allowing for open and candid decision-making among ministers.
Leadership under the Prime Minister: The Prime Minister heads the government and exercises leadership over the Council of Ministers, guiding policy and administration.
Majority Party Rule: The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party that holds a majority in the lower house of the legislature, ensuring stability and alignment between the executive and legislative branches.
Bicameral Legislature: Most parliamentary democracies have a bicameral legislature, consisting of two chambers, typically an upper house and a lower house, which provide checks and balances on lawmaking.
Political Homogeneity: Members of the Council of Ministers usually share similar political ideologies, as they belong to the same party. In coalition governments, ministers are bound by coalition agreements to maintain unity.
No Fixed Term: The government’s tenure depends on maintaining the confidence of the lower house. If a motion of no-confidence succeeds, the Council of Ministers must resign, triggering elections and the formation of a new government.

Parliamentary Form of Government Constitutional Provision

The Indian Constitution contains specific provisions that establish and support the parliamentary system of governance at both the central and state levels. The following table summarizes the key articles, their scope, and the way they define the roles, responsibilities, and accountability of the executive in relation to the legislature.

Parliamentary Form of Government Constitutional Provision
Article	Level	Provision	Key Features	Accountability
74	Central	Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President	President acts on advice of the Cabinet headed by PM; advice can be reconsidered but must be adopted	Not subject to judicial review
75	Central	Appointment and responsibility of the Council of Ministers	President appoints PM; PM recommends other ministers; ministers hold office during President’s pleasure	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha
163	State	State Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor	Governor acts on advice of Council headed by CM; discretionary powers in certain matters	Not subject to judicial review
164	State	Appointment and responsibility of State Ministers	Governor appoints CM; CM recommends other ministers; ministers hold office during Governor’s pleasure	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to State Legislative Assembly

Parliamentary Form of Government Advantages

The Parliamentary Form of Government Advantages that contribute to effective governance and political stability. Its structure ensures cooperation between branches, accountability of the executive, prevention of despotism, and broad representation of diverse interests. The key merits are summarized below.

Parliamentary Form of Government Advantages
Merit	Description
Cooperation Between Legislative and Executive Branches	The parliamentary system fosters close coordination between the legislature and the executive, ensuring smooth policy-making and implementation.
Responsible Government	Ministers are accountable to Parliament, and their actions are scrutinized through tools such as question periods, debates, adjournment motions, and no-confidence motions.
Prevents Despotism	Executive power is vested in a council of ministers rather than a single individual, decentralizing authority and reducing the risk of authoritarianism.
Wide Representation	The council of ministers represents diverse regions, communities, and interests, enabling the government to reflect the country’s varied demographic and cultural composition.

Parliamentary Form of Government Disadvantages

While the Parliamentary Form of Government has several advantages, it is not without shortcomings. Certain structural and political factors can lead to instability, inefficiency, and limited accountability. The key demerits are summarized below.

Parliamentary Form of Government Disadvantages
Demerit	Description
No Separation of Powers	When the ruling party has a strong majority, the legislature may struggle to check the executive. Anti-defection laws further restrict MPs from voting independently, reducing legislative oversight.
Unqualified Lawmakers	Legislators often aim to join the executive rather than focus on lawmaking, resulting in a lack of expertise in drafting effective laws.
Instability	Governments depend on maintaining a parliamentary majority. Coalition governments can be short-lived and unstable, forcing the administration to prioritize staying in power over public welfare.
Ministers	Ministers are typically chosen from the ruling party, limiting the inclusion of subject-matter experts in governance.
Failure to Make Quick Decisions	The absence of fixed tenure can delay significant long-term policy decisions, as the Council of Ministers often prioritizes political considerations.
Party Politics	Parliamentary systems can accentuate party interests over national concerns, leading to partisan decision-making.
Bureaucratic Control	Civil servants wield significant influence over ministers and policy, yet they are not directly accountable to the legislature.

Parliamentary Form of Government vs Presidential Form of Government

The Parliamentary Form of Government and Presidential Form of Government are two prominent forms of democratic governance. While both aim to uphold democracy, they differ significantly in structure, powers, and functioning. The table below highlights the key Differences Between the Parliamentary Form of Government and the Presidential Form of Government in India.

Parliamentary Form of Government vs Presidential Form of Government
Feature	Parliamentary Form of Government	Presidential Form of Government
Head of State	President (formal executive)	President (both head of state and government)
Head of Government	Prime Minister (real executive)	President
Executive-Legislature Relationship	Executive is drawn from the legislature and is accountable to it	Executive and legislature are separate; President is not responsible to legislature
Collective Responsibility	Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the legislature	No concept of collective responsibility; President acts independently
Tenure	Depends on parliamentary confidence; no fixed term for government	Fixed tenure for the President and government officials
Decision-Making	Cabinet decisions are made collectively	President can make independent decisions
Stability	Can be unstable if no clear parliamentary majority	Generally more stable due to fixed tenure
Political Homogeneity	Ministers usually belong to the majority party or coalition	Cabinet may include members from different political affiliations if allowed
Removal of Executive	By parliamentary vote of no-confidence	Impeachment through constitutional procedure
Role of Legislature	Strong oversight and accountability of executive	Legislature and executive function independently

Also Check Other Posts
Important Articles of Indian Constitution	9th Schedule
Schedules of Indian Constitution	Anti Defection Law
5th Schedule	Preamble of the Indian Constitution
6th Schedule

Parliamentary Form of Government FAQs

Q1: Which is the best definition of a parliamentary form of government?

Ans: A parliamentary government is a system where the executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) is accountable to the legislature and derives authority from it.

Q2: Which country is a parliamentary form of government?

Ans: Countries like India, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and Japan follow a parliamentary system, where the executive is responsible to the legislature.

Q3: What is the difference between parliamentary and presidential government?

Ans: In parliamentary systems, the executive is accountable to the legislature; in presidential systems, the executive is independent and directly elected by the people.

Q4: Why is India a parliamentary form of government?

Ans: India adopted a parliamentary system to ensure accountability of the executive, collective decision-making, and flexibility in governance, modeled on the British system.

Q5: What are the two types of parliamentary form of government?

Ans: The two types are Westminster (British) model, where the head of state is ceremonial, and European (continental) model, with more active head-of-state powers.

Ramsar Sites in India, State-wise List, Largest, Smallest & Oldest Sites

January 2, 2026

India is home to 96 Ramsar Sites across 28 states and union territories, each recognized for its ecological, hydrological, and biodiversity significance. The largest Ramsar site is the Sundarban Wetland in West Bengal (4,230 km²), while the smallest sites include Renuka Lake in Himachal Pradesh and Vembannur Wetland Complex in Tamil Nadu (both under 1 km²). The oldest Ramsar sites, Chilika Lake in Odisha and Keoladeo Ghana National Park in Rajasthan, were designated in 1981, reflecting India’s long-standing commitment to wetland conservation.

What is a Ramsar Site?

A Ramsar Site is a wetland recognized under the Ramsar Convention (1971) for its international importance in conserving biodiversity and sustaining ecological balance. These wetlands provide critical habitats for migratory birds, endangered species, and unique flora and fauna. They help in groundwater recharge, flood control, and climate regulation, while supporting local livelihoods like fishing and agriculture. India currently has 96 Ramsar Sites spread across 28 states and union territories, highlighting the country’s rich wetland diversity.

Ramsar Sites in India State-wise List

India has 96 Ramsar sites spread across 28 states and union territories, each recognized for its ecological, hydrological, and biodiversity significance. These wetlands range from large brackish lagoons to small freshwater lakes, supporting unique flora, fauna, and migratory birds.

Ramsar Sites in India State-wise List
S.No	Ramsar Site	State/UT	Designated Year	Area (km²)
1	Kolleru Lake	Andhra Pradesh	2002	901
2	Deepor Beel	Assam	2002	40
3	Kanwar (Kabar) Taal	Bihar	2020	26.2
4	Nagi Bird Sanctuary	Bihar	2023	2
5	Nakti Bird Sanctuary	Bihar	2023	3.3
6	Nanda Lake	Goa	2022	0.42
7	Khijadia WLS	Gujarat	2021	6
8	Nalsarovar BS	Gujarat	2012	123
9	Thol Lake	Gujarat	2021	6.99
10	Wadhvana Wetland	Gujarat	2021	10.38
11	Bhindawas WLS	Haryana	2021	4.11
12	Sultanpur NP	Haryana	2021	142.5
13	Chandra Taal	Himachal Pradesh	2005	0.49
14	Pong Dam Lake	Himachal Pradesh	2002	156.62
15	Renuka Lake	Himachal Pradesh	2005	0.2
16	Ranganathituu BS	Karnataka	2022	5.18
17	Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve	Karnataka	2024	0.5
18	Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve	Karnataka	2024	0.98
19	Aghanashini Estuary	Karnataka	2024	4.8
20	Ashtamudi Wetland	Kerala	2002	614
21	Sasthamkotta Lake	Kerala	2002	3.73
22	Vembanad-Kol Wetland	Kerala	1905	1,512.5
23	Bhoj Wetland	Madhya Pradesh	2002	32
24	Sakhya Sagar	Madhya Pradesh	2022	2.48
25	Sirpur Wetland	Madhya Pradesh	2022	1.61
26	Yashwant Sagar	Madhya Pradesh	2022	8.22
27	Tawa Reservoir	Madhya Pradesh	2024	200
28	Lonar Lake	Maharashtra	2020	4.27
29	Nandur Madhameshwar	Maharashtra	2019	14
30	Thane Creek	Maharashtra	2022	65.21
31	Loktak Lake	Manipur	1990	266
32	Pala Wetland	Mizoram	2021	18.5
33	Ansupa Lake	Odisha	2021	2.31
34	Bhitarkanika Mangroves	Odisha	2002	650
35	Chilika Lake	Odisha	1981	1,165
36	Hirakud Reservoir	Odisha	2021	654
37	Satkosia Gorge	Odisha	2021	981.97
38	Tampara Lake	Odisha	2021	3
39	Beas CnR	Punjab	2019	64
40	Harike Wetland	Punjab	1990	41
41	Kanjli Wetland	Punjab	2002	1.83
42	Keshopur-Miani CmR	Punjab	2019	34
43	Nangal WLS	Punjab	2019	1
44	Ropar Wetland	Punjab	2002	13.65
45	Keoladeo National Park	Rajasthan	1981	28.73
46	Sambhar Lake	Rajasthan	1990	240
47	Chitrangudi BS	Tamil Nadu	2021	2.6
48	Gulf of Mannar Marine BR	Tamil Nadu	2022	526.72
49	Kanjirankulam BS	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.96
50	Karikili BS	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.584
51	Koonthankulam BS	Tamil Nadu	2021	0.72
52	Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest	Tamil Nadu	2022	12.475
53	Pichavaram Mangrove	Tamil Nadu	2022	14.786
54	Point Calimere WLS & BS	Tamil Nadu	2002	389
55	Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.94
56	Udhayamarthandapuram BS	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.44
57	Vaduvur BS	Tamil Nadu	2022	1.12
58	Vedanthangal BS	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.4
59	Vellode BS	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.77
60	Vembannur Wetland Complex	Tamil Nadu	2022	0.2
61	Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2024	4.5
62	Longwood Shola Reserve Forest	Tamil Nadu	2024	1.16
63	Nanjarayan Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2024	1.3
64	Kazhuveli Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2024	1,513
65	Rudrasagar Lake	Tripura	2005	2.4
66	Hokera Wetland	UT of Jammu & Kashmir	2005	13.75
67	Hygam Wetland CnR	UT of Jammu & Kashmir	2022	8.02
68	Shallbugh Wetland CnR	UT of Jammu & Kashmir	2022	16.75
69	Surinsar-Mansar Lakes	UT of Jammu & Kashmir	2005	3.5
70	Wular Lake	UT of Jammu & Kashmir	1990	189
71	Tso Kar	UT of Ladakh	2020	95.77
72	Tsomoriri	UT of Ladakh	2002	120
73	Bakhira WLS	Uttar Pradesh	2021	28.94
74	Haiderpur Wetland	Uttar Pradesh	2021	69
75	Nawabganj BS	Uttar Pradesh	2019	2
76	Parvati Arga BS	Uttar Pradesh	2019	7
77	Saman BS	Uttar Pradesh	2019	5
78	Samaspur BS	Uttar Pradesh	2019	8
79	Sandi BS	Uttar Pradesh	2019	3
80	Sarsai Nawar Jheel	Uttar Pradesh	2019	2
81	Sur Sarovar (Keetham Lake)	Uttar Pradesh	2020	4.31
82	Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora)	Uttar Pradesh	2005	265.9
83	Asan Barrage	Uttarakhand	2020	4.44
84	East Kolkata Wetlands	West Bengal	2002	125
85	Sundarban Wetland	West Bengal	2019	4,230
86	Sakkarakottai Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2025	–
87	Therthangal Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2025	–
88	Khecheopalri Wetland	Sikkim	2025	–
89	Udhwa Lake	Jharkhand	2025	–
90	Khichan (Phalodi)	Rajasthan	2025	–
91	Menar (Udaipur)	Rajasthan	2025	–
92	Gokul Jalashay	Bihar	2025	–
93	Udaipur Jheel	Bihar	2025	–
94	Gogabeel Lake	Bihar	2025	-
95	Siliserh Lake	Rajasthan	2025	-
96	Kopra Jalashay	Chhattisgarh	2025	-

Newly Added Ramsar Sites in India

In 2025, India added 11 new Ramsar Sites, reflecting its ongoing commitment to wetland conservation and biodiversity protection. These sites span several states and union territories, including Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, and Bihar.

Newly Added Ramsar Sites in India
S.No	Ramsar Site	State/UT	Designated Year
1	Sakkarakottai Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2025
2	Therthangal Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	2025
3	Khecheopalri Wetland	Sikkim	2025
4	Udhwa Lake	Jharkhand	2025
5	Khichan (Phalodi)	Rajasthan	2025
6	Menar (Udaipur)	Rajasthan	2025
7	Gokul Jalashay	Bihar	2025
8	Udaipur Jheel	Bihar	2025
9	Gogabeel Lake	Bihar	2025
10	Siliserh Lake	Rajasthan	2025
11	Kopra Jalashay	Chhattisgarh	2025

Ramsar Sites in India Description

This table provides a comprehensive list of all 96 Ramsar Sites in India, including their state/UT and a brief description highlighting ecological, cultural, and conservation importance. It serves as a handy reference for understanding India’s wetlands and their significance for biodiversity, migratory birds, and local livelihoods.

Ramsar Sites in India Description
S.No	Ramsar Site	State/UT	Description
1	Kolleru Lake	Andhra Pradesh	Nutrient-rich freshwater lake between Godavari and Krishna basins, supports fisheries and agriculture; endangered Spot-Billed Pelican.
2	Deepor Beel	Assam	Permanent freshwater lake near Guwahati; habitat for Grey Pelican, Lesser & Greater Adjutant Storks, Baer’s Pochard.
3	Kanwar Taal	Bihar	Oxbow lake in Indo-Gangetic plain; hosts critically endangered vultures and waterbirds like Baer’s Pochard.
4	Nagi Bird Sanctuary	Bihar	Created from damming Nagi River; wintering site for Baer’s Pochard and steppe eagle; large bar-headed goose congregation.
5	Nakti Bird Sanctuary	Bihar	Man-made wetland from Nakti Dam; habitat for red-crested pochard and vulnerable catfish.
6	Gokul Jalashay	Bihar	Oxbow lake on Ganga’s southern edge; supports 50+ bird species; local communities depend on it for fishing and agriculture.
7	Udaipur Jheel	Bihar	Oxbow lake in Udaipur WLS; home to 280 plant species and migratory birds including vulnerable common pochard.
8	Nanda Lake	Goa	Freshwater marsh near Zuari River; supports aquatic biodiversity despite small size (0.42 km²).
9	Khijadia WLS	Gujarat	Freshwater wetland in Jamnagar; endangered Pallas’s Fish-Eagle, Indian Skimmer, and Bdellium-Tree.
10	Nalsarovar BS	Gujarat	Largest natural freshwater lake in Thar Desert; supports endangered Indian Wild Ass and Sociable Lapwing.
11	Thol Lake	Gujarat	Human-made reservoir; supports Blackbucks and endangered birds like White-Rumped Vulture.
12	Wadhvana Wetland	Gujarat	Semi-arid man-made wetland; habitat for Pallas’s Fish-Eagle, Sarus Crane, Common Pochard.
13	Bhindawas WLS	Haryana	Human-made freshwater wetland; hosts Egyptian Vultures and Pallas’s Fish-Eagle.
14	Sultanpur NP	Haryana	Near Delhi; IBA wetland supporting Sociable Lapwing, Egyptian Vultures, Saker Falcon, Black-Bellied Tern.
15	Chandra Taal	Himachal Pradesh	High-altitude lake; habitat for Snow Leopard, Himalayan Ibex, Blue Sheep; threatened by overgrazing.
16	Pong Dam Lake	Himachal Pradesh	Reservoir on Beas River; lies on Trans-Himalayan Flyway for migratory waterfowl.
17	Renuka Lake	Himachal Pradesh	Freshwater wetland with karst formations; named after sage Parshuram’s mother.
18	Udhwa Lake	Jharkhand	Oxbow wetland; supports Oriental White-Backed Vulture, Pallas’s Fish Eagle, Lesser Adjutant.
19	Aghanashini Estuary	Karnataka	Free-flowing river estuary; mangroves support fish, prawns, and bird diversity; important nutrient cycling.
20	Ankasamudra Bird CnR	Karnataka	Near Hampi; 175 bird species including 11 IUCN-listed species; nesting and breeding site.
21	Magadi Kere CnR	Karnataka	Saline wetland attracting migratory waterfowl; hosts bar-headed goose, Grey & Purple Herons.
22	Ranganathituu BS	Karnataka	Part of Kaveri River; habitat for Mugger Crocodile, Smooth-Coated Otter, Painted Stork, Grey Pelican.
23	Ashtamudi Wetland	Kerala	Backwater ecosystem; second-largest estuary in Kerala; supports fisheries and National Waterway 3.
24	Sasthamkotta Lake	Kerala	Largest freshwater lake in Kerala; exceptionally pure water supporting diverse aquatic life.
25	Vembanad-Kol Wetland	Kerala	Largest brackish lake in Kerala; supports paddy cultivation and migratory birds; second-largest Ramsar site in India.
26	Bhoj Wetland	Madhya Pradesh	Two human-made lakes in Bhopal; habitat for Sarus Crane.
27	Sakhya Sagar	Madhya Pradesh	Reservoir near Madhav National Park; hosts Mugger, Smooth-Coated Otter, Hump-Backed Mahseer.
28	Sirpur Wetland	Madhya Pradesh	Human-made wetland in Indore; supports Common Pochard, Egyptian Vulture, Indian River Tern.
29	Tawa Reservoir	Madhya Pradesh	Within Satpura Tiger Reserve; fish spawning ground and habitat for Indian giant squirrel.
30	Yashwant Sagar	Madhya Pradesh	IBA wetland in Indore region; important for migratory and resident birds.
31	Lonar Lake	Maharashtra	Meteorite crater lake; hypersaline and alkaline, hosts haloarchaea producing pink pigment.
32	Nandur Madhameshwar	Maharashtra	Created by Godavari-Kadwa confluence; hosts leopards and endangered bird species.
33	Thane Creek	Maharashtra	Large brackish water creek; fringed by mangroves; supports flamingos and diverse avifauna.
34	Loktak Lake	Manipur	Largest freshwater lake in northeast India; features floating phumdis and Keibul Lamjao, the only floating national park.
35	Pala Wetland	Mizoram	Natural lake in Indo-Burma hotspot; supports Sambar Deer, Barking Deer, Hoolock Gibbon.
36	Ansupa Lake	Odisha	Freshwater oxbow of Mahanadi River; largest freshwater lake in Odisha; endangered birds and fish.
37	Bhitarkanika Mangroves	Odisha	Part of Bhitarkanika WLS; supports Olive Ridley Turtles, Saltwater Crocodiles.
38	Chilika Lake	Odisha	India’s first Ramsar site (1981); brackish water lagoon; home to Irrawaddy dolphins; major migratory bird hub.
39	Hirakud Reservoir	Odisha	Large earthen dam; moderates floods in Mahanadi delta.
40	Satkosia Gorge	Odisha	Mosaic of rivers and forests; home to tigers and endangered turtles.
41	Tampara Lake	Odisha	Formed during 1766 battle; now connected to Rushikulya River for flood control.
42	Beas CnR	Punjab	189 km stretch of Beas River; hosts Indus River dolphin and reintroduced Gharial.
43	Harike Wetland	Punjab	Shallow reservoir at Beas-Sutlej confluence; important for migratory birds.
44	Kanjli Wetland	Punjab	Associated with Guru Nanak; freshwater wetland supporting local biodiversity.
45	Keshopur-Miani CmR	Punjab	Mosaic of marshes and ponds; supports Common Pochard, Spotted Pond Turtle.
46	Nangal WLS	Punjab	Bhakra-Nangal reservoir; historically significant; endangered Indian Pangolin and Leopard.
47	Ropar Wetland	Punjab	Formed by Sutlej River barrage; supports Smooth Indian Otter, Hog Deer, Sambar.
48	Keoladeo NP	Rajasthan	Complex of seasonal marshes; invasive grasses threaten Siberian Crane; on Montreux Record in 1990.
49	Sambhar Lake	Rajasthan	India’s largest inland saltwater lake; wintering site for flamingos.
50	Khichan Wetland	Rajasthan	Thar Desert wetland; wintering site for migratory demoiselle cranes.
51	Menar Wetland Complex	Rajasthan	Monsoon-fed freshwater ponds; supports vultures, waterbirds, and local flora.
52	Khecheopalri Wetland	Sikkim	Sacred lake in Demazong valley; revered by Hindus and Buddhists; near Kanchenjunga.
53	Chitrangudi BS	Tamil Nadu	IBA adjacent to Kanjirankulam; supports Grey Pelican, Painted Stork, Little Egret.
54	Gulf of Mannar Marine BR	Tamil Nadu	First marine biosphere reserve in South Asia; Dugong, Hawksbill Turtle, Humpback Dolphin.
55	Kanjirankulam BS	Tamil Nadu	Affected by invasive Prosopis trees; hosts Painted Stork, Oriental Darter.
56	Karaivetti BS	Tamil Nadu	Irrigation tank; freshwater feeding ground for migratory birds like Bar-headed Goose.
57	Karikili BS	Tamil Nadu	Near Kanchipuram; supports Oriental Darter, Spot-Billed Pelican.
58	Kazhuveli BS	Tamil Nadu	Brackish lake; important migratory bird path and spawning ground for fish.
59	Koonthankulam BS	Tamil Nadu	Human-made wetland; IBA maintained by local community.
60	Longwood Shola RF	Tamil Nadu	Urban shola forest in Nilgiris; retains water, regulates microclimate.
61	Nanjarayan BS	Tamil Nadu	Historical freshwater lake; nesting habitats for waterbirds and flapshell turtles.
62	Pallikaranai Marsh RF	Tamil Nadu	Coastal marsh; buffers Chennai floodwaters.
63	Pichavaram Mangrove	Tamil Nadu	Large mangrove forest; spiritual value; supports endangered birds and Olive Ridley Turtle.
64	Point Calimere WLS & BS	Tamil Nadu	Last remnants of dry evergreen forests; hosts Spoon-Billed Sandpiper and Grey Pelican.
65	Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex	Tamil Nadu	IBA; inland perennial man-made tank on Central Asian flyway.
66	Udhayamarthandapuram BS	Tamil Nadu	Stores monsoon floodwaters; maintains dry-season water flow.
67	Vaduvur BS	Tamil Nadu	Large human-made tank; shelter for migratory birds.
68	Vedanthangal BS	Tamil Nadu	Freshwater wetland; protected by locals; guano enriches agriculture.
69	Vellode BS	Tamil Nadu	Supports Indian River Tern, Oriental Darter, Painted Stork.
70	Vembannur Wetland Complex	Tamil Nadu	Human-made inland tank; habitat for Spot-Billed Pelican and Spotted Greenshank.
71	Karaivetti BS	Tamil Nadu	Freshwater lake; attracts migratory waterbirds.
72	Rudrasagar Lake	Tripura	Reservoir fed by perennial streams; habitat for Three-Striped Roof Turtle.
73	Hokera Wetland	UT of JK	Natural wetland near Srinagar; hosts White-Eyed Pochard.
74	Hygam Wetland CnR	UT of JK	Downstream of Wular Lake; threatened by siltation.
75	Shallbugh Wetland CnR	UT of JK	Prevents flooding; supports Steppe Eagle, Pallas’s Fish-Eagle.
76	Surinsar-Mansar Lakes	UT of JK	Composite freshwater lake; semi-arid Punjab plains; linked to Mahabharata mythology.
77	Wular Lake	UT of JK	Largest freshwater lake in India; fed by Jhelum; supports rich biodiversity.
78	Tso Kar	UT of Ladakh	High-altitude hypersaline and freshwater lakes; breeding site for Black-Necked Cranes.
79	Tsomoriri	UT of Ladakh	Freshwater-brackish lake; only breeding site in India for Black-Necked Cranes and Bar-Headed Geese.
80	Bakhira WLS	Uttar Pradesh	Freshwater marsh near Gorakhpur; hosts Egyptian Vultures, Greater Spotted Eagle.
81	Haiderpur Wetland	Uttar Pradesh	Formed by Madhya Ganga Barrage; supports Gharial, Golden Mahseer, Hog Deer.
82	Nawabganj BS	Uttar Pradesh	Shallow marsh near Lucknow; renamed Chandra Shekhar Azad BS; Egyptian Vulture and Pallas’s Fish Eagle.
83	Parvati Arga BS	Uttar Pradesh	Freshwater oxbow lakes; home to Red-Headed Vulture, Indian Vulture.
84	Saman BS	Uttar Pradesh	Seasonal oxbow lake on Ganges floodplain; Sarus Crane, Greater Spotted Eagle.
85	Samaspur BS	Uttar Pradesh	Perennial lowland marsh; Egyptian Vulture, Pallas’s Fish Eagle.
86	Sandi BS	Uttar Pradesh	Freshwater wetland; supports Sarus Crane.
87	Sarsai Nawar Jheel	Uttar Pradesh	Marsh; name from Sarus Crane; pilgrimage site nearby.
88	Sur Sarovar (Keetham Lake)	Uttar Pradesh	Created for Agra water supply; supports Greater Spotted Eagle.
89	Upper Ganga River	Uttar Pradesh	Stretch from Brijghat to Narora; endangered Ganges River Dolphin and Gharial.
90	Asan Barrage	Uttarakhand	Formed by damming Asan River; supports Red-Headed Vulture, White-Rumped Vulture, Baer’s Pochard.
91	East Kolkata Wetlands	West Bengal	Multiple-use wetland; feeds world’s largest wastewater-fed aquaculture.
92	Sundarban Wetland	West Bengal	Largest Ramsar site in India; mangrove forest; Northern River Terrapin, Irrawaddy Dolphin.
93	Newly Added Sites (2025)	Multiple States	Includes Sakkarakottai BS, Therthangal BS (TN), Khecheopalri Wetland (Sikkim), Udhwa Lake (Jharkhand), Khichan (Rajasthan), Menar (Rajasthan), Gokul Jalashay, Udaipur Jheel (Bihar), Gogabeel Lake (Bihar), Siliserh Lake (Rajasthan), and Kopra Jalashay (Chhattisgarh).

Ramsar Sites in India Largest, Smallest and Oldest

The detailed list of Lagest, Smallest and Oldest Ramsar Sites in India have been listed below.

The Sundarban Wetland, Kazhuveli Bird Sanctuary, and Vembanad-Kol Wetland are among India’s largest Ramsar sites, spanning over 1,500 km² each. These wetlands play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, supporting diverse flora, fauna, and migratory birds.

Largest Ramsar Sites in India
Rank	Ramsar Site	State	Area (km²)
1	Sundarban Wetland	West Bengal	4,230
2	Kazhuveli Bird Sanctuary	Tamil Nadu	1,513
3	Vembanad-Kol Wetland	Kerala	1,512.5
4	Chilika Lake	Odisha	1,165
5	Satkosia Gorge	Odisha	981.97
6	Kolleru Lake	Andhra Pradesh	901

Renuka Lake, Vembannur Wetland Complex, and Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary are India’s smallest Ramsar sites, each under 1 km² in area. Despite their size, these sites are ecologically significant, providing critical habitats for endangered species and local communities.

Smallest Ramsar Sites in India
Rank	Ramsar Site	State	Area (km²)
1	Renuka Lake	Himachal Pradesh	0.2
2	Vembannur Wetland Complex	Tamil Nadu	0.2
3	Vedanthangal BS	Tamil Nadu	0.4
4	Nanda Lake	Goa	0.42
5	Udhayamarthandapuram BS	Tamil Nadu	0.44

Chilika Lake and Keoladeo Ghana National Park were the first Indian wetlands recognized under the Ramsar Convention in 1981. They are internationally renowned for their rich biodiversity, especially migratory waterbirds, and long-standing conservation importance.

Oldest Ramsar Sites in India
Rank	Ramsar Site	Year of Designation
1	Chilika Lake	1981
2	Keoladeo Ghana NP	1981

Importance of Ramsar Sites in India

Ramsar sites are wetlands of international importance that support biodiversity, regulate water cycles, and sustain livelihoods of local communities. They play a vital role in flood control, groundwater recharge, and climate regulation.

Provide habitat for migratory and endangered species.
Support fisheries, agriculture, and tourism-based livelihoods.
Act as natural water purifiers and carbon sinks.
Help in flood mitigation and groundwater replenishment.
Contribute to climate regulation and ecosystem services.

Montreux Record in India

The Montreux Record is a register of Ramsar sites facing ecological changes due to human activities or natural factors. Inclusion highlights wetlands requiring priority conservation and restoration efforts. There are only 2 Ramsar Sites in India in the Montreux Record.

Indian Ramsar Sites on the Montreux Record
Ramsar Site	State	Reason for Inclusion	Year Listed
Keoladeo Ghana National Park	Rajasthan	Water shortage and unbalanced grazing	1990
Loktak Lake	Manipur	This lake is affected by factors such as human-induced changes and pollution	1993

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Biosphere Reserves in India	National Parks in India
Waterfalls in India	Highest Peak in India
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Dams in India	Tiger Reserves in India
Mountain Passes in India	Longest Bridge in India

Ramsar Sites in India FAQs

Q1: What is a Ramsar Site?

Ans: A Ramsar Site is a wetland designated as being of international importance under the Ramsar Convention (1971) for its biodiversity, ecological, and hydrological value.

Q2: How many Ramsar Sites are there in India?

Ans: India has 96 Ramsar Sites spread across 28 states and union territories.

Q3: Which is the largest Ramsar Site in India?

Ans: The Sundarban Wetland in West Bengal is the largest Ramsar Site in India, covering 4,230 km².

Q4: Which is the smallest Ramsar Site in India?

Ans: The Renuka Lake (Himachal Pradesh) and Vembannur Wetland Complex (Tamil Nadu) are the smallest Ramsar Sites, each under 1 km².

Q5: Which are the oldest Ramsar Sites in India?

Ans: Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo Ghana National Park (Rajasthan), both designated in 1981, are the oldest Ramsar Sites.

National Parks in India 2025, State Wise List, Map, Facts

January 2, 2026

National Parks in India: India is home to a diversity of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, each serving as a hub for biodiversity conservation. These government-protected areas are established to safeguard native wildlife, conserve plant and animal species, and help restore ecological balance. Currently, there are 107 National Parks in India and 544 Wildlife Sanctuaries across the country, with Madhya Pradesh and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands leading in numbers, each hosting nine National Parks.

National Parks in India

National Parks in India play a vital role in protecting wildlife and their natural habitats. These areas have strict rules that ban hunting, poaching, industrial activities, and farming to keep the environment undisturbed. With secure boundaries, no outside activities are allowed near or within these parks. The main purpose of National Parks in India is to conserve India’s diverse wildlife. Below is a List of National Parks in India 2025, which is useful for competitive exams and general knowledge.

List of National Parks in India 2025 State-wise

India proudly hosts around 107 national parks, each dedicated to preserving its remarkable biodiversity and distinctive landscapes. Here’s a List of National Parks in India 2025 State-wise, for easy reference.

List of National Parks in India 2025 State-wise
State/Union Territory	Total Parks	National Parks Name	Establishment Year
Andaman & Nicobar Islands	9	Campbell Bay National Park	1992
		Galathea Bay National Park	1992
		Mahatama Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) National Park	1982
		Middle Button Island National Park	1987
		Mount Harriett National Park	1987
		North Button Island National Park	1987
		Rani Jhansi Marine National Park	1996
		Saddle Peak National Park	1987
		South Button Island National Park	1987
Andhra Pradesh	3	Papikonda National Park	2008
		Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) National Park	2005
		Sri Venkateswara National Park	1989
Arunachal Pradesh	2	Mouling National Park	1986
Arunachal Pradesh	2	Namdapha National Park	1983
Assam	5	Dibru-Saikhowa National Park	1999
		Kaziranga National Park	1974
		Manas National Park	1990
		Nameri National Park	1998
		Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park	1999
Bihar	1	Valmiki National Park	1989
Chhattisgarh	3	Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park	1981
		Indravati (Kutru) National Park	1982
		Kanger Valley National Park	1982
Goa	1	Mollem National Park	1992
Gujarat	4	Vansda National Park	1979
		Blackbuck (Velavadar) National Park	1976
		Gir National Park	1975
		Marine (Gulf of Kachchh) National Park	1982
Haryana	2	Kalesar National Park	2003
Haryana	2	Sultanpur National Park	1989
Himachal Pradesh	5	Great Himalayan National Park	1984
		Inderkilla National Park	2010
		Khirganga National Park	2010
		Pin Valley National Park	1987
		Simbalbara National Park	2010
Jammu and Kashmir	4	City Forest (Salim Ali) National Park	1992
		Dachigam National Park	1981
		Kishtwar National Park	1981
Jharkhand	1	Betla National Park	1986
Karnataka	5	Anshi National Park	1987
		Bandipur National Park	1974
		Bannerghatta National Park	1974
		Kudremukh National Park	1987
		Nagarhole National Park	1988
Kerala	6	Anamudi Shola National Park	2003
		Eravikulam National Park	1978
		Mathikettan Shola National Park	2003
		Pambadum Shola National Park	2003
		Periyar National Park	1982
		Silent Valley National Park	1984
Madhya Pradesh	9	Bandhavgarh National Park	1968
		Fossil National Park	1983
		Pench National Park	1975
		Kanha National Park	1955
		Madhav National Park	1959
		Panna National Park	1981
		Sanjay National Park	1981
		Satpura National Park	1981
		Van Vihar National Park	1979
Maharashtra	6	Chandoli National Park	2004
		Gugamal National Park	1975
		Nawegaon National Park	1975
		Pench (Jawaharlal Nehru) National Park	1975
		Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) National Park	1983
		Tadoba Andhari National Park	1955
Manipur	1	Keibul-Lamjao National Park	1977
Meghalaya	2	Balphakram National Park	1985
Meghalaya	2	Nokrek Ridge National Park	1986
Mizoram	2	Murlen National Park	1991
Mizoram	2	Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park	1992
Nagaland	1	Intanki National Park	1993
Odisha	2	Bhitarkanika National Park	1988
Odisha	2	Simlipal National Park	1980
Rajasthan	5	Mukundra Hills National Park	2006
		Desert National Park	1992
		Keoladeo Ghana National Park	1981
		Ranthambhore National Park	1980
		Sariska National Park	1992
Sikkim	1	Khangchendzonga National Park	1977
Tamil Nadu	5	Guindy National Park	1976
		Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park	1980
		Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National Park	1989
		Mudumalai National Park	1990
		Mukurthi National Park	1990
Ladakh	1	Hemis National Park	1981
Telangana	3	Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park	1994
		Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National Park	1994
		Mrugavani National Park	1994
Tripura	2	Clouded Leopard National Park	2007
Tripura	2	Bison (Rajbari) National Park	2007
Uttar Pradesh	1	Dudhwa National Park	1977
Uttarakhand	6	Corbett National Park	1936
		Gangotri National Park	1989
		Govind National Park	1990
		Nanda Devi National Park	1982
		Rajaji National Park	1983
		Valley of Flowers National Park	1982
West Bengal	6	Buxa National Park	1992
		Gorumara National Park	1992
		Jaldapara National Park	2014
		Neora Valley National Park	1986
		Singalila National Park	1986
		Sunderban National Park	1984

National Parks in India Map

There are 107 National Parks in India as of 2025 covering around 44,403 km2 covering the diverse including the Himalayas to coastal regions. The First National Park in India is Jim Corbett National Park which was initially known as Hailey National Park established in 1936 in Uttarakhand where as South Button Island NP in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, which is referred as the Smallest National Park in India about 5 km². Below we have provided the National Park of India Map for the reference.

What is a National Park?

A National Park is a protected area established by the government under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 to conserve wildlife, flora, and natural ecosystems. These parks aim to safeguard biodiversity and provide a secure habitat for endangered species. Human activities like hunting, poaching, and commercial use of resources are strictly prohibited within their boundaries. National Parks also promote eco-tourism, environmental education, and scientific research to maintain ecological balance and awareness.

National Park in India Features

Legal Protection: National Parks are legally protected; activities like hunting, grazing, and forestry are prohibited.
Wildlife Conservation: They serve as safe habitats for endangered and native species of animals and birds.
Ecological Balance: Helps in preserving ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural landscapes.
Public Access: Generally open to visitors for education and eco-tourism under strict rules.
Scientific Research: Provide opportunities for research, wildlife monitoring, and conservation studies.

Oldest National Parks in India

Corbett National Park, established in 1936, is the Oldest National Parks in India. Located in the Himalayas in Uttarakhand, it was initially named Hailey National Park. Renowned for its rich biodiversity, the park is especially famous for being the first area to come under the Project Tiger initiative in 1973. Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve is home to Bengal tigers, elephants, leopards, and hundreds of bird species, making it one of the most prominent wildlife sanctuaries in India.

Oldest National Parks in India
S.No	National Parks in India	Location	Year
1	Corbett National Park	Uttrakhand	1936
2	Kanha National Park	Madhya Pradesh	1955
3	Tadoba National Park	Maharashtra	1955

Smallest National Parks in India

South Button Island National Park is the Smallest National Parks in India covering an area of just 5 sq.km. It is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, off the southeastern coast of the Indian mainland. Despite its small size, the park is rich in marine biodiversity, offering vibrant coral reefs, sea turtles, and exotic fish species. It forms part of the Rani Jhansi Marine National Park and is a popular site for scuba diving.

Smallest National Parks in India
Rank	National Park	Location	Area (km^2)
1	South Button Island NP	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	0.03
2	Fossil National Park	Madhya Pradesh	0.3
4	North Button Island National Park	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	0.4
5	Middle Button Island National Park	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	0.9
7	Dinosaur Fossils National Park	Madhya Pradesh	1.4
8	Pambadum Shola National Park	Tamil Nadu	1.4

Newest National Parks in India

Dihing Patkai National Park is the Newest National Parks in India, established in June 2021. It is located in the Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts of Assam and spans an area of 231.65km2. Known as the "Amazon of the East," the park is rich in biodiversity and forms part of the largest stretch of lowland rainforest in India. It is home to rare and endangered species like the clouded leopard, hoolock gibbon, and several species of hornbills.

Newest National Parks in India
Rank	National Parks	Location	Year
1	Dihing Patkai National Park	Assam	2021
2	Raimona National Park	Assam	2021
3	Jaldapara National Park	West Bengal	2014

Largest National Parks in India

Hemis National Park is the Largest National Parks in India in India by area. It is located in the eastern part of Ladakh (previously part of Jammu and Kashmir) in northern India and spans an area of approximately 4,400 square kilometers. Nestled in the trans-Himalayan region, this park is renowned for being the highest altitude national park in the country and serves as a vital sanctuary for the elusive snow leopard, along with other rare wildlife like the Tibetan wolf, red fox, and bharal (blue sheep).

Largest National Parks in India
Rank	National Park	Location (State/UT)	Area (km²)
1	Hemis National Park	Ladakh	3,350
2	Desert National Park	Rajasthan	3,162
3	Gangotri National Park	Uttarakhand	2,390
4	Namdapha National Park	Arunachal Pradesh	1,808
5	Khangchendzonga National Park	Sikkim	1,784
6	Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park	Chhattisgarh	1,441
7	Sundarbans National Park	West Bengal	1,330
8	Indravati (Kutru) National Park	Chhattisgarh	1,258
9	Papikonda National Park	Andhra Pradesh	1,013
10	Kanha National Park	Madhya Pradesh	940
11	Bandipur National Park	Karnataka	874
12	Kaziranga National Park	Assam	859
13	Simlipal National Park	Odisha	846
14	Rajaji National Park	Uttarakhand	820
15	Great Himalayan National Park	Himachal Pradesh	754
16	Khirganga National Park	Himachal Pradesh	710
17	Pin Valley National Park	Himachal Pradesh	675
18	Nagarahole National Park	Karnataka	643
19	Nanda Devi National Park	Uttarakhand	625
20	Kudremukh National Park	Karnataka	600
21	Satpura National Park	Madhya Pradesh	585
22	Panna National Park	Madhya Pradesh	543
23	Corbett National Park	Uttarakhand	521
24	Manas National Park	Assam	500
25	Dudhwa National Park	Uttar Pradesh	490
26	Mouling National Park	Arunachal Pradesh	483
27	Govind National Park	Uttarakhand	472
28	Sanjay National Park	Madhya Pradesh	467
29	Bandhavgarh National Park	Madhya Pradesh	449
30	Campbell Bay National Park	Andaman & Nicobar Islands	426

National Parks in India 2025 Facts

Hemis National Park (Jammu & Kashmir): The largest national park in India, famous for its snow leopard population.
South Button Island National Park (Andaman & Nicobar Islands): The smallest national park in India, known for its coral reefs and marine life.
Rann of Kutch (Gujarat): The largest wildlife sanctuary in India, home to the Indian wild ass and migratory birds.
Bor Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra): The smallest wildlife sanctuary in India, critical for tiger conservation.

Also Check Other Posts
Biosphere Reserves in India	National Parks in India
Waterfalls in India	Highest Peak in India
Ramsar Sites in India	Wildlife Sanctuaries in India
Dams in India	Tiger Reserves in India
Mountain Passes in India	Longest Bridge in India

National Parks in India FAQs

Q1: How many National Parks are there in India?

Ans: There are a total of 107 National Parks in India.

Q2: Which is the largest national park in India?

Ans: Hemis National Park, situated in the Leh district of Jammu and Kashmir, holds the distinction of being India's largest national park, covering an expansive area of approximately 4,400 square kilometers.

Q3: Which state has the maximum number of national parks?

Ans: Madhya Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the leaders in India when it comes to the number of National Parks, each boasting a total of nine parks.

Q4: Which is the first national park in India?

Ans: India's inaugural national park was Hailey National Park, established in 1936. It is currently known as Jim Corbett National Park.

Mountain Passes in India, State Wise List, Significance

January 2, 2026

Mountain Passes in India is a natural route through or across a mountain range, often formed by geological activity, glacial movement, or erosion from rain and snow. At lower elevations, such routes are commonly referred to as hill passes. Mountain Passes in India may range from narrow high-altitude mountains to wide valleys stretching across several miles. They are commonly located near rivers fed by precipitation and snowmelt. While a Mountain Passes in India need not be entirely flat, it is characteristically much lower in elevation compared to the surrounding peaks, providing a navigable pathway through otherwise difficult terrain.

Mountain Passes in India

Mountain Passes in India are navigable routes through mountainous terrain formed due to natural gaps or breaks. These serve as vital connectors between regions separated by mountain ranges. In India, passes such as Khardung La, Nathu La, and Rohtang Pass hold strategic, commercial, and touristic significance. Many of these are located in geopolitically sensitive areas, influencing defense strategy and international diplomacy. Mountain Passes in India are also crucial for supply chains and emergency access. Their accessibility often depends on weather, especially in snow-bound regions.

Mountain Passes in India Overview

Mountain Passes in India act as vital links between geographically isolated regions. Many are located in the Himalayas, connecting India to countries like China, Nepal, and Pakistan. These passes support military logistics, border management, and trade. Some like Rohtang and Zoji La also serve as popular tourist routes. The below table includes the Mountain Passes in India Overview:

Mountain Passes in India Overview
Key Aspect	Details
Geopolitical Importance	Mountain passes such as Nathu La and Khardung La connect India to neighbouring countries and act as strategic international borders. These passes are crucial for maintaining diplomatic and military relations, especially with countries like China, Nepal, and Pakistan.
Tourism and Adventure	Passes like Rohtang and Zojila attract tourists for their beauty and adventure activities like trekking, biking, and snow sports. These passes are major for tourism, especially in the Himalayan regions, promoting the local economy.
Weather Conditions	Mountain passes experience extreme weather with heavy snowfall and frequent landslides, especially during winter. Passes like Baralacha La and Zoji La often become unreachable due to harsh conditions, requiring road closures.
Military Significance	Passes such as Karakoram Pass and Bomdi-La are critical for military operations and supply chains. These high-altitude passes are vital for army movements and maintaining defence strategies along India’s borders.
Cultural Exchange	Historically, passes like Shipki La facilitated trade and cultural exchanges through routes such as the ancient Silk Route. These routes played a key role in the movement of goods, ideas, and cultures between India and its neighbours.
Environmental Challenges	High-altitude passes are prone to climate extremes, and their accessibility is often limited by changing weather patterns. Passes also face environmental concerns like glacial melts and landslides, impacting transportation and local communities.

List of Mountain Passes in India

There are various Mountain Passes in India across the Himalayas, Western Ghats, and Eastern Ghats. Some of the most prominent ones include Khardung La (Ladakh), Zoji La (Jammu & Kashmir), Nathu La (Sikkim), and Rohtang Pass (Himachal Pradesh). The passes have historically enabled the movement of armies, traders, and pilgrims across the subcontinent.

List of Mountain Passes in India
State	Mountain Pass	Description
Leh-Ladakh	Chang La	One of the highest motorable passes (17,590 ft), connecting Leh to Pangong Lake. Known for its extreme cold and low oxygen; DRDO center is nearby.
	Bara-Lacha La	Connects Lahaul (Himachal) with Leh; considered the “Gateway to Ladakh.” Once a vital trade route.
	Khardung La	Among the world’s highest motorable roads. Managed by BRO, it provides access to Nubra Valley and supports Siachen supply.
	Imis La	Connects Ladakh with Tibet; opens into the historic and spiritually significant Hanle Valley.
	Tanglang La	At 17,480 ft, it's one of the highest passes, linking Debring and Gya. Offers stunning Himalayan views.
	Zoji La	Connects Kashmir Valley with Ladakh. Faces heavy snowfall; Zoji La Tunnel construction is underway to ease access.
Jammu & Kashmir	Karakoram Pass	Located in the Karakoram range, it links India and China. Once a major trade route, it's now a high-altitude barren corridor.
	Pir Panjal Pass	Connects Kashmir Valley to Rajouri. Part of the Mughal Road. Significant for India-Pakistan connectivity.
	Banihal Pass	Located in the Pir Panjal range. Once a key route from Jammu to Srinagar; now bypassed by Jawahar Tunnel.
	Burzail Pass	Connects Astore Valley (Kashmir) with Deosai Plains (Ladakh); strategically important and scenic.
	Pensi La	Connects Kashmir to Kargil through the Zanskar Range; vital route for transportation and tourism.
Himachal Pradesh	Rohtang Pass	Connects Kullu Valley with Lahaul-Spiti; heavily congested due to short open period (May–Oct).
	Shipki La	On the India–Tibet border in Kinnaur; mostly used for Indo-Tibetan trade. Entry restricted for civilians.
	Bara-Lacha La	Also lies partly in Himachal; important for connecting Manali to Leh via Zanskar Range.
	Debsa Pass	Discovered in 1995 by Joydeep Sircar’s team; links Kullu to Spiti, offering trekking potential.
Uttarakhand	Mana Pass	At 18,478 ft, it connects Uttarakhand to Tibet; part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Very strategic.
	Niti Pass	Historic Indo-Tibet route closed since 1962. Lies in Chamoli district.
	Lipu Lekh	A tri-junction between India, Tibet, and Nepal. Crucial for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra and India-China trade.
	Traill’s Pass	Located at the Pindari Glacier's end. Links Pindari and Milam valleys; difficult and steep trek.
	Mangsha Dhura	Strategic Himalayan pass connecting India and Tibet; relevant during Kailash Yatra.
	Muling La	Seasonal pass north of Gangotri at 5669m. Snow-covered in winter; links Uttarakhand and Tibet.
North-Eastern States	Nathu La (Sikkim)	Connects Sikkim with Tibet. Important for Indo-China trade and military communication; requires permit for civilians.
	Jelep La (Sikkim)	Historic Indo-Tibet trade route, now closed since 1962. Offers smoother terrain.
	Bom Di La (Arunachal)	Connects Arunachal Pradesh to Tibet. Located at 8,556 ft; key military post.
	Diphu Pass (Arunachal)	Located on tri-junction of India, China, and Myanmar. Important strategic and trade route.
	Dihang La (Arunachal)	Connects Arunachal with Burma; lies at 4000 m. Less used, but geopolitically important.
	Pangsau Pass (Arunachal)	Connects Arunachal with Myanmar; offers direct access to Burma from Assam plains. Also called "Hell’s Pass" during WWII.
Western Ghats	Bhor Ghat (Maharashtra)	Important rail-road link between Palasdari and Khandala; vital for Mumbai-Pune route.
	Thal Ghat (Maharashtra)	On the Mumbai–Nashik highway. Noted for steep gradient and scenic train route.
	Palakkad Gap (Kerala-TN)	A low mountain pass at 460 ft that links Tamil Nadu and Kerala through the Nilgiri range.
	Shencottah Gap (TN-Kerala)	Connects Madurai (TN) with Kottayam (Kerala). Second-largest pass in Western Ghats.

Mountain Passes in India Importance

Mountain Passes in India are the most convenient routes for crossing difficult mountainous terrain, aiding human movement and migration.
Historically, they played a crucial role in trade, cultural exchange, and settlement between regions separated by mountains.
Mountain Passes in India often provide the only flat or gentle terrain in mountainous regions, making them ideal for building villages or defensive outposts.
Their strategic locations made them easier to defend, often serving as military checkpoints or fortified locations in ancient and modern conflicts.
Mountain Passes in India act as vital links between different civilizations and cultures, promoting socio-economic interaction.
Example: Khyber Pass has connected Central and South Asia for thousands of years, linking modern-day Kabul and Peshawar and serving as a critical trade and invasion route.

List of Mountain Passes in India State Wise

List of Mountain Passes in India - State Wise helps understand their geographical distribution. For instance, Ladakh has Khardung La and Chang La; Sikkim has Nathu La and Jelep La; Himachal Pradesh hosts Baralacha La and Rohtang Pass. In the Western Ghats, Maharashtra has Thal Ghat and Bhor Ghat, while Kerala and Tamil Nadu share the Palakkad and Shenkottai Passes. Eastern Ghats include passes like Panchpatmali (Odisha) and Ganjikunta (Andhra Pradesh).

List of Mountain Passes in India State Wise List
Mountain Pass	State/Region	Height (m)	Area	Significance
Aghil Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	4,885	Karakoram Range	Links Ladakh with Xinjiang, China
Auden’s Col	Uttarakhand	5,490	Garhwal Himalayas	Popular trekking route, but difficult to access
Banihal Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	2,832	Pir Panjal Range	Links Jammu with Srinagar
Bara-lacha-la	Himachal Pradesh	4,890	Zanskar Range	Connects Lahaul district in Himachal to Ladakh
Bilafond La	Jammu and Kashmir	5,450	Siachen Glacier	Critical pass in the India-Pakistan border conflict zone
Bomdila	Arunachal Pradesh	2,217	Eastern Himalayas	Strategic military pass linking Tawang with the rest of India
Changla Pass	Ladakh	5,360	Ladakh Range	Links Leh to Pangong Lake
Chankan Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	4,900	Ladakh	Important route towards China’s border
Chanshal Pass	Himachal Pradesh	4,520	Shimla	Connects Rohru with Dodra Kwar
Dehra Compass	Uttarakhand	N/A	Garhwal Himalayas	Trekking route
Debsa Pass	Himachal Pradesh	5,360	Spiti Valley	High-altitude trekking pass
Dihang Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	4,049	Eastern Himalayas	Connects India with Tibet
Diphu Pass (Dipher Pass)	Arunachal Pradesh	4,587	Indo-Myanmar-China tri-junction	Tri-junction of India, Myanmar, and China
Dongkhala	Sikkim	4,880	Himalayas	Strategic importance near Indo-China border
Fotu La	Ladakh	4,108	Zanskar Range	The highest point on the Srinagar-Leh highway
Goecha La	Sikkim	4,940	Himalayas	Gateway to Kanchenjunga Base Camp
Gyong La	Jammu and Kashmir	5,680	Siachen Glacier	Critical in the India-Pakistan border conflict
Haldighati Pass	Rajasthan	607	Aravalli Range	Historical battlefield between Maharana Pratap and the Mughals
Hpungan Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	4,488	Eastern Himalayas	Links India with Myanmar
Imis La	Jammu and Kashmir	5,350	Karakoram Range	Located near the Siachen Glacier
Indrahar Pass	Himachal Pradesh	4,342	Dhauladhar Range	Popular trekking pass between Kangra and Chamba
Jalori Pass	Himachal Pradesh	3,120	Kullu Valley	The scenic route connecting Kullu to Shimla
Jelep La	Sikkim	4,267	Indo-China border	Ancient Indo-Tibet trade route
Kalindi Pass	Uttarakhand	5,950	Garhwal Himalayas	High-altitude trekking route
Karakoram Pass (Qara Tagh La)	Jammu and Kashmir	5,540	Karakoram Range	Strategic Indo-China trade route
Khardung La	Ladakh	5,359	Ladakh Range	World’s highest motorable road
Khunjerab Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	4,693	Karakoram Range	Connects Gilgit-Baltistan with China
Kongka Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	5,171	Aksai Chin	The disputed region between India and China
Kumjawng Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	N/A	Eastern Himalayas	Close to Indo-China border
Kaldang Kildang La	Himachal Pradesh	5,300	Zanskar Range	Trekking route
Kunzum Pass	Himachal Pradesh	4,590	Lahaul and Spiti	Links Lahaul to Spiti Valley
Lamkhaga Pass	Uttarakhand	5,282	Garhwal Himalayas	High-altitude trekking pass connecting Uttarakhand and Himachal
Lanak Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	5,409	Aksai Chin	The disputed area between India and China
Lekhapani Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	N/A	Indo-Myanmar border	Entry point to the Stilwell Road
Lipulekh Pass	Uttarakhand	5,334	Indo-China-Nepal tri-junction	The trade route to Tibet
Lungalacha La	Himachal Pradesh	5,059	Zanskar Range	Part of the Leh-Manali highway
Mana Pass	Uttarakhand	5,545	Indo-Tibet border	Highest vehicle-accessible pass in India
Mangsha Dhura	Uttarakhand	N/A	Garhwal Himalayas	Trekking route
Marsimik La	Ladakh	5,582	Ladakh Range	Higher than Khardung La, important for defence
Mayodia Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	2,655	Eastern Himalayas	Known for snowfall and strategic military importance
Mintaka Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	4,709	Karakoram Range	Old Silk Route link
Muling La	Himachal Pradesh	5,700	Zanskar Range	Trekking route
Nama Pass	Uttarakhand	N/A	Kumaon Range	Historical trade route
Namika La	Ladakh	3,700	Zanskar Range	Part of the Srinagar-Leh highway
Nathu La	Sikkim	4,310	Indo-China border	Trade route between India and China
Niti Pass	Uttarakhand	5,070	Indo-Tibet border	Important for defence and trade
Palakkad Gap	Kerala-Tamil Nadu	300	Western Ghats	The widest gap in the Western Ghats connects Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Pangsau Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	1,136	Indo-Myanmar border	Part of the Stilwell Road
Parpik Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	N/A	Karakoram Range	Important for trekking
Pensi La	Ladakh	4,400	Zanskar Range	Connects the Zanskar Valley with the Suru Valley
Pir-Panjal Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	3,490	Pir Panjal Range	Historic route linking Jammu with the Kashmir Valley
Rezang La	Jammu and Kashmir	5,500	Ladakh Range	Site of a famous battle in the 1962 Indo-China war
Rohtang Pass	Himachal Pradesh	3,978	Pir Panjal Range	Links Manali to Lahaul and Spiti
Sasser Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	5,411	Karakoram Range	Part of the route to the Siachen Glacier
Sela Pass	Arunachal Pradesh	4,170	Eastern Himalayas	Connects Tawang to the rest of Arunachal Pradesh
Sengottai	Tamil Nadu-Kerala	1,300	Western Ghats	Important transport route between Tamil Nadu and Kerala
Shashi La	Jammu and Kashmir	4,900	Karakoram Range	Strategic pass near Siachen
Shingo La	Himachal Pradesh	5,091	Zanskar Range	Important for trekking and border patrols
Shipki La	Himachal Pradesh	4,722	Indo-Tibet border	The trade route between India and Tibet
Sia La	Jammu and Kashmir	5,490	Siachen Glacier	Part of the Siachen conflict zone
Sin La	Uttarakhand	5,495	Garhwal Himalayas	Trekking route
Spangur Gap	Jammu and Kashmir	5,230	Indo-China border	Strategic military importance
Tanglang La (Thang La)	Ladakh	5,328	Ladakh Range	Second-highest motorable pass in India
Thamarassery	Kerala	900	Western Ghats	The scenic route connecting Kozhikode with Wayanad
Traill’s Pass	Uttarakhand	5,200	Kumaon Himalayas	High-altitude trekking pass
Umling La	Ladakh	5,882	Ladakh Range	Highest motorable road in the world
Yonggyap Pass	Himachal Pradesh	5,090	Zanskar Range	Remote trekking route
Zojila Pass	Jammu and Kashmir	3,528	Zanskar Range	Connects the Kashmir Valley to Ladakh

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Mountain Passes in India FAQs

Q1: How many mountain passes are there in India?

Ans: India has over 100 mountain passes, spanning the Himalayas, Western and Eastern Ghats, and other ranges, serving vital roles in trade, defense, and connectivity.

Q2: What are the 7 mountain ranges of India?

Ans: The seven major mountain ranges in India are the Himalayas, Aravalli, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Vindhya, and Purvanchal ranges, each holding geographical and ecological significance.

Q3: Which is the highest pass in India?

Ans: Khardung La in Ladakh is considered the highest motorable pass in India, at around 5,359 meters, crucial for strategic defense and access to Nubra Valley.

Q4: What are the passes of India?

Ans: India’s famous passes include Khardung La, Zoji La, Nathu La, Shipki La, and Rohtang Pass, enabling transport across mountain ranges and linking various cultural regions.

Q5: What is a mountain pass called?

Ans: A mountain pass is often called a "La" in Tibetan regions or simply a "ghati" in local languages; it’s a navigable route through mountain terrain.

Indian Railways in 2025: Expansion Achieved, Challenges Ahead

January 2, 2026

Indian Railways Latest News

2025 marked a landmark year for Indian Railways, as it completed rail connectivity to Kashmir Valley and Aizawl (Mizoram), bridged major geographic frontiers, advanced freight corridors and technology.
At the same time, the Railways faced challenges in safety, crowd management, and financial sustainability.

From Kashmir to Mizoram: Railways Reach India’s Final Frontiers

In 2025, Indian Railways achieved historic milestones by extending the rail grid to: Kashmir Valley in the North; Aizawl in the East.
These connections brought the country’s last major unlinked regions into the national railway network, symbolising territorial integration and strategic connectivity.

Kashmir Rail Link: A Century-Old Dream Realised

The idea of a railway line to the Kashmir Valley dates back to 1898, when Maharaja Pratap Singh first conceived it.
However, after Partition, the Jammu–Sialkot rail link went to Pakistan, cutting off Jammu and Kashmir from India’s rail grid.
While Jammu was connected by rail in 1972, the Valley remained unlinked.
The long-cherished dream was realised in June 2025, when PM Modi inaugurated the final 63-km Katra–Sangaldan section of the 272-km Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL).
- A Vande Bharat train began services between Katra and Srinagar.
The project’s most challenging stretch was the 111-km Katra–Banihal section, featuring:
- T-50, India’s longest operational transport tunnel (12.77 km)
- Chenab Bridge, the world’s highest railway arch bridge (359 metres above the riverbed)
- Anji Bridge, Indian Railways’ first cable-stayed bridge

Mizoram: Railways Overcome Geography

Mizoram’s late rail arrival was largely due to its difficult terrain and landlocked location—bordering Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern states.
Until recently, the state depended almost entirely on roads for passenger and freight movement.
The breakthrough came with the inauguration of the Bairabi–Sairang line in September 2025, linking Bairabi to Sairang, near Aizawl.
This marked the first-ever rail connectivity to the Mizoram capital.
With this, Aizawl became the fourth northeastern capital—after Guwahati (Dispur), Agartala, and Itanagar—to be linked to the Indian Railways network.

Pamban Bridge: Reconnecting South India’s Maritime Edge

Another landmark in 2025 was the inauguration of the 2.08-km new Pamban Bridge, replacing the 110-year-old cantilever bridge.
It is India’s first vertical-lift railway sea bridge. It connects Rameswaram to the mainland across the Palk Strait.

Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC)

First rail car ran on the 102-km Vaitarna–Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) section.
Marks progress in India’s high-capacity, freight-only rail infrastructure.

Strategic Himalayan Connectivity

Rishikesh–Karnaprayag Line

- 125 km line with strategic and pilgrimage significance
- Includes India’s longest transportation tunnel (14.57 km) (yet to be operational)
- Serves as a gateway to the China border and boosts Char Dham Yatra connectivity

Bhanupalli–Bilaspur–Beri Line

- Connects Punjab to Himachal Pradesh
- Proposed extension up to Ladakh
- Progress delayed due to financial disputes between the state government and Railways

A Year Shadowed by Safety Concerns

The year began with tragedy:
- Stampede at New Delhi Railway Station (February 15, 2025)
- 18 deaths, 15 injuries, during rush for Prayagraj-bound Mahakumbh trains

Railways’ Response

- Launch of a nationwide project to create holding areas on high-passenger platforms
- Renewed emphasis on crowd management and passenger safety

Challenges in Freight Loading: Railways’ Revenue Backbone Under Strain

Freight transport is the financial backbone of Indian Railways, contributing nearly 65% of its total earnings.
However, despite its importance, the system faces persistent challenges, especially in last-mile delivery and competitiveness with road transport.

High Dependence on Bulk Commodities

Indian Railways remains predominantly a bulk commodity transporter.
Coal alone accounts for nearly 50% of total freight loading.
- Seven major commodities—coal, pig iron and steel, iron ore, cement, fertilisers, petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL), and containers—together accounted for 87.3% of total freight loading (in FY 25)
Such heavy reliance exposes Railways to demand fluctuations in a few sectors.

Concerns Raised by the Standing Committee on Railways

The Standing Committee on Railways has flagged structural risks in the freight basket:
- Called for diversification into automobiles, FMCG, and e-commerce to cushion demand volatility.
- Noted that year-on-year revenue growth from coal and iron ore is slowing, raising sustainability concerns.

Need to Raise Rail’s Modal Share

Railways’ modal share in freight transport stands at about 27%, significantly lower than road transport.
Enhancing this share is critical for revenue growth and environmental gains.

Operational Focus Areas in 2025

Indian Railways prioritised:
- Removal of traffic bottlenecks
- Track expansion and capacity augmentation
- Passenger amenities under the Amrit Bharat Station Scheme
- Safety upgrades across high-density routes

Ambitious Traffic and Freight Targets

With expanded infrastructure, Railways aims to achieve by 2030:
- 3 billion tonnes of freight loading - Up from 1.6 billion tonnes in FY25
- 10 billion passengers annually - A 42% increase from nearly 7 billion passengers in FY25
These targets reflect Railways’ central role in India’s logistics and mobility strategy.

Technological Advancements

Commissioning of Kavach 4.0 (advanced Automatic Train Protection system)
Deployed over 738 route kilometres on two high-density corridors
Rollout of: 13 Amrit Bharat trains for migrant workers; 2 Namo Bharat Rapid Rail Services for intercity commuters.
Trials of Vande Bharat sleeper trains, signalling next-generation long-distance travel.

Financial Stress vs Green Promise

Persistent Challenges - High revenue expenditure; Low earnings per route, affecting long-term financial health
Green Mobility Advantage
- Despite financial strain, Railways remains one of India’s cleanest transport modes:
  - Accounts for only ~1% of transport emissions
  - Near-100% electrification of broad-gauge network
  - Hydrogen-powered trains under development
  - 2,626 solar-powered stations
  - 898 MW of solar power used nationwide
  - ~70% used for traction

Source: IE | PIB

Indian Railways FAQs

Q1: Why was 2025 a landmark year for Indian Railways?

Ans: Indian Railways achieved historic connectivity to Kashmir Valley and Aizawl, completing links to India’s last major unconnected regions.

Q2: What were the major infrastructure achievements in 2025?

Ans: Key milestones included the Kashmir rail link, Mizoram connectivity, new Pamban Bridge, and progress on the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor.

Q3: What safety challenges did Railways face in 2025?

Ans: A fatal stampede at New Delhi Railway Station exposed crowd management gaps, prompting nationwide holding areas on high-passenger platforms.

Q4: Why is freight loading a challenge for Indian Railways?

Ans: Freight depends heavily on coal, which limits diversification, while rail’s modal share remains low compared to road transport.

Q5: How is Indian Railways contributing to green mobility?

Ans: Railways account for about 1% of transport emissions, with near-total electrification, solar-powered stations, and plans for hydrogen trains.

National Population Policy 2000, Objectives, Evolution, Features

January 2, 2026

The second largest population in the world is India with a current population of about 1.4 billion, recognising the implications of population expansion on socio-economic development, the Government of India has implemented various policy measures over the decades. Among these, the National Population Policy (NPP), 2000 stands out as a comprehensive strategy aimed at achieving population stabilisation and improving reproductive health outcomes.

National Population Policy 2000

The National Population Policy 2000 was adopted by the Government of India to address the challenges related to the rapid population growth. Its primary objective is to achieve population stabilisation through voluntary and informed family planning. The policy provides access to reproductive and child healthcare services, while also promoting responsible parenthood.

Also Read: National Education Policy 2020

National Population Policy Evolution

Pre-Independence Efforts (1940): The Indian National Congress set up a committee under social thinker Radha Kamal Mukherjee to explore ways to resolve the fast-growing population, especially post-1921. The committee emphasized voluntary restraint, public education about low-cost contraception, and discouraging practices like polygamy.
Bhore Committee (1943-46): Headed by Sir Joseph Bhore, this health-focused panel proposed actively limiting family size as part of a national health strategy. It laid early groundwork for linking public health with population control.
Post-Independence Beginnings (1952): India became the first developing nation to launch a government-backed family planning program. A Population Policy Committee was formed in 1952, though its initial efforts lacked structure and impact.
Establishment of Central Family Planning Board (1956): By the mid-1950s, a national board was introduced, shifting focus primarily to sterilization as a core method of population control.
National Population Policy of 1976: Key measures under this policy included:
- Raising the legal marriage age to 21 for men and 18 for women
- Offering financial rewards for adopting birth control
- Promoting female literacy
- Tying central assistance to states with their performance in population control
- Using mass media to spread family planning messages
- Including population awareness in school curriculum

Emergency Period & Coercive Measures (1975-77): During the Emergency, the government carried out mass sterilizations under duress, which severely damaged public trust in the program and drew widespread backlash.

Shift to Voluntary Approach (Post-1977): The incoming government moved away from coercion, rebranding the initiative as the “Family Welfare Programme” to rebuild credibility.

National Health Policy 1983: This policy supported smaller family norms achieved through informed, voluntary choices, and emphasized population stabilization as a national goal.

Population Committee & MS Swaminathan Group (1991-1993): A new committee was formed to suggest a long-term, integrated population strategy. It recommended a full-fledged national policy, integrating development, demographic balance, and environmental sustainability.

An expert panel led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan later drafted the framework for what would become India’s formal population policy.

Launch of National Population Policy (2000): The policy was officially adopted in 2000, providing a comprehensive plan to stabilize population growth while addressing health, education, and gender-related concerns in a balanced, rights-based framework.

Also Read: New Economic Policy 1991

National Population Policy Objectives

To address the need of contraception, strengthen the health infrastructure and human resources and ensure integrated service delivery in the domain of reproductive and child healthcare.
To bring the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement level by 2010 through the effective implementation of inter-sectoral strategies and coordinated policy interventions.
To achieve a stable population by 2045, aligned with the goals of sustainable economic development, improved quality of life, and environmental sustainability.

Measures of Population

Survey: Collection of sample based demographic data through questionnaires to know the population trends.

Census: The Census is a full count of the population. It captures data on population size, distribution, literacy, employment, housing, and more, serving as the foundation for planning and policy-making every 10 years.

Population Registers: This keeps continuous records of people living in a country. These registers are dynamic in nature and are useful for maintaining up-to-date information on births, deaths, migration, and marital status.

Vital Registration Systems: Official systems that record vital events such as births, deaths, marriages, and divorces. They provide essential data for calculating indicators like birth rate, death rate, and life expectancy.

National Population Policy Features

The National Population Policy lays a clear framework aimed at ensuring accessible reproductive health service across India, it emphasizes on encouraging people to adopt responsible health and family planning decisions through awareness and education.
NPP 2000 guarantees free and compulsory education for every child up to 14 years of age, reducing the dropout rates and improving retention for both boys and girls.
The policy targets a significant reduction in the Infant Mortality Rate aiming for fewer than 30 deaths per 1000 live births. In maternal health, the goal is to reduce the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) to fewer than 100 deaths per 1,00,000 live births.
National Population Policy had an objective to expand immunization coverages delaying the age of marriage for women to improve maternal and child health outcomes.
Controlling the spread of communicable diseases is another area of focus, alongside integrating traditional Indian medicine systems (AYUSH) into maternal and child healthcare.
The NPP 2000 policy expands access to various contraceptive options, also promotes HIV prevention and strengthens coordination between National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) and healthcare services for treating reproductive and sexually transmitted infections.

National Population Policy Key Initiatives

Expanded Contraceptive Choices: The policy has broadened the range of contraceptives available, introducing newer methods like injectable contraceptives. This gives individuals more flexibility to choose options that align with their health needs and personal preferences.

Sterilization Incentive Scheme: To support those opting for sterilization, a compensation mechanism is in place. It offers financial support both to individuals undergoing the procedure and to healthcare teams involved in offsetting any income loss or related costs during the process.

Mission Parivar Vikas: To strengthen the reach of family planning services, Mission Parivar Vikas was rolled out in 146 districts with high fertility rates across seven priority states. The mission focuses on direct community engagement and ensures wider access to contraceptives and reproductive health services.

Use of Postpartum IUDs (PPIUCDs): The policy promotes offering intrauterine devices to women immediately after childbirth. This helps ensure effective birth spacing and long-term contraception right from the post-delivery stage.

Doorstep Delivery of Contraceptives: ASHAs (Accredited Social Health Activists) play a central role in distributing contraceptives directly to households. This approach is especially crucial for reaching people in remote or underserved regions, where access to healthcare services can be limited.

Pregnancy Test Kits at Community Level: Pregnancy testing kits have been added to the medical supplies distributed by ASHAs. These kits allow women to check for pregnancy privately and promptly, improving early detection and timely medical care.

National Population Policy Need of Changes

By 2041, around 59% of Indians will be of working age, a narrow window to leverage demographic advantage.
With longer lifespans and falling birth rates, the world is aging fast. In India, 12% of the population will be elderly by 2025, and 20% by 2050.
Economic planning must align with population growth. The key lies in equipping people with relevant skills and making them employable.
The one-child policy slowed growth but led to a steep rise in the elderly population. India's policies must avoid such unintended consequences.
Rather than enforcing fertility limits, the goal should be enabling families to make informed choices in a growing economy.
The 2000 National Population Policy emphasized family planning. Now, it must also address aging, sexual health, and regional imbalances.
India must treat its population as a development asset. The goal isn’t just to manage numbers but to create a healthy, skilled, and productive society.

National Population Policy 2000 FAQs

Q1: What is the National Population Policy (NPP)?

Ans: The NPP is a policy aimed at stabilizing India’s population through education, healthcare access, and voluntary family planning initiatives.

Q2: When was the National Population Policy implemented?

Ans: The current National Population Policy was implemented in 2000, replacing the earlier policies from 1976 and 1977.

Q3: What are the objectives of the NPP 2000?

Ans: Its goals include achieving a stable population, reducing infant and maternal mortality, promoting delayed marriage, and ensuring universal access to contraception.

Q4: What is the immediate objective of NPP 2000?

Ans: The immediate goal was addressing unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and personnel in reproductive and child health.

Q5: What is the medium-term objective of the NPP 2000?

Ans: To bring the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to replacement levels by 2010 meaning two children per woman.

Sir Creek Dispute, Map, Origin, Importance, Key Details

January 2, 2026

The Sir Creek dispute between India and Pakistan is one of the long-standing territorial disagreements between the two neighbours, with its origins tracing back to pre-independence India. While it often takes a backseat in the broader India-Pakistan relationship, the dispute is important due to its strategic, economic, and ecological implications. Understanding the issue is important for UPSC aspirants, particularly in the International Relations segment.

Sir Creek Dispute in News

Defence Minister Rajnath Singh recently issued a stern warning to Pakistan over its military build-up near the Sir Creek region, stating that any misadventure would invite a response so strong that it could “change both history and geography.” Speaking at a public event on the occasion of Shastra Pujan, he accused Pakistan of deliberately stirring up the long-standing Sir Creek dispute despite India’s repeated efforts to resolve it through dialogue. Singh discussed that the recent expansion of Pakistani military infrastructure in areas adjoining Sir Creek, a strategically sensitive zone along the Gujarat coastline, indicates Pakistan’s unclear intentions and provocative posture.

Sir Creek

Sir Creek is a 96-kilometre strip of water located in the marshlands of the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. Geographically, it forms a boundary between India’s Kutch region and Pakistan’s Sindh province before opening into the Arabian Sea. Historically, it was known as Ban Ganga and acquired the name “Sir Creek” during the colonial era, named after a British official.

Sir Creek Map

Here is geographical representation of Sir Creek:OK

Sir Creek Nature of the Dispute

The core of the Sir Creek Dispute lies in the differing interpretations of the maritime boundary between India and Pakistan. Before India’s independence, the region was part of the Bombay Presidency. Post-partition in 1947, Kutch remained with India while Sindh became part of Pakistan.
Pakistan claims the entirety of Sir Creek based on the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914, signed between the Rao of Kutch and the Sindh provincial government. According to Pakistan, the eastern flank of the creek forms the boundary. India, however, considers this green line indicative rather than definitive. Instead, India relies on a 1925 map, along with the mid-channel pillars constructed in 1924, to argue that the boundary lies along the mid-channel of the creek (red line on the map).
India invokes the Thalweg Principle of international law, which stipulates that the boundary between two political entities along a waterway should follow the center of the principal navigable channel. Pakistan rejects this argument, claiming that Sir Creek is non-navigable, whereas India maintains that the creek is navigable during high tides, and fishing trawlers regularly use it to reach the Arabian Sea.

Sir Creek Dispute Origin

The Sir Creek Dispute dates back to 1908, when disagreements arose between the ruler of Kutch and the Sindh government over firewood collection in the creek area. To settle the issue, the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 was issued. The resolution contained conflicting provisions:

Paragraph 9 said that the boundary should be to the east of the creek, implying the entire creek would belong to Pakistan.
Paragraph 10, however, applied the Thalweg Principle, noting that Sir Creek is navigable most of the year, making the mid-channel the effective boundary.

This inherent contradiction has been the basis of prolonged disagreement between the two countries.

Sir Creek Importance

Sir Creek holds strategic, economic, and ecological significance:

Strategic Importance: The creek lies near the Rann of Kutch, an area where India and Pakistan clashed during the 1965 war. Control over this region influences maritime security and surveillance.
Economic Significance: It is one of the largest fishing grounds in Asia, supporting the livelihoods of thousands of fishermen. Furthermore, potential oil and gas reserves under the seabed could provide significant economic benefits, though exploration remains stalled due to the dispute.
Ecological Value: Sir Creek is an ecologically sensitive area, home to flamingoes and other migratory birds during winter, making it important for biodiversity conservation.

Sir Creek Attempts at Resolution

Several attempts have been made to resolve the Sir Creek issue:

After the 1965 war, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson intervened, leading to the establishment of a tribunal. The 1968 verdict granted Pakistan only 10% of its claim.
During the 1997 composite dialogue, Sir Creek was discussed as a part of broader efforts to improve bilateral relations.
Tensions increased in 1999 when an Indian fighter plane shot down a Pakistani surveillance aircraft over the creek. India alleged an airspace violation, while Pakistan denied it.
Between 2005 and 2007, joint surveys were conducted to assess the area for potential resolution.

Despite these efforts, a final agreement has remained elusive, largely due to differing interpretations of historical maps and legal principles.

Way Forward

Resolving the Sir Creek dispute is important for many reasons:

Humanitarian Aspect: Fishermen from both countries are frequently detained for accidentally crossing perceived borders, creating tensions and disrupting livelihoods.
Strategic and Economic Gains: A resolution would allow exploration of oil and gas reserves and better control of maritime boundaries.
Low-Hanging Fruit: Among the numerous Indo-Pakistan disputes, Sir Creek is often considered a simpler, less politically charged issue, making it a potential candidate for early resolution.

Sir Creek Dispute FAQs

Q1: What is the Sir Creek issue between Pakistan and India?

Ans: A long-standing border and maritime dispute over the ownership and boundary of the Sir Creek region between India and Pakistan.

Q2: Where is Sir Creek in India?

Ans: In the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat, along the India-Pakistan border.

Q3: Is Sir Creek the westernmost point of India?

Ans: No, the westernmost point of India is Guhar Moti in Gujarat; Sir Creek lies nearby but is not the extreme point.

Q4: What is the Sir Creek Dispute?

Ans: A disagreement between India and Pakistan over the maritime boundary and territorial claims in the Sir Creek area.

Q5: When did the Sir Creek Dispute begin?

Ans: The dispute originated in 1908, during the pre-independence period over territorial and resource claims.

Important Battles of Mughal Empire, List, Outcome

January 2, 2026

The Mughal Empire ruled India from the 16th century until the mid-18th century, and experienced several important battles that influenced the fall. These conflicts played a major role in both the foundation and expansion of the dynasty. Starting with Babur’s conquest and extending to Aurangzeb’s military campaigns, every ruler engaged in wars that shaped the empire’s destiny.

List of Important Battles of Mughal Empire

The Mughal army was renowned for its superior artillery, skilled cavalry, and innovative battle strategies. The table below outlines List of Important Battles of Mughal Empire, their key opponents, and the results.

List of Important Battles of Mughal Empire
Battle	Year	Between	Outcome
First Battle of Panipat	1526	Mughal Empire vs Delhi Sultanate	Mughal victory; establishment of Mughal Empire
Battle of Khanwa	1527	Mughal Empire vs Rajput Confederacy	Mughal victory; consolidated Babur's rule
Battle of Chanderi	1528	Mughal Empire vs Rajput	Mughal victory; annexation of Malwa
Battle of Ghaghra	1529	Mughal Empire vs Bengal Sultanate	Mughal victory; annexation of Bihar
Battle of Chausa	1539	Mughal Empire vs Sur Empire	Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun
Second Battle of Panipat	1556	Mughal Empire vs Hemu (Suri Empire)	Mughal victory; Akbar established power
Battle of Tukaroi	1575	Akbar vs. Sultanate of Bengal and Bihar	Akbar defeated the Sultanate, expanding Mughal influence in the east
Battle of Haldighati	1576	Mughal Empire vs Mewar Kingdom	Mughal victory; Maharana Pratap resisted
Siege of Chittorgarh	1567-1568	Mughal Empire vs Mewar Kingdom	Mughal victory; annexation of Chittorgarh
Battle of Samdhara	1616	Mughal Empire vs Ahom Kingdom	Ahom victory, beginning of conflict between the Ahoms and the Mughals
Battle of Kartarpur	1635	Mughals vs Sikhs	Sikh victory, conflict with Sikhs
Battle of Samugarh	1658	Aurangzeb vs Dara Shikoh	Aurangzeb's victory, led to his coronation
Battle of Jajau	1707	Mughal princes Bahadur Shah I and Muhammad Azam Shah	A war of succession after Aurangzeb’s death.
Battle of Bhopal	1737	Mughals, Nizam, Nawabs vs Marathas	Maratha victory, weakening of Mughals
Battle of Karnal	1739	Mughals, Nizam, Oudh vs Afsharid Dynasty	Afsharid victory; decline of the Mughals
Battle of Buxar	1764	Mughals, Awadh, Bengal vs British	British victory, collapse of Mughals

List of Famous Mughal Battles

Every Mughal ruler encountered distinct challenges, ranging from securing their throne to fighting against external invasions and suppressing internal revolts. These significant battles played a major role in both the expansion and stability of the Mughal Empire across the Indian subcontinent. Below is a List of Famous Mughal Battles by the emperors:

Major Battles Fought by Babur

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, engaged in several battles that resulted in the foundation for the Mughal Empire in India.

First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi marked the beginning of Mughal rule in India. His strategic use of gunpowder and field artillery revolutionized Indian warfare.
Battle of Khanwa (1527): Fighting against Rana Sanga, Babur secured victory with superior military tactics, including the use of cannons and muskets. This battle strengthened Mughal authority in North India.
Battle of Chanderi (1528): Babur captured the Chanderi fortress after defeating Medini Rai, an important ally of Rana Sanga.
Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur’s forces overcame Afghan chiefs and the Sultan of Bengal, securing control over the empire’s eastern territories.

Major Battles Fought by Humayun

Humayun faced significant struggles in preserving Mughal rule, encountering both internal and external threats.

Battle of Dohariya (1532): Humayun secured a victory over Mahmud Lodi, strengthening his position against Afghan forces.
Battle of Chausa (1539): Although tensions with Sher Khan began with the Battle of Chunar (1532), Humayun suffered a major defeat at Chausa, forcing him to retreat.
Battle of Kannauj (1540): Another loss against Sher Shah Suri led to the Mughal Empire’s temporary downfall, forcing Humayun into exile.
Battle of Sirhind (1555): After years of efforts, Humayun defeated Sikandar Suri and successfully reclaimed the Mughal throne.

Important Battles of Akbar

Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire through a combination of military campaigns and strategic diplomacy.

Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Under the leadership of Bairam Khan, Akbar defeated Hemu, securing Mughal dominance in India.
Battle of Thanesar (1567): Akbar declared his authority by defeating rival Sanyasi groups in the region.
Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568): After a prolonged four-month struggle, the Mughal forces captured Chittorgarh, marking a significant victory over the Rajputs.
Battle of Gujarat (1573): Akbar unified his control over western India by defeating Muzaffar Shah III and conquered Gujarat.
Battle of Haldighati (1576): Although Akbar’s forces overcame Maharana Pratap’s army, Rajput resistance against Mughal rule persisted.
Battle of Rakht-Talai (1576): The Mughals defeated Afghan forces, securing control over northern territories.
Battle of Lahore (1585-1598): Akbar successfully defended his empire against Afghan and Persian invasions in the northwest.

Important Battles of Jahangir

Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, focused on strengthening internal administration, promoting art and culture, and handling political challenges. Despite his emphasis on governance, he faced multiple rebellions and conflicts.

Rebellion of Prince Khusrau (1606): Jahangir crushed the uprising led by his son, Prince Khusrau, who was later captured and executed.
Deccan Campaigns (1610s): The Mughal forces expanded their influence in the Deccan, securing victories such as the capture of Ahmednagar.
Mewar Campaign (1615): Jahangir successfully negotiated peace with Maharana Amar Singh of Mewar, marking the end of decades-long Mughal-Rajput conflicts.
Conflict with Mahabat Khan (1626): A powerful noble, Mahabat Khan, revolted against Jahangir, but the rebellion was suppressed with the help of Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).

Important Battles of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan's rule was marked by territorial expansion and internal conflicts, though he rarely participated in battles directly. His military campaigns were crucial in consolidating Mughal power.

Siege of Kangra Fort (1620): The Mughals successfully captured the strategically important Kangra Fort from Rajput rulers, strengthening their hold in the region.
Battle of Bundelkhand (1628): Shah Jahan's forces defeated the Bundela Rajputs, further expanding Mughal influence in central India.
Deccan Campaigns (1630-1650): Under his rule, the Mughal Empire extended its dominance over Golconda and Bijapur, controlling over the Deccan.
Conflict with the Portuguese (1631-1632): The Mughals fought against the Portuguese over trade and territorial disputes, particularly in Bengal, leading to the decline of Portuguese influence in the region.

Important Battles of Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb, the last significant Mughal emperor, engaged in various military campaigns to expand and secure his empire. His reign was marked by prolonged conflicts and resistance from regional powers.

Battle of Samugarh (1658): Aurangzeb defeated his brother Dara Shikoh, gaining a decisive advantage in the Mughal succession struggle. He later crushed Dara’s remaining forces at the Battle of Deorai (1659).
Battle of Khajwa (1659): Aurangzeb overcame Shah Shuja, further solidifying his position as the undisputed Mughal ruler.
Maratha Wars (1660-1707): Aurangzeb spent decades fighting against Shivaji and, later, the Marathas, facing strong resistance throughout his reign.
Siege of Golconda (1687): The Mughal forces captured Golconda after defeating the Qutb Shahi rulers, bringing more of the Deccan under Aurangzeb’s control.

Important Battles of Mughal Empire FAQs

Q1: Who defeated Mughal 17 times?

Ans: The Ahom dynasty defeated the Mughals 17 times in a series of conflicts that lasted from 1615 to 1682.

Q2: What were the battles of the Mughal Empire?

Ans: Major battles fought by the Mughal Empire include the First Battle of Panipat (1526), the Battle of Khanwa (1527), the Battle of Ghaghra (1529), the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), and the Battle of Haldighati (1576).

Q3: what are the four battles of Babur?

Ans: First Battle of Panipat (1526), Battle of Khanwa (1527), Battle of Chanderi (1528, Battle of Ghaghra (1529).

Q4: Which Mughal emperor won most battles?

Ans: Akbar, the third Mughal emperor, won many battles and is known for his military conquests.

Q5: Who defeated Shivaji?

Ans: Raja Jai Singh I defeated Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in the Battle of Purandar in 1665.

Prominent Rulers of India, List, Period of Rule, Territory

January 2, 2026

Prominent Rulers of India includes a list of rulers who have ruled this country since ancient times. India has witnessed a number of brave rulers who have fought for this country as well as established their own independent kingdoms. Having knowledge about these rulers is important to help you understand the history of the Indian subcontinent. In this article, we are going to cover all the important rulers who have ruled the Indian subcontinent starting from ancient times.

List of Important Rulers of India

Here is a list of all the prominent rulers who ruled the Indian Subcontinent in a unique manner and left their mark through some way or another: .

Name of Rulers	Period of Rule	Territory
Chandragupta Maurya	300-324 BC	Magadha
Akbar	1542-1605	Kalanaur
Ashoka	232-263 BCE	Pataliputra
Porus	315-340 BC	Between Jhelum & Chenab
Shivaji Bhosale	1627-1680	Maharashtra
Prithviraj Chauhan	1178-1192 CE	Sapadalaksha
Maharaja Ranjit Singh	1801-1839	Northwest Indian
Samudragupta	336-380 CE	West Bengal
Maharana Pratap	1326-1884	Mewar
Raja Raja Chola	985-1014 ECE	Southern India
Alauddin Khilji	1296-1316	Delhi Sultanate
Rana Sanga	1508-1528	Mewar
Rajendra Chola 1	947-1014	Lamuri
Harshvardhana	606-647 CE	Thanesar
Bimbisara	492-544 BCE	Magadha
Pulakeshin	610-642	Deccan
Bindusara	273-297 BCE	Deccan upto Mysore
Tipu Sultan	1782-1799	Mysore
Krishnadevaraya	1471-1529	Vijayanagar
Muhammad bin Tughluq	1324-1351	Delhi
Sher Shah Suri	1540-1545	North India & Delhi
Hemachandra Vikramaditya	1556	Delhi

Prominent Rulers of India

India is known as a country that not only has a royal heritage but also some of the most prominent rulers of ancient times. These rulers are not only remembered for their courage and the wars they fought, but also for their way of ruling, unique methods of running the economy and introduction of currencies and administration methods. Some of these important rulers are:

Chandragupta Maurya
- First historical emperor of India and founder of the Maurya Dynasty.
- With Chanakya’s guidance, seized control of Magadha.
- Ruled for 24 years.
- Famous Monument: Palace at Pataliputra.
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar
- The third Mughal emperor, son of Humayun, ascended the throne at a young age.
- Widely regarded as the greatest Mughal ruler; promoted religious tolerance.
- Abolished tax on Hindu pilgrims; founded Din-i Ilahi blending Hindu, Islamic, and Parsi principles.
- Defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat.
- Famous Monuments: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri
Ashoka
- Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara; known as Samraat Chakravartin.
- Key figure in the spread of Buddhism worldwide.
- Modern Indian emblem derived from his Lion Capital at Sarnath.
- Advocated protection of minorities; renounced war after the Kalinga conflict.
- Famous Monuments: Sanchi Stupa, Nalanda Mahavihara.
Porus
- King of Pauravas (region in present-day Pakistan).
- Famed for bravery against Alexander in the Battle of the Jhelum.
- Reinstated by Alexander and granted territories up to the River Beas.
Shivaji Bhosale
- Founder and greatest ruler of the Maratha Empire.
- Expert in guerrilla warfare; resisted Mughal advances.
- Established Raigad as the capital and was crowned Chhatrapati.
- Known as the "Father of the Indian Navy."
- Famous Monuments: Sindhudurg and Pratapgad Forts.
Prithviraj Chauhan
- King of the Chauhan dynasty; one of the few Hindu rulers of Delhi.
- Defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
- Legendary tale of elopement with Sanyogita.
- Famous Monuments: Hansi Fort, Rai Pithora’s Fort.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh
- Founder of the Sikh Empire in Punjab; first Sikh Emperor.
- United Sikhs and others despite losing one eye.
- Acquired the Koh-i-Noor Diamond after rescuing Shah Shuja.
- Famous Monuments: Ram Bagh Palace, prominent Gurudwaras.
Samudragupta
- Successor of Chandragupta I; greatest ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
- Patron of art, culture, and religious tolerance.
- Issued seven distinct types of coins.
Raja Raja Chola I
- Initiated the Second Golden Age of Tamil Nadu.
- Expanded the Chola Empire across South Asia.
- Famous Monument: Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjai Big Temple).
Alauddin Khilji
- Second ruler of the Khilji dynasty; known for military conquests and strong administration.
- Governed Kara before ascending to the throne.
- Conquered Gujarat in 1297 CE.
- Famous Monuments: Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort, Jamait Khana Mosque.
Rana Sanga
- Maharana Sangram Singh of Mewar; last major Rajput ruler before Mughal dominance.
- Known for bravery and defending Rajputana against Babur.
Rajendra Chola I
- Son of Raja Raja Chola I; expanded the empire beyond India.
- Known for naval power and building a vast artificial lake.
Harshavardhana
- Celebrated ruler of North India; patron of art and religion.
- Supported Nalanda University; praised by Chinese traveler Xuanzang.
Bimbisara
- Haryanka dynasty ruler of Magadha.
- Used marriage alliances to expand territory; disciple of Buddha.
- Founded the city of Rajgir.
Pulakeshin II
- The great Chalukya ruler defended his kingdom from Harshavardhana.
- Built several Shiva temples.
Bindusara
- Son of Chandragupta Maurya; expanded the empire except Kalinga.
- Had 16 wives and 8 sons.
Tipu Sultan
- Known as the "Tiger of Mysore"; pioneer in rocket technology.
- Wrote Fathul Mujahidin, a military manual.
- Famous Monuments: Nandi Hills Fort, Manjarabad Fort.
Krishnadevaraya
- Vijayanagara ruler led the empire to its peak.
- Encouraged foreign trade.
- Tenali Rama served in his court.
Hemachandra Vikramaditya (Hemu)
- Prime Minister of Adil Shah Suri; undefeated in 22 battles.
- Crowned himself Emperor of Delhi after his 22nd victory.

Prominent Rulers of India FAQs

Q1: Who are the 5 famous rulers of India?

Ans: Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka the Great, Akbar, Raja Raja Chola I, and Shivaji Maharaj.

Q2: What are the 10 major dynasties of India?

Ans: Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Mughal, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Vijayanagara, Delhi Sultanate, Kushan, and Pala dynasties.

Q3: Which dynasty was prominent in India's history?

Ans: The Maurya Dynasty, known for unifying most of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka.

Q4: Who was the first known ruler of India?

Ans: Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya Empire, 321 BCE.

Q5: Who was the last great ruler of India?

Ans: Aurangzeb was the last powerful Mughal emperor.

Oreshnik Missile

January 2, 2026

Oreshnik Missile Latest News

Russia recently announced that its nuclear-capable Oreshnik missiles have entered active service in Belarus, a neighbouring ally that shares borders with NATO members Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia.

About Oreshnik Missile

It is a Russian-made intermediate-range nuclear-capable ballistic missile.
It was first launched operationally on November 21, 2024, in a precision strike targeting the Pivdenmash defence-industrial facility in Dnipro, Ukraine.

Features of Oreshnik Missile

It is estimated to be 15 to 18.5 metres long, with a diameter of some 1.9 metres.
It is mounted on a mobile transporter and launcher for rapid deployment and concealment.
With a reported range of 5,000 kilometres (3,100 miles), the missile can strike targets across Europe and even reach the west coast of the United States.
Equipped with multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), the “Oreshnik” can carry six to eight warheads, conventional or nuclear, hitting multiple targets simultaneously.
It is a hypersonic missile, capable of reaching speeds up to Mach 10 (12,300 km/h or 7,610 mph).

Source: FP

Oreshnik Missile FAQs

Q1: What is the Oreshnik missile?

Ans: An intermediate-range ballistic missile

Q2: What is the range of the Oreshnik missile?

Ans: 2000-5000 km

Q3: What is unique about the Oreshnik missile's speed?

Ans: It travels at hypersonic speeds (Mach 10).

Coal Mines In India, State Wise List, Types, Largest, Oldest, Map

January 2, 2026

Coal Mining refers to the extraction of coal deposits from both the Earth’s surface and underground layers. Coal played a crucial role as the primary source of energy during the Industrial Revolution, driving industrial expansion and leading to large-scale exploitation of coal reserves.

By the late 20th century, open-pit mining gradually replaced underground mining as the dominant method in many industrial nations. With advancements in technology, Coal Mines In India today whether surface or underground has become a highly mechanized and efficient process.

In India, the first coalfield was discovered at Raniganj, where mining began in 1774 under the East India Company. Owing to its vast reserves of ancient hard rocks, India holds significant mineral resources, with coal continuing to be one of its most important.

Coal Mines in India

India holds significant coal reserves of around 319 billion tonnes, making it one of the largest coal producers in the world. The major coal-bearing areas are concentrated in the eastern and central regions of the country. The dominant types of coal found in India are bituminous and sub-bituminous, which are widely used for power generation and industrial purposes.

Coal Mines in India are broadly classified into two categories - Gondwana Coal and Tertiary Coal.

Gondwana Coal, among the oldest and most important reserves globally, is mainly located in central India. It forms the bulk of India’s coal resources.
Tertiary Coal, comparatively younger in age, is primarily found in the northeastern states, such as Meghalaya, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Within the Gondwana Reserves, coal is further categorized based on its carbon content into anthracite, bituminous, and sub-bituminous varieties. These categories determine the energy content and suitability of coal for different applications, ranging from domestic use to large-scale power generation and industrial consumption.

List of Coal Mines in India

In India, there are several places where coal is mined from the ground. These areas are called coal mines, and they are mainly located in states rich in mineral resources. Some of the well-known coal mines in India include:

List of Coal Mines in India
Coal Mine	States
-Jharia, Dhanbad -Bokaro -Jayanti -Godda -Giridih (Karbhari Coal Field) -Ramgarh -Karanpura -Daltonganj	Jharkhand
-Raniganj Coalfield, -Dalingkot (Darjeeling) Birbhum, -Chinakuri	West Bengal
-Korba -Bishrampur - Sonhat - Jhilmil - Hasdo-Arand	Chhattisgarh
-Jharsuguda, - Himgiri, - Rampur, -Talcher	Odisha
-Singareni, -Kothagudem, -Kantapalli	Telangana/ Andhra Pradesh
-Neyveli	Tamil Nadu
-Kamptee(Nagpur) -Wun field -Wardha -Walarpur -Ghughus -Warora	Maharashtra
-Ledo -Makum -Najira -Janji -Jaipur	Assam
-Darrangiri (Garo hills), -Cherrapunji, -Liotryngew, -Maolong - Langrin coalfields (Khasi & Jaintia Hills)	Meghalaya
-Singrauli, -Sohagpur, -Johila, -Umaria, - Satpura coalfield	Madhya Pradesh

Coal Types

Coal in India is classified into four main types based on its carbon content, heating capacity, and age. These types range from the oldest and most energy-rich (Anthracite) to the youngest and least carbon-rich (Lignite). Each type has distinct properties and uses, and their distribution varies across regions.

Coal Types
Type of Coal	Carbon Content	Properties	Major Uses	Major Deposits in India
Anthracite	80-95%	Hard, shiny, highest quality, burns cleanly	Industrial use, domestic heating	Jammu & Kashmir
Bituminous	60-80%	Black, soft, high heating value	Power generation, steel industry	Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal
Sub-Bituminous	45-60%	Lower heat, burns cleaner than bituminous	Electricity generation	Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Lignite	25-35%	Brown, soft, high moisture, lowest heating	Power generation in local plants	Tamil Nadu (Neyveli), Rajasthan, Gujarat

Largest Coal Mines in India

India is home to some of the largest coal mines in the world, which play a crucial role in meeting the country’s energy needs. These mines supply coal for electricity generation, industries, and other everyday uses. Here are some of the most important Largest Coal Mine in India:

Largest Coal Mines in India
Coal Mine / Coalfield	State	Key Features
Jharia Coalfield	Jharkhand	Famous for high-quality bituminous coal; major source of coking coal for steel.
Raniganj Coalfield	West Bengal & Jharkhand	India’s first coalfield (mining started in 1774); supplies thermal coal.
Singrauli Coalfield	Madhya Pradesh & Uttar Pradesh	One of the largest coal reserves; key supplier for thermal power plants.
Korba Coalfield	Chhattisgarh	Major source for NTPC’s thermal power stations; rich in thermal coal.
Talcher Coalfield	Odisha	Among the largest coalfields in Asia; fuels several power plants and industries.
Neyveli Lignite Mines	Tamil Nadu	Famous for lignite (brown coal); supports Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC).

Oldest Coal Mines in India

Coal Mining in India has a long history, with some mines operating for more than a century. These mines not only powered industries during the colonial period but also laid the foundation for India’s modern energy sector. Here are two of the Oldest Coal Mines in India:

Oldest Coal Mines in India
Coalfield / Mine	State	Significance
Raniganj Coalfield	West Bengal	India’s first coal mining area, where operations began in 1774 during British rule.
Jharia Coalfield	Jharkhand	Known for its rich reserves of coking coal and a long history of underground mining.

Coal Mines in India Map

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/coal.map_.webp" align="none" size="medium" title="Coal Mines in India Map" alt="Coal Mines in India Map" width="auto" height="auto"]

An illustration showing the geographical distribution of coal reserves in India is presented in a coal mines map. Such a map highlights the major coalfields and mining regions across the country. You can view an example of this Coal Mines in India Map here.

Coal Mines in India Challenges

Coal Mines in India face a range of challenges that affect its efficiency, safety, and sustainability. Some of the most pressing issues include:

Environmental Impact: Mining often causes deforestation, soil erosion, air and water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Balancing energy needs with environmental protection remains a tough task.
Safety Concerns: Coal mines are hazardous workplaces. Risks include mine collapses, explosions, and long-term health problems like lung diseases among workers.
Land Acquisition and Rehabilitation: Securing land for mining projects often leads to disputes, displacement, and the need to resettle and rehabilitate affected communities.
Technological Modernization: Many mines still use outdated techniques. Introducing modern machinery and practices is vital for improving productivity and reducing harm to the environment.
Sustainable Practices: There is a growing need to restore mined areas, replant forests, and adopt eco-friendly methods to make coal mining more sustainable.
Regulatory Compliance: Mining companies must navigate complex laws, environmental norms, and safety standards, which can slow down operations if not managed well.
Social Impact: The displacement of local populations often results in loss of livelihoods and social tensions, making community relations a major challenge.
Economic Viability: Global coal price fluctuations, rising costs, and competition from renewable energy sources impact the profitability of coal mining.

Infrastructure Development: Efficient transport systems are critical for moving coal from mines to power plants and industries, but poor infrastructure in some regions adds to the challenge.

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Coal Mines In India FAQs

Q1: What are the 5 largest coal mines in India?

Ans: The five largest are Jharia, Raniganj, Talcher, Korba, and Neyveli, known for high production and significant contribution to India’s energy sector.

Q2: How many coal mines are there in India?

Ans: India has approximately 450 coal mines, both public (mostly Coal India Ltd) and private, spread across states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal.

Q3: Which state has the largest coal mine in India?

Ans: Jharkhand houses the largest coal mine in India, Jharia, known for its extensive reserves and metallurgical coal production.

Q4: Which city is known as the coal city in India?

Ans: Dhanbad, in Jharkhand, is called the Coal Capital of India, due to its extensive coal mines and mining industry.

Q5: Which is Asia's largest coal mine in India?

Ans: Jharia coalfield in Jharkhand is Asia’s largest coal mine, famous for high-quality metallurgical coal and long-term mining operations.

Nimesulide

January 2, 2026

Nimesulide Latest News

The government recently prohibited the manufacturing, sale and distribution of all oral formulations containing Nimesulide above 100 mg with immediate effect.

About Nimesulide

First introduced in Italy in 1985, it is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used for its pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and fever-reducing effects.
It is commonly used to manage acute pain, musculoskeletal disorders, dental pain, and symptoms associated with conditions such as osteoarthritis and dysmenorrhea.
Nimesulide works by inhibiting the action of cyclooxygenase (COX), an enzyme responsible for the production of prostaglandins-chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever.
By blocking this enzyme, Nimesulide reduces the levels of prostaglandins, thus providing relief from pain and inflammation.
By targeting the underlying inflammatory process rather than just masking the pain, Nimesulide helps relieve swelling, improves mobility and function in affected areas, and enhances overall comfort and quality of life.

Side Effects of Nimesulide

Long-term usage may harm the liver or result in significant side effects, including gastrointestinal bleeding or renal issues.
Apart from this, other side effects like sour stomach, dizziness, skin infection, diarrhoea, and increased liver enzymes might be observed in individuals.

Regulation of Nimesulide

From its early years, nimesulide attracted safety concerns and was never approved for use in countries including the United States, the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.
In 2008, the International Society of Drug Bulletins, a WHO-supported network, called for a global ban on nimesulide.
India banned the use of nimesulide in children below 12 years of age in 2011 but continued to allow its use in older patients. However, concerns have persisted.

Source: News On Air

Nimesulide FAQs

Q1: What is Nimesulide primarily used for?

Ans: Pain relief and inflammation

Q2: What type of drug is Nimesulide?

Ans: Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic

Q3: Nimesulide is a COX-2 inhibitor. What does this mean?

Ans: It selectively inhibits COX-2 enzyme.

Q4: Which organ is primarily affected by Nimesulide toxicity?

Ans: Liver

Biosphere Reserves in India, List, Origin, Structure, Importance

January 2, 2026

Biosphere Reserves in India are designated by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) to protect representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes. These areas may cover large terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems, or a combination of both. It protects and maintains the diversity of flora, fauna, and ecosystems and promotes economic and social development that aligns with ecological conservation.

Biosphere Reserves serve as living examples of coexistence between humans and nature, demonstrating how development and conservation can progress together while respecting each other’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves are established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Their main goal is to promote sustainable development through local community involvement and scientific management.

These reserves encompass terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems, conserving all forms of life in situ along with their support systems. They also act as reference sites for monitoring and evaluating ecological changes over time.

Part of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) framework since 1971, Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments. There are over 500 reserves across more than 100 countries, highlighting their importance in preserving ecosystems while supporting human development.

Biosphere Reserves Origin

The Biosphere Reserves programme was initiated by UNESCO in 1971, with the first reserve established in 1979. Since then, the network has grown to 686 reserves across 122 countries, including 20 transboundary sites.

Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the countries where they are located. Despite this, their status is internationally recognized, highlighting their global importance in biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

Biosphere Reserves Structure

Biosphere Reserves are structured into three interconnected zones, each designed to balance conservation with sustainable use. These zones work together to protect biodiversity while supporting research, education, and local livelihoods.

Biosphere Reserve Structure
Zone	Description	Purpose/Function
Core Area	Strictly protected ecosystem.	Conserves landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation.
Buffer Zone	Surrounds or adjoins the core area.	Supports ecological practices, scientific research, monitoring, training, and education.
Transition Area	Outermost zone with human settlements and activities.	Encourages sustainable economic and human development, blending ecological and socio-cultural needs.

Biosphere Reserves Designation Criteria

The core area should represent a typical bio-geographical unit and be large enough to sustain viable populations across all trophic levels.

It must include an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core zone with significant value for nature conservation.
The site should have potential for preserving traditional tribal or rural lifestyles that reflect harmonious use of the environment.
The management authority must involve and cooperate with local communities to integrate biodiversity conservation with socio-economic development.
Efforts should focus on managing and containing conflicts while using community knowledge and experience for sustainable outcomes.

Difference Between Biosphere Reserves and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries

To understand conservation in India better, it’s important to know Difference Between Biosphere Reserve and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries. Both aim at protecting biodiversity, but their objectives, legal backing, and approach vary.

Difference Between Biosphere Reserves and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries
National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary	Biosphere Reserves
National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, Community Reserves and Tiger Reserves are established as per provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972	There is no law as such under which these Reserves are established.
No grazing or private tenurial rights land rights are allowed in National Parks.	Biosphere reserves serve as ‘living laboratories’ for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity. Thus, limited economic activity (sand and stone mining) is permitted
Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are set up for the protection of mammals normally	They envisage protection of plant species, Invertebrates and biotic community as a whole

List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025

India is home to a rich natural heritage, with ecosystems, to preserve this biodiversity and promote sustainable development, the country has established 18 Biosphere Reserves. Many of these are also recognized under UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, highlighting their global importance. These reserves not only safeguard endangered species but also protect diverse ecosystems and cultural heritage. Below is the complete List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025, along with their year of establishment, states covered, and key species protected.

List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025
Year	Biosphere Reserves	State(s)	Key Species	Area (km²)
1986	Nilgiri	Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala	Nilgiri Tahr, Tiger	5,520
1988	Nanda Devi	Uttarakhand	Snow Leopard, Musk Deer	5,860
1988	Nokrek	Meghalaya	Red Panda, Hoolock Gibbon	820
1989	Gulf of Mannar	Tamil Nadu	Dugong, Olive Ridley Turtle	10,500
1989	Sundarbans	West Bengal	Royal Bengal Tiger	9,630
1989	Manas	Assam	Asiatic Elephant, Golden Langur	2,837
1989	Great Nicobar	Andaman & Nicobar	Saltwater Crocodile, Nicobar Megapode	885
1994	Simlipal	Odisha	Gaur, Tiger, Elephant	4,374
1998	Dihang-Dibang	Arunachal Pradesh	Takin, Red Panda	5,112
1997	Dibru-Saikhowa	Assam	Gangetic Dolphin, Bengal Tiger	765
1999	Pachmarhi	Madhya Pradesh	Indian Giant Squirrel	4,981
2000	Khangchendzonga	Sikkim	Red Panda, Snow Leopard	2,620
2001	Agasthyamalai	Kerala, Tamil Nadu	Nilgiri Tahr, Elephant	3,500
2005	Achanakmar-Amarkantak	Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh	Wild Dog, Sarus Crane	3,835
2008	Great Rann of Kutch	Gujarat	Indian Wild Ass	12,454
2009	Cold Desert	Himachal Pradesh	Snow Leopard	7,770
2010	Seshachalam Hills	Andhra Pradesh	Slender Loris	4,755
2011	Panna	Madhya Pradesh	Bengal Tiger, Chinkara	2,998

First Biosphere Reserve in India

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, established in 1986, holds the distinction of being the First Biosphere Reserve in India. Spread across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, it forms part of the Western Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot. This reserve shelters a wide range of unique flora and fauna, including the endangered Nilgiri Tahr, the Lion-tailed Macaque, and the Malabar Giant Squirrel. Its diverse landscapes, from montane forests to grasslands, make it a vital ecological region, balancing conservation with the livelihood needs of local communities.

Smallest Biosphere Reserve in India

Nokrek Biosphere Reserve in Meghalaya is known as the Smallest Biosphere Reserve in India covering only 820 km². The location provides shelter to Red Panda, Hoolock Gibbon and unique citrus plant species.

Biosphere Reserve Importance

Conservation of Biodiversity - Protects endangered species, rare plants, animals, and ecosystems.
Sustainable Development - Encourages eco-tourism, organic farming, and traditional practices supporting local communities.
Climate Change Mitigation - Forests and wetlands act as carbon sinks, reducing global warming.
Research and Education - Provides opportunities for scientific research, wildlife studies, and conservation awareness.
Cultural Preservation - Safeguards indigenous tribes, their traditions, and sustainable lifestyles.

Biosphere Reserve Challenges

Human Encroachment - Expansion of agriculture, grazing, and settlements disrupts natural habitats.
Deforestation & Poaching - Illegal logging, hunting, and wildlife trade reduce biodiversity.
Climate Change - Alters rainfall, temperature, and ecosystem balance, affecting species survival.
Lack of Funding - Limited financial support weakens conservation and monitoring programs.
Tourism Pressure - Unregulated tourism leads to waste generation and habitat degradation.

Conflict with Locals - Restrictions on resource use often clash with community livelihood needs.

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Biosphere Reserves in India FAQs

Q1: What is meant by biosphere reserve?

Ans: A biosphere reserve is a protected area conserving biodiversity, supporting sustainable development, and prompting research and education for environmental protection.

Q2: How many biosphere reserves are in India?

Ans: India has 18 biosphere reserves, of which 12 are part of UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Q3: Is biosphere reserve class 8?

Ans: Yes, the concept of biosphere reserves is introduced in Class 8 NCERT Geography to explain biodiversity conservation.

Q4: What is the difference between a national park and a biosphere reserve?

Ans: A national park protects specific wildlife, while a biosphere reserve conserves biodiversity, includes human settlements, and promotes sustainable use.

Q5: Which is the largest biosphere reserve in India?

Ans: The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu is the largest in India.

EU’s CBAM Begins: Impact on India’s Steel and Aluminium Exports

January 2, 2026

CBAM Latest News

The European Union implemented its carbon tax on selected carbon-intensive metals from January 1, a move expected to impact India’s steel exports.
The tax applies to goods whose manufacturing processes generate significant carbon emissions, reflecting the EU’s push to curb carbon leakage and promote cleaner production.

EU’s Carbon Border Tax Comes into Force

The European Union has begun implementing the world’s first carbon tax under the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) from January 1.
The move has drawn criticism from developing countries, including India, as it imposes a levy on carbon-intensive imports entering the EU.

What CBAM Covers

CBAM applies a carbon-related charge on imports from:
- Power sector
- Energy-intensive industries such as cement, steel, aluminium, oil refining, paper, glass, chemicals, and fertilisers
The mechanism targets goods originating from countries with lower environmental standards than the EU.
Importantly, EU lawmakers retain the power to expand the product list in future.

Impact on India and Developing Countries

India’s exports to the EU are dominated by steel, iron, and aluminium, making them particularly vulnerable to CBAM-related costs.
Beyond India, the measure is expected to raise trade barriers for many developing economies.
A similar carbon border regulation is expected to be implemented by the United Kingdom this year, compounding pressures that already exist due to high US tariffs on metals imposed by the United States.

Global Pushback and Legal Challenges

Russia formally launched a dispute against CBAM in May last year, joined by other developing nations.
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has warned that CBAM could:
- Hurt export-led development
- Reduce market access for poorer countries
- Worsen global trade inequalities, especially if countries with carbon taxes and greener production are exempted

Developed vs Developing World Argument

EU’s position: CBAM merely extends domestic environmental standards to imports, preventing “carbon leakage” and ensuring fair competition.
Developing countries’ concern: CBAM violates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), a core concept in international environmental law recognised by the World Trade Organization.
- Under CBDR, all countries share responsibility for addressing environmental challenges, but obligations must differ based on: Level of development; Historical contribution to environmental damage; Capacity to respond.

CBAM and the Shift in Steelmaking Technology

To comply with the EU’s CBAM, Indian steel exporters are seeking government support to transition from blast furnace–basic oxygen furnace (BF–BOF) routes to electric arc furnaces (EAFs), which use steel scrap and are significantly cleaner.

Emissions Profile of Steel Production Routes

Highest emissions: BF–BOF route
Moderate emissions: Gas-based direct reduced iron (DRI)
Lowest emissions: Scrap-based EAF route
Indian steel production is largely dependent on the blast furnace route, making exports more vulnerable under CBAM.

Industry Demands and Trade Negotiations

Exporters have urged the government to:
- Support compliance with CBAM requirements
- Seek a carve-out for MSMEs in ongoing India–EU trade deal negotiations, expected to conclude early this year
The EU has clarified that CBAM is not negotiable, as it is framed as a climate, not trade, measure.

Scrap Availability and Competitive Disadvantage

Indian exporters have flagged that the EU is regulating steel scrap exports to strengthen domestic capacity.
The US and EU, the world’s largest scrap producers, extensively use arc furnaces, potentially benefiting their steel industries under CBAM while disadvantaging Indian manufacturers.

CBAM Impact: Price Cuts Likely for Indian Exporters

From January 1, 2026, every shipment of Indian steel and aluminium entering the EU will attract a carbon cost under CBAM.
The Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) estimates exporters may need to cut prices by 15–22% to absorb the tax burden.
GTRI warns that MSMEs will be hit hardest due to:
- High compliance, data, and verification costs
- Risk of being priced out of the EU market altogether

Data Gaps Inflate Carbon Costs

A key challenge is the lack of plant-level emissions data:
- Large producers often do not share verified emissions data with MSME buyers
- In absence of verified data, EU authorities may apply default (highest) emission values, sharply increasing CBAM costs even if actual emissions are lower
Experts suggest reducing compliance costs through Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs):
- An Indian certifying body’s emissions data could be recognised by the EU.
Experts caution that if competitors like China comply faster, Indian exporters could lose competitiveness.

CBAM: Trade Protection or Climate Action

Indian trade experts argue that climate–trade measures like the EU’s CBAM are driven more by import curbs and commercial interests of developed countries than genuine environmental protection.
A United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) study (2021) estimated that CBAM would reduce global CO₂ emissions by only 0.1%, while significantly restricting exports from developing countries.
Amid concerns that CBAM breaches WTO principles, UNCTAD suggested the EU should use CBAM revenues to support cleaner technologies in developing countries.

India’s Official Position

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman termed CBAM unilateral, arbitrary, and a trade barrier, stating that measures like CBAM and the EU deforestation law undermine energy transition efforts.
India has formally conveyed its concerns to the European Union.

Source: IE | ET

CBAM FAQs

Q1: What is the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

Ans: CBAM is the EU’s carbon tax on imports of carbon-intensive goods, aimed at preventing carbon leakage by aligning import costs with EU climate standards.

Q2: Which Indian exports are most affected by CBAM?

Ans: India’s steel, iron, and aluminium exports are most vulnerable, as these sectors are energy-intensive and form the bulk of India’s shipments to the EU.

Q3: Why do developing countries oppose CBAM?

Ans: Developing nations argue CBAM violates Common But Differentiated Responsibilities by imposing uniform climate costs despite differing development levels and historical emissions.

Q4: How could CBAM affect Indian exporters’ competitiveness?

Ans: Exporters may need to cut prices by 15–22% to absorb carbon costs, raising risks of MSMEs being priced out of EU markets.

Q5: What solutions are suggested to reduce CBAM’s impact?

Ans: Experts suggest mutual recognition agreements for emissions certification and using CBAM revenues to support cleaner technologies in developing countries

List of Navratna Companies in India 2025, Eligibility, Benefits

January 2, 2026

Navratna companies in India are Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) that have been granted enhanced autonomy and financial freedom by the Government of India to help them compete more effectively in the global market. These companies are given operational and financial powers, enabling them to make quick decisions on investments, joint ventures, and mergers, up to a certain limit, without the need for government approval.

Navratna Companies Eligibility Criteria

The eligibility criteria for Navratna Status is :

Miniratna Category I status is required.
A composite score of 60 or more out of 100 in key parameters such as net profit, net worth, total manpower cost, cost of services, and earnings per share.
Must be profitable for the last three consecutive years.

Navratna Companies in India: Benefits

Navratna status offers several benefits to public sector enterprises in India, enhancing their operational and financial capabilities. Here are the key benefits:

Enhanced Financial Autonomy: Navratna companies can invest up to ₹1,000 crore without needing government approval, allowing for quicker and more strategic investments.
Operational Flexibility: These companies have the freedom to form joint ventures, alliances, and undertake mergers and acquisitions both domestically and internationally.
Decision-Making Power: The Board of Directors of Navratna companies has greater authority in making decisions related to human resources, capital expenditure, and other operational aspects.
Competitive Edge: With greater autonomy, Navratna companies can respond more swiftly to market changes and competition, enhancing their overall efficiency and effectiveness.
Global Expansion: The status encourages these companies to expand their operations globally, helping them to emerge as significant players on the international stage.
Performance Incentives: Achieving and maintaining Navratna status is a recognition of a company’s strong performance, which can boost its reputation and attract better talent and partnerships.

List of 14 Navratna Companies in India

Here is a list of 14 Central Public Sector Enterprises in India:

Sl.No	Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSE)
1	Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
2	Container Corporation of India Limited
3	Engineers India Limited (EIL)
4	Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
5	Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL)
6	National Aluminium Company (NALCO)
7	National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC)
8	NationCal Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC)
9	NLC India Limited (NLCIL)
10	Oil India Limited (OIL)
11	Power Finance Corporation (PFC)
12	Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL)
13	Rural Electrification Corporation (REC)
14	Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)

14 Navratna Companies Details

Here is a detailed explanation of 14 Navratna Companies in India:

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
Founded in 1954 in Bengaluru, BEL is a state-owned aerospace and defense company with nine factories and several regional offices across India. It reported a revenue of ₹12,921.11 crore (US$1.8 billion) in 2020. BEL's product range includes avionics, radars, weapon systems, C4I systems, and electronic voting machines.
Container Corporation of India (CONCOR)
CONCOR, a Navratna PSU under the Ministry of Railways, was incorporated in 1988 and began operations in 1989 by taking over seven Inland Container Depots (ICDs) from Indian Railways. This strategic move marked India's entry into intermodal freight transport, making rail a cost-effective option for long-distance cargo.
Engineers India Limited (EIL)
EIL, a Navratna PSU established in 1965, provides engineering services for the petroleum, petrochemical, pipeline, and infrastructure sectors. Under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, EIL is a leader in turnkey contracting and industrial projects across various sectors, including mining, metallurgy, and offshore oil & gas.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
Founded in 1940 and headquartered in Bengaluru, HAL is a key player in India's aerospace and defense industries, managed by the Ministry of Defence. HAL specializes in the design, fabrication, and assembly of aircraft, helicopters, jet engines, and their components.
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL)
Established in 1986, MTNL is a state-owned telecom provider operating in Mumbai, New Delhi, and Mauritius. Now a subsidiary of BSNL, MTNL provides crucial telecom services in these metro areas.
National Aluminium Company (NALCO)
Headquartered in Bhubaneswar, NALCO is India's largest integrated Bauxite-Alumina-Aluminium-Power complex, recognized globally as the lowest-cost producer of metallurgical grade alumina and bauxite. NALCO operates across bauxite mining, alumina refining, aluminium smelting, power generation, and logistics.
NBCC (India) Limited
NBCC, established in 1960, is a leading construction and project management company under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. With 31 regional offices, it is responsible for implementing key national initiatives like AMRUT, PMGSY, and solid waste management projects.
National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC)
NMDC, India’s largest iron ore producer, explores minerals like iron ore, copper, limestone, and diamonds. It operates mechanized mines in Chhattisgarh and Karnataka and manages India's only mechanized diamond mine in Panna, Madhya Pradesh.
Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) India Limited
Incorporated in 1956, NLC is a government-owned mining and energy company that produces 30 million tonnes of lignite annually from its opencast mines in Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. This lignite powers its thermal power stations with a capacity of 3,640 MW.
Oil India Limited (OIL)
OIL, a Navratna PSU, is the second-largest oil and gas exploration company in India. Established in 1959 and headquartered in Assam, it engages in the exploration, development, and production of crude oil, natural gas, and LPG.
Power Finance Corporation (PFC)
PFC, incorporated in 1986, is the financial backbone of India's power sector, providing consulting, financial products, investment banking, and loan management services. Its IPO in 2007 was one of the most oversubscribed in India's history.
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam (Vizag Steel)
Vizag Steel, under Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd (RINL), is India’s first shore-based integrated steel plant. It produces high-grade steel using state-of-the-art technology and operates subsidiaries like Eastern Investments Limited and The Orissa Minerals Development Company.
REC Limited
REC, formerly known as Rural Electrification Corporation, is a public infrastructure finance company in India’s power sector. It provides loans to central and state sector utilities, private developers, and rural electric cooperatives.
Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)
Founded in 1961, SCI is India’s premier shipping company and a recipient of Navratna status in 2008. It operates a diversified fleet, providing shipping solutions to various sectors. In 2019, the Government of India approved its privatization.

Navratna Companies in India FAQs

Q1: How many Navratna companies are there in India?

Ans: There are currently 13 Navratna companies in India.

Q2: Which is the 17th Navratna company?

Ans: NLC India Limited became the 17th Navratna company.

Q3: Which is the 18th Navratna company in India?

Ans: NHPC Limited is the 18th Navratna company in India.

Minimum Support Price (MSP) Crops List

January 2, 2026

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a market intervention scheme where the government sets a predetermined price for 22 crops. If market prices drop below the MSP, the government steps in to purchase the crops. This ensures that farmers receive a guaranteed price, protecting them from market fluctuations and ensuring financial stability. Keep reading the article to know the details of MSP, the List of Crops Covered Under MSP and many more.

Minimum Support Price (MSP)

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is the minimum price set by the government to ensure farmers receive fair value for their crops, even when market prices fall. This concept was introduced in 1966-67 during the Green Revolution as part of agricultural reforms, MSP serves as a safety measure taken by the union government to protect farmers from financial losses and maintain food security.

The Indian government announces MSP twice a year, before the Kharif (monsoon) and Rabi (winter) sowing seasons. The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the MSP, which is then approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA). This system encourages farmers to grow essential crops while ensuring financial stability.

List of Crops Covered Under MSP

The government sets the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for 22 crops to provide financial support to farmers. This includes 14 Kharif crops, 6 Rabi crops, and 2 commercial crops. MSP is also determined for Toria and de-husked coconut, based on the MSPs of rapeseed & mustard and copra. The MSP is revised annually by the government, considering the existing economic and agricultural conditions to ensure fair price for the crop to the farmers.

Kharif Crops

Paddy
Jowar
Bajra
Ragi
Maize
Tur (Arhar)
Moong
Urad
Groundnut
Sunflower Seed
Soyabean (Yellow)
Sesamum
Nigerseed
Cotton

Rabi Crops

Wheat
Barley
Gram
Masur (Lentil)
Rapeseed & Mustard
Safflower

Commercial Crops

Copra
Jute

Steps to Determine Minimum Support Price

The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the Minimum Support Price (MSP) based on various factors, ensuring fair prices for crops to farmers. Before announcing the MSP, the government considers:

Cost of Production: The primary factor includes expenses on seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and labour. Farmers are assured a minimum margin of 50% over the production cost.
Demand and Supply: The government analyzes market trends and consumer demand to determine appropriate pricing.
Market Price Trends: Domestic and international price comparisons ensure that the MSP remains competitive.
Inter-Crop Price Parity: A balanced pricing structure across different crops encourages diversified farming.
Terms of Trade: The government assesses the relationship between agricultural and non-agricultural sectors to maintain fair trade conditions.

Other Considerations

Changes in Input Prices
Input-Output Price Parity
Industrial Cost Structure
Cost of Living
Impact on Subsidies
Farmer’s Income Parity

The government uses the A2+FL formula to calculate MSP, which includes:

A2: Actual paid-out costs incurred by the farmer.
FL: The imputed value of family labour.

Minimum Support Price Needs

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a minimum price set by the government of India for Indian agriculture, offering stability, security, and motivation for farmers to sustain crop production. The below mentioned are the needs for the Minimum Support Price:

It guarantees a minimum income for farmers, protecting them from financial losses.
By providing assured prices, it motivates farmers to grow more staple crops, contributing to food security.
MSP acts as a buffer against price fluctuations, especially during harvest season.
A strong agricultural sector, backed by MSP, uplifts rural livelihoods and strengthens the economy.
Farmers are protected from being forced to sell their produce at unfair prices by traders.

Latest Minimum Support Price 2025-26

According to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, according to the latest Minimum Support Price (MSP) applicable for the 2025-26 is as follows (as of 22 January 2025):

Latest Minimum Support Price 2025-26
Commodity	Variety	2023-24	2024-25	Increase in MSP (2024-25 over 2023-24)
Kharif Crops
Paddy	Common	2183	2300	117 (5.4%)
	Grade 'A'	2203	2320	117 (5.3%)
Jowar	Hybrid	3180	3371	191 (6.0%)
	Maldandi	3225	3421	196 (6.1%)
Bajra		2500	2625	125 (5.0%)
Ragi		3846	4290	444 (11.5%)
Maize		2090	2225	135 (6.5%)
Tur (Arhar)		7000	7550	550 (7.9%)
Moong		8558	8682	124 (1.4%)
Urad		6950	7400	450 (6.5%)
Groundnut		6377	6783	406 (6.4%)
Sunflower Seed		6760	7280	520 (7.7%)
Soyabeen (Yellow)		4600	4892	292 (6.3%)
Sesamum		8635	9267	632 (7.3%)
Nigerseed		7734	8717	983 (12.7%)
Cotton	Medium Staple	6620	7121	501 (7.6%)
	Long Staple	7020	7521	501 (7.1%)
Rabi Crops
Wheat		2275	2425	150 (6.6%)
Barley		1850	1980	130 (7.0%)
Gram		5440	5650	210 (3.9%)
Masur (Lentil)		6425	6700	275 (4.3%)
Rapeseed & Mustard		5650	5950	300 (5.3%)
Safflower		5800	5940	140 (2.4%)
Toria		5650	5950	300 (5.3%)
Commercial Crops
Copra	Milling	10860	11160	300 (2.8%)
	Ball	11750	12000	250 (2.1%)
De-Husked Coconut		2930	3013	83 (2.8%)
Jute		5050	5335	285 (5.6%)

Minimum Support Price FAQs

Q1: What is meant by minimum support price?

Ans: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is the price set by the government to ensure farmers receive a guaranteed price for their crops, protecting them from market fluctuations.

Q2: What is the minimum price class 9?

Ans: In Class 9 Economics, the minimum price refers to the Minimum Support Price (MSP) set by the government to ensure farmers get fair compensation for their crops.

Q3: What is state minimum support price?

Ans: The State Minimum Support Price (State MSP) is a price set by individual state governments for certain crops, often higher than the central MSP, to support local farmers.

Q4: Who introduced MSP in India?

Ans: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) was introduced in 1966-67 by the Government of India during the Green Revolution to support farmers and ensure food security.

Q5: What is the purpose of MSP?

Ans: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) ensures farmers receive a fair price for their crops, protecting them from market fluctuations and ensuring agricultural sustainability.

List of Anglo-Sikh Wars, History, Series of Event, Aftermath

January 2, 2026

The Anglo-Sikh Wars were two significant battles fought between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company in the mid-19th century. These wars led to the fall of the Sikh Empire and British control over Punjab. The First Anglo-Sikh War happened in 1845 whereas the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848. The fall of the Sikh Empire marked the end of one of the last major independent Indian states before the Revolt of 1857.

Anglo-Sikh Wars

In the early 19th century, the British East India Company aimed to extend its dominance over Punjab, a region governed by the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. However, after Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, internal conflicts and political instability weakened the empire. Utilising this opportunity, the Britishers increased their influence, escalating tensions that eventually led to open conflict. The Anglo-Sikh Wars, fought between 1845-1849, resulted in British control over the Sikh Empire, reshaping the political landscape of the region.

First Anglo-Sikh War

In the between 1845-1846, Maharaja Ranjit Singh expanded and consolidated the Sikh kingdom of Punjab, creating a powerful buffer state as British-controlled territories steadily advanced toward Punjab’s frontiers. To maintain balance, he pursued a cautious alliance with the British, even ceding territories south of the Sutlej River.

Ranjit Singh modernized his army by including Hindu and Muslim contingents and employing European and American officers to train Sikh forces on modern lines. While the British viewed this with suspicion, the deeper causes of conflict were more complex.

First Anglo-Sikh War Course

The British began with around 20,000-30,000 soldiers, while the Sikh army, under Lal Singh and Teja Singh, fielded nearly 50,000 troops. Despite their numerical advantage, the treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh weakened Sikh resistance. Major Battles includes:

Battle of Mudki (18 December 1845): The British won despite strong Sikh resistance.
Battle of Ferozeshah (21-22 December 1845): A battle where the British barely managed to secure victory.
Battle of Baddowal ( 21 January 1846):Ranjodh Singh Majithia led the battle and burned a portion of British cantonment.
Battle of Aliwal (28 January 1846): The British gained the upper hand by defeating the Sikh army.
Battle of Sobraon (10 February 1846): This decisive battle led to the end of the First Anglo-Sikh War.

First Anglo-Sikh War Treaty

Treaty of Lahore (8 March 1846): The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore, which imposed humiliating terms on the Sikhs. The strength of the Sikh army was reduced, and political control shifted to the British. Maharaja Duleep Singh was proclaimed ruler, with Rani Jindan as regent and Lal Singh as wazir. Since the Sikhs could not pay the full war indemnity, Kashmir (including Jammu) was transferred to Gulab Singh, who agreed to pay the Company ₹75 lakhs.

Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846): A follow-up treaty formally ceded Kashmir to Gulab Singh, establishing him as the independent ruler of Jammu and Kashmir.

Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846): Dissatisfaction over the Kashmir settlement led to Sikh unrest. The Treaty of Bhairowal removed Rani Jindan from the regency. A Council of Regency, composed of eight Sikh sardars, was set up to govern Punjab under the supervision of Henry Lawrence, the British Resident

Second Anglo-Sikh War

Rising tensions between the British and the Sikhs following the Treaty of Lahore led to the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848. The treaty had significantly weakened the Sikh Empire by territorial losses and a weakened Sikh military. This led to uprisings in regions like Multan and Hazara, where the killing of two British officers escalated tensions into a full-scale conflict.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Course

Lord Dalhousie personally supervised the campaign in Punjab. The war was marked by three major battles that decided the fate of the Sikh kingdom:

Battle of Ramnagar (22 November 1848): The first clash took place at Ramnagar under Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander-in-chief. The battle ended inconclusively, with neither side gaining a decisive advantage.

Battle of Chillianwala (13 January 1849): The second major engagement occurred at Chillianwala. It was one of the bloodiest encounters of the Anglo-Sikh wars, with heavy losses on both sides. Although the British claimed success, the outcome was far from clear, and the Sikhs fought with great determination.
Battle of Gujarat (21 February 1849): The battle was fought near Gujarat, close to the Chenab River. The Sikh army suffered a crushing defeat. Their Afghan allies were expelled from India, and the Sikh resistance collapsed soon after.

Meanwhile, at Multan, the British secured victory after a long siege. Mulraj surrendered in January 1849, marking the end of his rebellion. Following the defeat at Gujarat, Sikh commanders like Sher Singh and Chattar Singh surrendered in March 1849.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Impact

The annexation of Punjab was formally completed in March 1849, following the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Under the terms imposed by Lord Dalhousie, the young Maharaja Duleep Singh, only eleven years old at the time, was deposed and later sent to England on a pension. His mother, Rani Jindan (Jind Kaur), was forcibly separated from him, confined at Firozpur, and stripped of her wealth and allowances.

To administer the newly acquired province, Sir John Lawrence was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab. His tenure laid the foundation of British rule in the region, combining military control with administrative reorganisation. In recognition of his role in the conquest, Dalhousie was elevated to the rank of Marquis.

One of the most symbolic spoils of conquest was the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which the British appropriated. Originally part of the Sikh royal treasury, Maharaja Ranjit Singh had expressed in his will that the gem should be donated to the Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha. The British ignored this wish and instead claimed the diamond under the Treaty of Lahore (1849), transferring it to the British Crown.

Anglo-Sikh Wars Impact

The Anglo-Sikh Wars significantly shaped India’s history, leaving lasting political and social effects.

The wars led to the downfall of the Sikh Empire, bringing Punjab under British control.
The annexation of Punjab further strengthened British dominance in India.
The British administration introduced new policies, impacting governance, military structure, and society in Punjab.
The conflicts played a key role in shaping Sikh consciousness and promoting a spirit of resistance.
The Sikh defeat served as a reminder of colonial oppression, inspiring future uprisings against British rule.

Anglo-Sikh Wars FAQs

Q1: How many Anglo-Sikh wars are there?

Ans: There were two Anglo-Sikh Wars: the First (1845–1846) and the Second (1848–1849), both leading to the British annexation of Punjab and the fall of the Sikh Empire.

Q2: Who won the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war?

Ans: The British East India Company won the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849), defeating the Sikh forces and annexing Punjab, marking the complete end of Sikh sovereignty in India.

Q3: Who was the bravest Sikh warrior?

Ans: Hari Singh Nalwa (1791–1837), chief commander of the Sikh Khalsa Fauj, is renowned for leading conquests in Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar, and Jamrud.

Q4: Who led First Anglo-Sikh War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) was led by Governor-General Sir Henry Hardinge and Sir Hugh Gough for the British, while Lal Singh and Tej Singh led the Sikhs.

Q5: Which Treaty ended the First Anglo-Sikh War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore, signed on March 9, 1846.

India’s Tobacco Taxation Reforms – Explained

January 2, 2026

Tobacco Taxation Latest News

India has notified a new taxation regime for tobacco and related sin goods, effective February 1, following legislative changes approved by Parliament.

Taxation on Tobacco and Sin Goods in India

Sin goods such as tobacco, pan masala, and alcohol are taxed heavily in India due to their adverse public health and social impacts.
Tobacco taxation serves a dual policy purpose: discouraging consumption through higher prices and generating revenue for public expenditure, particularly in health and social security.

Structure of Tobacco Taxation in India

India follows a multi-layered taxation framework for tobacco products, involving:
- Goods and Services Tax (GST)
- Central Excise Duty
- Cess (earlier GST Compensation Cess, now replaced for tobacco)
Under GST, tobacco products have always been placed in the highest tax slabs due to their classification as demerit goods.
However, despite high nominal tax rates, tobacco products, especially cigarettes, remained relatively affordable for consumers over the past decade.

Public Health Rationale

Global public health bodies, including the WHO, recommend that tobacco prices should rise faster than income growth to reduce affordability and consumption.
In India, stagnation in effective excise duties meant that real prices of cigarettes did not rise sufficiently, weakening tobacco control efforts.

Revenue Considerations

Historically, tobacco has been a major contributor to indirect tax revenues.
The GST Compensation Cess, introduced in 2017, was meant to compensate States for revenue losses due to GST implementation.
While it ended for most goods, tobacco remained one of the last items subjected to this cess, reflecting both its revenue potential and public policy priority.

Shift Towards Purpose-Specific Cess

The recent reform reflects a shift from a general compensation-oriented cess to a dedicated, non-lapsable cess, designed to ensure predictable funding without raising broad-based taxes.
This approach aligns fiscal objectives with sector-specific policy needs, particularly national security and long-term preparedness.

News Summary

The Union Finance Ministry has notified a comprehensive restructuring of tobacco taxation, effective February 1, following the passage of the Central Excise (Amendment) Act, 2025.
This marks one of the most significant overhauls of tobacco taxation since the introduction of GST.

End of GST Compensation Cess

The GST compensation cess on tobacco products will cease from February 1, as the original objective of compensating States for GST-related losses has largely been met.
The cess had already been extended beyond its original timeline due to pandemic-induced revenue shortfalls.

Introduction of New Excise and Cess Framework

To replace the compensation cess, the government has introduced:
- Revised central excise duties on tobacco products
- A new cess under the Health Security-cum-National Security Act, 2025, applicable to pan masala and related units
This new cess is designed to create a non-lapsable and predictable revenue stream, particularly for long-term security preparedness and capacity building, without increasing the tax burden on the general population.

Revised GST Slabs

Significant changes in GST rates include:
- Beedis shifted to the 18% GST slab from the earlier 28% category
- All other tobacco products, including cigarettes and chewing tobacco, moved to a 40% GST slab
These changes are aimed at simplifying the tax structure while ensuring higher effective taxation on products with greater health risks.

New Valuation Mechanism

For smokeless tobacco products such as gutkha, khaini, jarda, and chewing tobacco, GST valuation will now be based on the retail sale price (RSP) declared on packaging.
This is expected to curb under-reporting and tax evasion, a persistent issue in the tobacco sector.

Significance

The reform aligns India’s tobacco taxation closer to global public health guidance by:
- Increasing the real prices of tobacco products
- Reducing affordability over time
- Strengthening enforcement through clearer valuation rules
At the same time, it ensures fiscal stability by replacing a temporary cess with a purpose-specific, long-term revenue instrument.

Source: TH | TOI

Tobacco Taxation FAQs

Q1: Why are tobacco products taxed heavily in India?

Ans: Tobacco is a demerit good, and high taxation is used to discourage consumption and address public health costs.

Q2: What changes have been made to GST on tobacco products?

Ans: Beedis are now taxed at 18% GST, while all other tobacco products attract 40% GST.

Q3: Why was the GST compensation cess on tobacco removed?

Ans: Its original purpose of compensating States for GST losses has largely been fulfilled.

Q4: What is the new cess introduced on tobacco products?

Ans: A dedicated cess under the Health Security-cum-National Security Act, 2025, applicable mainly to pan masala units.

Q5: How does the new valuation mechanism affect smokeless tobacco?

Ans: GST will now be calculated based on the declared retail sale price, reducing scope for tax evasion.

Article 40 of Indian Constitution, Importance, Panchayati Raj System

January 2, 2026

Article 40 of the Indian Constitution directs the state to establish and empower village panchayats to function as self-governing institutions. Being a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy, this article focuses on decentralisation of power and encourages the citizens of India to become a part of governance and foster rural development. To put into action, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act 1992 was implemented and the Panchayati Raj System was institutionalised. In this article, we are going to look into Article 40 and its constitutional importance.

Article 40 of the Constitution of India

The Article 40 of the Constitution of India states that “The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self government.”

Added in the Directive Principle of State Policy, Article 40 aims to build a system of self-governance in villages, where decision-making is localised and people are involved in managing their community affairs. The article is based on Gandhian principles and emphasises on self-sufficiency and local self-governance while ensuring self-sustaining units within decentralised units.

Panchayati Raj System of India

The Panchayati Raj System of India has been framed on the lines of local self-governance. The goal has been to promote autonomy in rural areas and make sure people get an equal right to participate in the governance process. Rajasthan was the first state to opt for panchayati raj form of government in India.

Panchayati Raj System Structure

The Panchayati Raj System in India was introduced following the recommendations of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957), which advocated a decentralized governance structure. As a result, a three-tier system was established—

Village Panchayat- local administration in rural areas
Panchayat Samiti – Acts as the intermediate tier that coordinates and links multiple Gram Panchayats
Zila Parishad- district level body. Supervises the work of panchayat Samitis within its jurisdiction

Article 40 of Indian Constitution Importance

Article 40, enshrined in Part IV of the Indian Constitution (Directive Principles of State Policy), holds significant importance in shaping India’s democratic and developmental ethos. Though not enforceable by law, it provides a vital constitutional directive for establishing village panchayats, promoting decentralized governance, and strengthening grassroots democracy.

Key Aspects of Article 40 are:

Decentralization of Power:
Article 40 advocates the devolution of authority from the central and state governments to village-level institutions, ensuring that governance is more accessible, accountable, and people-centric.
Strengthening Grassroots Democracy:
By empowering local self-governments, it fosters participatory democracy where citizens are directly involved in planning, implementation, and monitoring of development initiatives.
Rural Development and Self-Reliance:
Panchayats, as envisioned by Article 40, play a critical role in delivering welfare schemes, managing local resources, and resolving community issues, thereby promoting self-sufficiency and sustainable rural development.
Realisation of Gandhian Ideals:
Article 40 reflects Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of self-reliant and self-governing village republics, where governance is transparent, participatory, and rooted in local needs.
Constitutional Empowerment through the 73rd Amendment:
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, gave constitutional status to panchayats, operationalizing Article 40 by providing a clear framework of powers, functions, and safeguards for local governance.
Inclusive Representation:
By mandating reservations for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women, the panchayati raj system under Article 40 ensures inclusive and representative governance at the village level.

Article 40 Important Cases

Article 40, as part of the Directive Principles of State Policy, is not legally enforceable in a court of law. However, it plays an important role in shaping India's vision of decentralized governance through village panchayats. Recognizing this, both the judiciary and various expert committees have emphasized the importance of empowering Panchayati Raj institutions to ensure effective self-governance and inclusive rural development.

Judicial Endorsement of Article 40

Balwant Raj vs Union of India (2000):
In this landmark case, the Supreme Court reinforced the constitutional vision of decentralized governance, underscoring the essential role of strong village panchayats in achieving self-reliant and sustainable rural development. The judgment upheld Article 40 as a guiding force for empowering rural India.
State of Karnataka vs Ranganatha Reddy (1978):
This case emphasized the necessity of granting real authority, powers, and financial resources to village panchayats. The Court advocated for meaningful devolution of power, asserting that local bodies must be equipped to fulfill their constitutional responsibilities effectively.

Key Reports Supporting Article 40

Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report (1957):
Regarded as a cornerstone in the history of decentralized governance in India, this report recommended the establishment of the three-tier Panchayati Raj system, laying the foundation for structured grassroots democracy.

National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002):
The Commission reviewed the performance of local self-government institutions and proposed significant reforms aimed at empowering Panchayati Raj bodies. Its recommendations sought to enhance their effectiveness, accountability, and autonomy in local governance.

Also Check Related Articles
Article 295 of Indian Constitution	Article 194 of Indian Constitution
Article 39 of Indian Constitution	Article 191 of Indian Constitution
Article 20 of Indian Constitution	Article 16 of Indian Constitution
Article 67 of Indian Constitution	Article 40 of Indian Constitution
Article 78 of Indian Constitution

Article 40 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What is the Article 40 of the Constitution?

Ans: Article 40 directs the State to organize village panchayats and empower them as units of self-government.

Q2: What is the importance of Article 40?

Ans: It lays the foundation for grassroots democracy and decentralized governance in rural India.

Q3: What is the 73rd constitutional amendment act?

Ans: The 73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions and added Part IX to the Constitution.

Q4: Why was the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee created?

Ans: It was formed in 1957 to examine and recommend measures for democratic decentralization in rural governance.

Q5: What are the articles under the Panchayati Raj System in India?

Ans: Articles 243 to 243-O under Part IX of the Constitution pertain to the Panchayati Raj System.

Cropping Pattern in India, Types, Importance, Factors Affecting

January 2, 2026

Cropping Pattern in India refers to the distribution and arrangement of crops in a region, including the sequence in which they are grown and the share of land allotted to each crop during different seasons. The choice of Cropping Pattern in India is largely shaped by factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil characteristics, and overall climatic conditions of the area.

Cropping Pattern in India

Cropping Pattern in India refers to the variety of crops grown in a region at a given time. In India, this pattern is influenced not just by natural factors such as temperature, rainfall, wind, and soil quality, but also by economic aspects like minimum support prices, market demand, crop value, and the availability of labour.

For example, rice dominates during years of good monsoon rainfall, whereas in years of weak monsoons, farmers often switch to hardier crops like millets. Similarly, certain regions have developed strong associations with particular crops, cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam, and jute in West Bengal continue to be the mainstay due to favourable conditions for their cultivation.

Cropping Pattern in India Types

Mono-cropping: In this system, the same crop is cultivated on the same piece of land year after year. While simple to manage, it often reduces soil fertility over time.
Multiple cropping: This involves growing more than one crop on the same land in a single year. It can be of two types:
- Intercropping: Different crops are grown together on the same field in a planned row arrangement, helping farmers make better use of space and resources.
- Sequential cropping: Different crops are cultivated one after another in the same field within a year, ensuring continuous use of the land.
Mixed cropping: In this method, farmers grow two or more crops simultaneously on the same land, but without a fixed row pattern. It reduces the risk of complete crop failure, as one crop may survive if another is damaged.
Relay cropping: A variation of multiple cropping, relay cropping involves planting the next crop before the first one is fully harvested. This overlapping use of time helps maximize productivity.

Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern in India

The Cropping Pattern in India is a mix of geographical, economic, political, and historical factors which are discussed in brief below:

Geographical Factors

Relief: The landscape directly influences what can be grown. For example, rice thrives on irrigated hill terraces, while tea and coffee need well-drained slopes with ample rainfall. In irrigated plains with warm climates, crops like rice and sugarcane dominate, while wheat prefers regions with moderate temperatures and rainfall.
Rainfall: The amount and distribution of rain create distinct cropping zones:
- Heavy rainfall areas (150+ cm annually): East India and the West Coast plains grow rice, tea, coffee, jute, and sugarcane. Livestock is also common due to abundant fodder.
- Medium rainfall areas (75-150 cm): Eastern UP, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh (east), and Vidarbha in Maharashtra support rice (higher rainfall), wheat (lower rainfall), maize, soybeans, and cotton.
- Low rainfall areas (25-75 cm): Semi-arid stretches cultivate millets, jowar, bajra, ragi, and oilseeds. Wheat is grown in irrigated tracts, and mixed cropping with pulses is common to reduce risk.
Soil: Each soil type has its own crop preference. Clayey soils favour rice, loamy soils suit wheat, and black regur soils of the Deccan are perfect for cotton. Coarse grains thrive in lighter soils, while delta soils of Bengal, renewed by annual floods, make jute cultivation ideal. In Darjeeling, the humus-rich soils nurture tea plantations.

Economic Factors

Irrigation: Areas with strong irrigation support multiple crops annually—rice in southern belts, wheat in the north, while coarse grains receive less attention.
Size of Landholdings: Small farmers often grow subsistence crops like food grains, while larger holdings allow for cash crops and commercial farming. Still, monocultures of rice and wheat dominate many large farms.
Risk and Insurance: Access to crop insurance influences patterns. Plantation crops in southern states, for example, expanded because insurance schemes made them less risky.
Inputs and Infrastructure: Seeds, fertilisers, water storage, transport, and market access play a big role in deciding what farmers grow.
Value and Demand: High-value crops like apples are replacing millets in Himachal and Uttarakhand. Similarly, rice dominates in densely populated regions because of high demand and assured markets.

Political Factors

Government policies often Cropping Patterns in India. Legislation like Food Crops Acts, subsidies, or land reforms can push farmers toward certain crops. The Minimum Support Price (MSP) system has made rice and wheat dominant, leading to monocultures in many regions. In times of drought or inflation, policies shift again, encouraging or discouraging specific crops.

Historical Factors

Tea plantations in Assam and Kangra Valley trace back to British times. Sugarcane expanded in North India because colonial rulers promoted it as a replacement for indigo when artificial dyes killed its market.

Post-Green Revolution, the surplus production of rice and wheat shifted the focus to diversification. Oilseeds and pulses gained more space in fields, marking a new chapter in India’s cropping story.

Cropping Pattern in India FAQs

Q1: What is meant by the cropping pattern?

Ans: Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of land under different crops and the arrangement or sequence of crops cultivated in an area over time.

Q2: What are the major cropping seasons in India?

Ans: India has three main cropping seasons: Kharif (June–October), Rabi (October–March), and Zaid (April–June).

Q3: Which factors influence cropping patterns in India?

Ans: Climate, soil type, rainfall, irrigation, technology, government policies, market demand, and socio-economic conditions affect cropping patterns.

Q4: What is the difference between cropping pattern and cropping system?

Ans: Cropping pattern is the distribution of crops in time and space, while the cropping system includes techniques like intercropping, crop rotation, and mixed farming.

Q5: Which are the main crops grown in India?

Ans: Rice, wheat, maize, millets, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, and plantation crops like tea and coffee dominate Indian agriculture.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, List, Map, Area, Importance

January 2, 2026

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India are special places where animals can live safely without human interference. These protected areas are designed to keep the natural habitats of animals safe, where activities like hunting, poaching, and trapping are strictly forbidden. India is home to a wide variety of these protected spaces, from lush forests and dense jungles to riverbanks and majestic mountains. Each sanctuary reflects the country’s commitment to preserving its incredible wildlife and diverse landscapes.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India is a specially protected area dedicated to the preservation of both flora and fauna. These sanctuaries are established as natural habitats where tourism is typically restricted, focusing on undisturbed conservation. The inception of these protected zones began with the Wildlife Protection Act of 1947, with further reinforcements introduced through the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, which empowered state governments to officially designate ecologically significant regions as sanctuaries.

India now boasts approximately 553 wildlife sanctuaries that collectively cover around 119,776 square kilometers. Among these, 51 are designated as tiger reserves, primarily serving as safe place for Bengal tigers. Classified under IUCN Category IV, these sanctuaries aim to safeguard ecosystems with high ecological, geomorphologic, and natural significance, reinforcing India's commitment to wildlife preservation.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Provisions

Wildlife Sanctuaries are notified by State Governments under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 to conserve wild animals, habitats, and biodiversity.
Constitutional backing is provided through Article 48A and Article 51A(g), making wildlife protection a State duty and citizen responsibility.
Entry, hunting, exploitation of wildlife, forest produce removal, and setting fires are strictly regulated or prohibited.
Certain traditional rights of local communities may continue, and relocation is not compulsory.
Sanctuaries are managed by State Forest Departments under the Chief Wildlife Warden.
Eco-Sensitive Zones may be declared around sanctuaries to control developmental activities.
Violations attract penalties including imprisonment and fines, with stricter punishment for offences involving endangered species.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

The following table provides an updated List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, specifying their respective states and union territories along with the area they cover.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India
S.No.	State & UT	State Area (km²)	No. of Wildlife Sanctuary	Area (km²)	% of State Area
1.	Andhra Pradesh	160229	13	6771.40	4.23
2.	Arunachal Pradesh	83743	13	7614.56	9.09
3.	Assam	78438	17	1728.95	2.20
4.	Bihar	94163	12	2851.67	3.03
5.	Chhattisgarh	135191	11	3760.28	2.78
6.	Goa	3702	6	647.91	17.50
7.	Gujarat	196022	23	16618.42	8.48
8.	Haryana	44212	7	118.21	0.27
9.	Himachal Pradesh	55673	28	6115.97	10.99
10.	Jharkhand	79714	11	1955.82	2.45
11.	Karnataka	191791	38	8216.69	4.28
12.	Kerala	38863	18	2156.21	5.55
13.	Madhya Pradesh	308245	24	7046.19	2.29
14.	Maharashtra	307713	49	7861.70	2.55
15.	Manipur	22327	7	708.14	3.17
16.	Meghalaya	22429	4	94.11	0.42
17.	Mizoram	21081	9	1359.75	6.45
18.	Nagaland	16579	4	43.91	0.26
19.	Odisha	155707	19	7094.65	4.56
20.	Punjab	50362	13	326.60	0.65
21.	Rajasthan	342239	25	5592.38	1.63
22.	Sikkim	7096	7	399.10	5.62
23.	Tamil Nadu	130058	33	7096.54	5.46
24.	Telangana	114840	9	5672.70	4.94
25.	Tripura	10486	4	603.64	5.76
26.	Uttar Pradesh	240928	26	5822.20	2.42
27.	Uttarakhand	53483	7	2690.12	5.03
28.	West Bengal	88752	16	1440.18	1.62
29.	Andaman & Nicobar	8249	97	395.60	4.80
30.	Chandigarh	114	2	26.01	22.82
31.	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	491	1	92.17	18.77
32.	Daman & Diu	112	1	2.19	1.96
33.	Delhi	1483	1	19.61	1.32
34.	Jammu & Kashmir	163090	14	1815.04	1.11
35.	Ladakh	59146	2	9000.00	15.22
36.	Lakshadweep	32	1	0.01	0.03
37.	Puducherry	480	1	3.90	0.81
	TOTAL	3287263	573	123762.56	3.76

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map

The Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map highlights the locations of over 570 Wildlife Sanctuaries across India including deserts and wetlands to forests and mangroves. Major clusters are visible in states like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Kerala, and Madhya Pradesh, as well as the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

10 Largest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

The 10 Largest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India cover vast and diverse ecosystems, ranging from arid deserts to dense forests and mangrove wetlands. These sanctuaries play a crucial role in conserving endangered species, maintaining ecological balance, and protecting India’s rich biodiversity.

Rank	Wildlife Sanctuary	Area (km²)	Location
1	Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary	7,506.22	Gujarat
2	Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary	4,954	Gujarat
3	Desert National Park	3,162	Rajasthan
4	Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary	1,222	Maharashtra
5	Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary	914.02	Chhattisgarh
6	Manas Wildlife Sanctuary	950	Assam
7	Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary	423.55	Maharashtra
8	Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary	492.46	Karnataka
9	Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary	3,568	Andhra Pradesh
10	Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuary	362.4	West Bengal

10 Smallest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

The 10 Smallest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India occupy limited geographical areas but play a vital role in protecting region-specific flora and fauna. Despite their small size, they significantly contribute to biodiversity conservation, bird protection, and local ecological balance.

Rank	Wildlife Sanctuary	Area (km²)	Location
1	Mayureshwar Wildlife Sanctuary	5.14	Maharashtra
2	Bor Wildlife Sanctuary	61.1	Maharashtra
3	Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary	15.53	Odisha
4	Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary	7.98	Goa
5	Mahavir Swami Wildlife Sanctuary	5.4	Uttar Pradesh
6	Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary	635.4	Telangana
7	Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary	38.8	Assam
8	Kutch Bustard Sanctuary	2	Gujarat
9	Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary	3	Punjab
10	Thol Wildlife Sanctuary	7	Gujarat

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India State Wise List

Below is the complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India according to the states.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India State Wise List
S No.	States	Wildlife Sanctuaries
1.	Assam	Nambor Wildlife Sanctuary
		Dihing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary
		East Karbi Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary
		Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary
2.	Bihar	Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary
		Gautam Budha Wildlife Sanctuary
		Pant (Rajgir) Wildlife Sanctuary
		Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary
3.	Chhatisgarh	Bhairamgarh Wildlife Sanctuary
		Badalkhol Wildlife Sanctuary
		Bhoramdev Wildlife Sanctuary
		Udanti Wild Buffalo Wildlife Sanctuary
4.	Goa	Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary
4.	Goa	Madei Wildlife Sanctuary
5.	Gujarat	Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary
		Porbandar Lake Wildlife Sanctuary
		Jambugodha Wildlife Sanctuary
		Wild Ass Wildlife Sanctuary
		Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary
		Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary
		Sasan Gir Sanctuary
		Mitiyala Wildlife Sanctuary
6.	Haryana	Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary
		N Khaparwas Wildlife Sanctuary
		Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary
7.	Himachal Pradesh	Bandli Wildlife Sanctuary
		Daranghati Wildlife Sanctuary
		Dhauladhar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Talra Wildlife Sanctuary
		Pong Dam Lake Wildlife Sanctuary
		Nargu Wildlife Sanctuary
9.	Jharkhand	Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary
		Parasnath Wildlife Sanctuary
		Palkot Wildlife Sanctuary
10.	Karnataka	Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary
		Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
		Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary
		Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary
		Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary
		Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary
		Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary
11.	Kerala	Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary
		Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary
		Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary
12.	Madhya Pradesh	Bori Wildlife Sanctuary
		Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Ken Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary
		National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary
		Orcha Wildlife Sanctuary
13.	Maharashtra	Koyana Wildlife Sanctuary
		Painganga Wildlife Sanctuary
		Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Great Indian Bustard Wildlife Sanctuary
14.	Manipur	Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary
15.	Meghalaya	—
16.	Mizoram	Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary (TR)
		Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary
		Baghmara Pitcher Plant Wildlife Sanctuary
17.	Nagaland	Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary
17.	Nagaland	Rangapahar Wildlife Sanctuary
18.	Odisha	Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chilika (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary
		Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary
		Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary
19.	Punjab	Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Harike Lake Wildlife Sanctuary
		Jhajjar Bacholi Wildlife Sanctuary
20.	Rajasthan	Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary
		Jawahar Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary
		Ramsagar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Shergarh Wildlife Sanctuary
21.	Sikkim	Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary
		Kitam Wildlife Sanctuary (Bird)
		Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary
22.	Tamil Nadu	Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) Wildlife Sanctuary
		Karaivetti Wildlife Sanctuary
		Pulicat Lake Wildlife Sanctuary
		Vedanthangal Wildlife Sanctuary
		Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary
23.	Tripura	Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary
		Rowa Wildlife Sanctuary
		Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary
24.	Uttarakhand	Askot Musk Deer Wildlife Sanctuary
		Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary
		Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary
25.	Uttar Pradesh	Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary
		Ranipur Wildlife Sanctuary
		Sohagibarwa Wildlife Sanctuary
		Sur Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary
		National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary
26.	West Bengal	Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chintamani Kar Bird Sanctuary
		Haliday Island Wildlife Sanctuary
		Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary
		Lothian Island Wildlife Sanctuary
		Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Union Territory List

Below is the complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India according to the Union Territory.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Union Territory List
S No.	UTs	Wildlife Sanctuary
1.	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Bamboo Island Wildlife Sanctuary
		Barren Island Wildlife Sanctuary
		Chanel Island Wildlife Sanctuary
		Peacock Island Wildlife Sanctuary
		Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary
2.	Jammu & Kashmir	Gulmarg Wildlife Sanctuary
		Limber Wildlife Sanctuary
		Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary
3.	Lakshadweep	Pitti Wildlife Sanctuary (Bird)
4.	Dadra Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	Dadra & Nagar Haveli Wildlife Sanctuary
		Fudam Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Importance

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India serve as indispensable sanctuaries not only for animals but also for entire ecosystems. Acting as protected areas, these sanctuaries shield endangered species, natural landscapes, and even indigenous cultures from external threats. As vital resources for both nature and humanity, their conservation is crucial.

Protecting Endangered Species

Relocating endangered species is both costly and challenging, which is why preserving them in their natural habitat is essential. Sanctuaries enable these species to survive in an environment free from the risks of poaching and habitat destruction. Here, under the careful watch of sanctuary staff, species can breed, adapt, and grow their populations naturally. For researchers and biologists, sanctuaries provide a unique opportunity to study animal behaviors in a natural setting without disrupting their way of life.

Safeguarding Landscapes and Ecosystems

With urban expansion on the rise, natural forests are increasingly under threat. Wildlife Sanctuaries in India combat this trend by protecting forested areas and allowing natural landscapes to flourish. From dense forests to serene rivers, valleys, and waterfalls, these protected zones maintain essential features of our environment.

Preserving Indigenous Cultures

For many indigenous tribes, sanctuaries represent both home and heritage. Certain tribes, such as Odisha’s Saara Adivasis, have coexisted with nature for centuries, sustaining forest ecosystems through traditional practices. Sanctuaries not only protect the biodiversity within them but also help preserve these communities' cultures and ways of life. Free from the pressures of urban development, these tribes can continue their customs, which, in turn, support forest conservation.

Conserving Biodiversity

Human activity has posed significant threats to global biodiversity. Sanctuaries offer a haven where ecosystems can exist without interference. Often described as in-situ conservation, sanctuaries maintain the natural balance, supporting ecosystems in their original configuration, thereby aiding species diversity and ecological health.

Promoting Ecotourism

Ecotourism has grown as more people seek meaningful travel experiences that support environmental conservation. Wildlife Sanctuaries in India provide a setting where people can observe animals in their natural, cage-free surroundings, often with their young, unhindered by the limitations of captivity. The revenue generated from ecotourism supports conservation efforts and aids in sanctuary development, creating a cycle where tourism funds the very habitats tourists come to appreciate.

Also Check Other Posts
Biosphere Reserves in India	National Parks in India
Waterfalls in India	Highest Peak in India
Ramsar Sites in India	Wildlife Sanctuaries in India
Dams in India	Tiger Reserves in India
Mountain Passes in India	Longest Bridge in India

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India FAQs

Q1: How many wildlife sanctuaries are there in India?

Ans: There are 573 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 123,762.56 km2, which is 3.76% of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database Centre, Nov. 2023).

Q2: Which is the 1st wildlife sanctuary in India?

Ans: The first wildlife sanctuary established in India is Manas National Park, also known as Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.

Q3: Which is the largest wildlife sanctuary of India?

Ans: The Ranthambore National Park, located in the state of Rajasthan, is the largest wildlife sanctuary in India. It serves as a national reserve for the tigers.

Q4: Which is the famous wildlife sanctuary in India?

Ans: Corbett National Park, located in Uttarakhand, is widely regarded as the oldest wildlife sanctuary in India, established in 1936. It's famous for its Bengal tiger population and was named after Jim Corbett.

Q5: Which is the largest wildlife sanctuary in the world?

Ans: Northeast Greenland National Park is the largest terrestrial protected area in the world, encompassing a massive 972,000 sq.km. (375,000 sq mi) in eastern Greenland.

Goods and Services Tax, History, Components, Benefits

January 2, 2026

The Goods and Services Tax was an important reform introduced on 1st July 2017 by the Government of India to reform the indirect tax structure of the country. This new initiative also helped in improving Ease of Doing Business (EoDB) of India as well as unified and simplified the existing tax system. In this article, we are going to study about the Goods and Services Tax, its features, objectives and benefits.

Goods and Services Tax (GST)

Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services for domestic consumption across India.
While consumers pay this tax at the point of purchase, it is collected and deposited with the government by the businesses providing these goods and services. GST has unified and replaced a range of previous indirect taxes levied by both the Central and State Governments.
It is implemented nationwide and is based on the principle of value addition at each stage of the supply chain.

GST History and Evolution in India

The Kelkar Task Force on Indirect Tax, suggested the implementation of Goods and Services Tax in 2003, on the lines of Value Added Tax.
In 2006, the National Goods and Services Tax implementation was suggested in the Budget Speech.
The ‘One Nation One Tax’ system bill was introduced in 2014 as the 122nd Amendment. The bill got passed in 2016.
The Goods and Services Tax was finally implemented in India on 1st July 2017.

Goods and Services Tax Constitutional Framework

In 2014, the Goods and Services Tax was introduced in the Parliament in order to provide it a constitutional status. The bill got passed in 2016 as the Constitutional 101st Amendment Act. This amendment brought in 3 new articles to the constitution:

Article 246A- The Parliament and State Legislatures both get concurrent powers to make laws about GST. The Parliament will have the power to legislate in inter state trade of goods and services.
Article 269A- the inter-state trade is collected by the central government and then distributed between the centre and state on the basis of the numbers recommended by the GST Council.
Article 279A- The President of India has the power to outline the functioning and composition of the GST Council.

Goods and Services Tax Features

Tax on Supply, Not Sale or Manufacture:
GST is levied on the supply of goods and services, unlike the earlier regime where tax was imposed at multiple stages like manufacture or sale.
Destination-Based Consumption Tax:
GST follows the destination principle—tax revenue goes to the state where goods or services are consumed, not where they are produced.
Dual GST Structure:
India has adopted a dual model, allowing both the Centre and States to levy GST simultaneously on a common base.
Four Components of GST:

CGST (Central Goods & Services Tax)
SGST (State Goods & Services Tax)
UTGST (Union Territory GST)
IGST (Integrated GST on inter-state supply)

Harmonised Tax Rates:
Tax rates are finalized through mutual agreement between the Centre and States, based on GST Council recommendations.
Multiple Tax Slabs:
Different goods and services are taxed under various slabs—currently, 7 for goods and 5 for services.
Threshold Exemptions:
Small businesses with turnover below specified limits are exempt from GST. The exact exemption threshold varies by category and region.

Goods and Services Tax Components

The Goods and Services Tax can be be divided into 4 components:

Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST)

Levied on intra-state and intra-UT on Goods and services.
The Central Government can levy as well as collect this tax.
All the transactions occurring all over India are to charge this tax alongside the State GST.
CGST is charged uniformly all over the country.

State Goods and Services Tax (SGST)

The State Government levies and collects this tax from their respective states.
Applied on all transactions happening in the state along with CGST.
The state government has the power to decide their own rates.

Union Territories Goods and Services Tax (UTGST)

The Union Territory that has its own legislature can collect this tax.
CGST is also collected alongside the UT translation.
Each union territory has the authority to decide their own GST rates.

Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST)

Levied on inter-state supply of goods and services. This is also known as a combined tax.
The central government levies and collects this tax and the collected amount is distributed between the centre and the state.
The IGST rate remains uniform all over the country.

Indirect Taxes Subsumed under GST

The following indirect taxes are subsumed under the GST:

Central Taxes Subsumed under GST

The Goods and Services Tax replaced the following taxes levied and collected by the Centre:

Service Tax
Central Sales Tax
Central Excise Duty
Duties of Excise (Medicinal and Toiletries Preparations)
Additional Duties of Excise (Goods of Special Importance)
Additional Duties of Excise (Textiles and Textile Products)
Additional Duties of Customs (commonly known as CVD)
Special Additional Duty of Customs (SAD)
Central Surcharges and Cess, so far as they relate to the supply of goods and services.

State Taxes Subsumed under GST

State taxes subsumed under the Goods and Services Tax are:

State VAT/Sales Tax
Purchase Tax
Entertainment and Amusement Tax (other than those levied by the local bodies)
Luxury Tax
Octroi Duty and all other forms of Entry Tax
Taxes on lotteries, betting and gambling
Mandi Tax
Taxes on advertisements
State Surcharges and Cess, so far as they relate to the supply of goods and services.

Taxes Exempted from GST

While maximum indirect taxes have been subsumed under the Goods and Services tax, there are a few taxes that still stand independent. These taxes are:

Basic Customs Duty charged on goods imported in India.
Surcharge on Customs Duty.
Customs Cess.
Motor Vehicle Tax.
Stamp Duty.
Excise Duty on Liquor (which is levied by State Governments)
Excise Duty on Petroleum Products (which is levied by Central Government)
VAT on Petroleum Products
VAT on Tobacco Products
Anti-Dumping Duty and Safeguard Duty
Toll Tax and Entertainment Tax levied by Local Bodies

Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council)

The 101st Constitutional Amendment Act introduced Article 279A, empowering the President to establish the GST Council to oversee the implementation and administration of the GST framework in India.

The GST Council plays a central role in recommending key aspects of GST—such as tax rates, exemptions, laws, and procedural rules.

To explore the composition, functioning, and powers of the GST Council in detail, refer to our comprehensive article on the GST Council.

Goods and Services Tax Benefits

The implementation of Goods and Services taxes had the following benefits:

Establishment of a Unified National Market: By subsuming numerous Central and State taxes into a single tax structure, GST has facilitated the formation of a seamless national market.
Elimination of Cascading Taxes: GST has removed the burden of tax-on-tax, thereby reducing overall tax incidence and improving business efficiency.
Boost to Competitiveness: Lower indirect tax rates have enhanced the cost competitiveness of Indian goods and services, both domestically and globally.

For Business and Industry

Simplified Compliance: GST is supported by a robust IT infrastructure, streamlining return filing and tax payments.
Uniform Taxation: Harmonized tax rates and structures across the country bring predictability and reduce complexities.
Enhanced Competitiveness: Lower transaction costs and removal of cascading taxes improve overall business efficiency and competitiveness.

For Central and State Governments

Simplified Administration: Replaces multiple indirect taxes with a single tax, making the system easier to manage through a unified digital platform.
Reduced Tax Evasion: Digital trail and simplified procedures enhance transparency and reduce leakages.
Improved Revenue Efficiency: Lower cost of tax collection and increased compliance lead to more efficient revenue mobilization.

For Consumers

Lower Tax Burden: Elimination of tax-on-tax and rationalized rates reduce the overall tax burden on goods and services.
Price Stability: Transparency and efficiency help curb inflationary pressures, offering relief to end consumers.

For States

Wider Tax Base: States can now tax the full value chain, including services, expanding their revenue scope.
Greater Revenue Autonomy: Empowered to tax the fast-growing service sector, boosting state revenues.
Investment Boost: As a destination-based tax, GST benefits consuming states and enhances the investment climate.
Higher Compliance: Uniform tax rates across states discourage tax arbitrage and improve tax discipline.

Goods and Services Tax FAQs

Q1: What is the meaning of Goods and Services Tax?

Ans: GST is a comprehensive indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services across India.

Q2: What is the GST tax in India?

Ans: GST in India is a multi-stage, destination-based tax that replaces multiple indirect taxes and is levied at every point of sale.

Q3: How can I check my GST status online?

Ans: You can check your GST status on the official GST portal: www.gst.gov.in using your GSTIN or PAN.

Q4: Who heads the GST Council?

Ans: The Union Finance Minister is the Chairperson of the GST Council.

Q5: What are the benefits of GST implementation?

Ans: GST simplifies taxation, reduces tax cascading, promotes ease of doing business, and creates a unified national market.

World Trade Organisation, Objectives, Evolution, Principles

January 2, 2026

The World Trade Organisation is responsible for managing global trade by ensuring fair and free trade, resolving related disputes and working towards ensuring economic growth. In this article, we are going to cover all details about the World Trade Organisation, its history, objectives, structure and other relevant information.

World Trade Organisation Overview

The World Trade Organisation was established in 1995 as a global multilateral organisation that would make and implement rules for trading between nations of the world.

The responsibility of the WTO is to promote and manage free trade.
It acts as a forum for governments across the world to negotiate free trade agreements and manage trade disputes.
Helps producers conduct international business smoothly.
At present, the WTO consists of
- 164 members (including European Union), and
- 23 observer governments (like Iraq, Iran, Bhutan, Libya etc).

Key Objectives of WTO

The objectives of World Trade Organisations are:

To establish and uphold rules governing international trade, with the aim of promoting global economic growth and generating employment opportunities.
To serve as a platform for negotiations and oversight, facilitating further trade liberalisation by lowering trade barriers and ensuring fair, non-discriminatory practices.
To provide a structured mechanism for resolving trade disputes, thereby fostering global peace, economic predictability, and geopolitical stability.
To enhance the transparency of trade-related decision-making, empowering smaller and developing nations with a stronger voice in global trade governance.
To collaborate with other key international economic institutions, ensuring coordinated and effective management of the global economy.
To support developing countries in fully leveraging the benefits of the global trading system, thus reducing their operational costs and improving integration into global markets.
To promote good governance by minimising arbitrariness, encouraging the use of clear, consistent, and rules-based approaches in trade administration.

World Trade Organisation Evolution

The World Trade Organisation’s history dates back to 1945 and officially came into existence in 1995.

Idea of International Trade Organisation (ITO)

The idea behind creating the International Trade Organisation came through the western countries to manage the trade side of international economic cooperation.
Apart from “Bretton woods” and UN specialised agency, WTO became the third international institution in the world.
However, the major countries, including the USA, failed to get this treaty ratified in their respective legislatures.
- Thus, this treaty became a dead letter.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947 and came into effect on January 1, 1948, with the signing of 23 founding countries in Geneva. Its primary objective was to gradually eliminate import quotas and reduce tariffs on merchandise trade to promote freer and fairer global trade.

From 1948 to 1994, GATT served as the primary framework governing most of the world’s trade in goods. It laid the foundation for multilateral trade rules and negotiations across successive trade rounds.

Uruguay Round (1986–1994)

As international trade became more complex, GATT’s mechanisms proved inadequate to address emerging issues in services, intellectual property, and dispute resolution.

The Uruguay Round, held from 1986 to 1994, was the most comprehensive and ambitious of all GATT trade negotiations. It not only expanded the scope of trade talks but also led to the creation of a more robust global trade body—the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The WTO Era

The WTO was formally established through the Marrakesh Agreement in April 1994, during a ministerial conference held in Marrakesh, Morocco. This marked a transition from GATT to the WTO regime, which came into force on January 1, 1995.

The original GATT contracting parties automatically became members of the WTO. The agreement was subsequently opened for accession by other countries, making the WTO a truly global organisation for regulating international trade in goods, services, and intellectual property.

India and World Trade Organisation

India was a member of GATT since 1948 and also the founding member of the World Trade Organisation.

Organisational Structure of WTO

The organisational structure of WTO consists of the Ministerial Conference, General Council, director general, trade policy review body etc.

Ministerial Council (MC)

The Ministerial Conference is the topmost structural organisation of WTO and acts as a supreme governing body that makes all the decisions. It consists of all ministers of trade of all countries who are also the members of WTO.
The conference is conducted every 2 years.

General Council (GC)

The WTO General Council is located in Geneva and is considered to the highest level decision making body. The council meets frequently to carry out the functions of World Trade Organisation. All the representatives are members of the council and they act on behalf of the Ministerial Conference. The Council is also responsible for acting as the Dispute Settlement Body as well as the Trade Policy Review Body.

Three Councils of WTO

The General Council has three WTO councils under it. These councils are:

Council for Trade in Goods,
Council for Trade in Services, and
Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

Director General (DG)

The administration of the World Trade Organisation is conducted by the Secretariat, headed by the Director General (DG)
The Director General (DG) is appointed by the Ministerial Conference (MC) for a tenure of four years.
The Director General (DG) is assisted by the four Deputy Directors from different member countries.

Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB)

The General Council meets as the Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB) to undertake trade policy reviews of members under the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) and to consider the Director-General’s regular reports on trade policy development.
Thus, the TPRB is open to all the members of the WTO.

Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)

The General Council convenes itself as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) to deliberate upon and resolve the disputes among the WTO members.
Such disputes may arise w.r.t. any agreement contained in the Final Act of the Uruguay Round that is subject to the Understanding of Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU).
The DSB has the authority to:
- establish dispute settlement panels,
- refer matters to arbitration,
- adopt panel, Appellate Body and arbitration reports,
- maintain surveillance over the implementation of recommendations and rulings contained in such reports, and
- authorized suspension of concessions in the event of non-compliance with those recommendations and rulings.

Appellate Body

The Appellate Body was established in 1995 under Article 17 of the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU).
The DSB appoints persons to serve on the Appellate Body for a term of four years.
It is a standing (permanent) body of 7 persons that hears appeals from reports issued by panels in disputes brought by members of the World Trade Organisation.
The Appellate Body can uphold, reverse or modify the legal findings and conclusions of a panel.
Once adopted by the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), the reports of the Appellate Body must be accepted by the parties to the dispute.
The seat of the Appellate Body is in Geneva, Switzerland.

Principles of World Trade Organisation

The WTO is guided by a set of foundational principles that aim to ensure a fair, predictable, and transparent international trading system. These principles are enshrined in the WTO Agreement and serve as the bedrock for global trade governance.

1. Non-Discrimination

Non-discrimination lies at the heart of the WTO’s multilateral trading system. It is intended to prevent unfair treatment among trading partners and promote equal opportunity in global trade.

a. Most Favoured Nation (MFN)

Under the MFN principle, if a WTO member grants a trade advantage (like a reduced customs duty) to one country, it must extend the same benefit to all other WTO members.
This principle applies to trade in goods, services, and aspects of intellectual property.

Exceptions to MFN:

Formation of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and customs unions.
Special market access for developing and least developed countries (LDCs).
Anti-dumping and countervailing measures against unfair trade practices.
Limited discriminatory treatment in services under specific conditions.

b. National Treatment

Once goods have entered a country, they must be treated no less favourably than domestically-produced goods.
This applies equally to services and intellectual property (trademarks, patents, copyrights).
The principle ensures imported and local products compete on a level playing field after entry into the domestic market.

2. Free Trade and Market Access

One of the WTO’s primary objectives is to liberalise trade by reducing barriers to market entry.

a. Tariff Barriers

Countries commit to reducing and "binding" tariffs at agreed levels.
A bound tariff is a legally committed ceiling beyond which the tariff cannot be raised.
The Uruguay Round led to extensive tariff binding across sectors.

b. Non-Tariff Barriers

These include quotas, lack of transparency in trade policies, complex customs procedures, technical standards, and government procurement biases.
WTO rules discourage or prohibit such barriers unless justified under specific conditions.
Only duties, taxes, and safeguards are permitted under defined circumstances.

3. Promoting Fair Competition

WTO rules ensure that trade is conducted in a fair, predictable, and transparent manner.

Equal treatment is mandated through MFN and national treatment provisions.
The system guards against unfair trade practices such as dumping (selling goods at unfairly low prices) and the use of export subsidies that distort competition.
Members can impose anti-dumping duties or countervailing measures after due investigation and adherence to WTO norms.

4. Special and Differential Treatment for Developing Countries

Recognising disparities in economic development, WTO agreements provide flexibility and support to developing and least-developed countries.

Key Provisions Include:

Longer timelines for implementing commitments.
Preferential market access in developed countries.
Technical assistance and capacity-building measures.
Requirements for developed nations to consider the developmental impact of their trade policies on poorer countries.

WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism

The WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism includes members of World Trade Organisation. The detailed process of Dispute Settlement by the World Trade Organisation is as follows:

Process of Dispute Settlement

First stage: Consultation up to 60 days, aimed at settling the trade disputes through conciliation.
Second stage (up to 1 year): In case the consultations fails to settle the dispute, the DSB forms a Dispute Panel.
- The report of the Dispute Panel can be rejected only through consensus among the DSB members.
Appeal Stage: Either side can appeal the Dispute Panel’s ruling.
- Each appeal is heard by three members of a permanent 7-membered Appellate Body.
- The Appellate Body can uphold, reverse or modify the Dispte Panel’s rulings.
- The Dispute Settlement Body has to accept or reject the report of the Appeallate Body; Rejection of its report is only possible by consensus.

Present Issue with Dispute Settlement Mechanism

The sanctioned strength of the Appellate Body (AB) is seven members.
The Appellate Body members are appointed through consensus among the member countries.
The AB must have a quorum of 3 judges to hear a particular case.
The US has been blocking appointments of members to the Appellate Body (AB) as it feels that the AB is “unfair” and biased against it.
Since December 10, 2019, the AB has been left with only 1 Judge and the quorum required to hear a case is minimum 3 judges. Hence, the Appellate Body has become dysfunctional.

World Trade Organisation FAQs

Q1: What is the World Trade Organization?

Ans: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a global intergovernmental body that regulates international trade rules among member nations.

Q2: What are the 6 objectives of WTO?

Ans: The WTO aims to promote free trade, ensure non-discrimination, resolve trade disputes, enhance transparency, support developing countries, and cooperate with global economic institutions.

Q3: Who established the WTO?

Ans: The WTO was established by the participating countries of the Uruguay Round through the Marrakesh Agreement in 1994.

Q4: Is India a member of WTO?

Ans: Yes, India is a founding member of the WTO and has been part of the global trading system since its inception in 1995.

Q5: When was WTO established?

Ans: The WTO was officially established on 1st January 1995.

List of Countries With the Most Time Zones, Country Wise Time zone

January 2, 2026

Time Zones play a crucial role in maintaining global synchronisation, affecting everything from international trade to travel and communication. While most countries operate within one or two time zones, some nations span vast geographic areas or possess overseas territories, necessitating the management of multiple time zones.

France leads the world with 12 Time Zones, primarily due to its numerous overseas departments and territories. Russia and the United States follow closely, each encompassing 11 Time Zones owing to their expansive mainland regions and distant holdings.

Why Time Zones Matter

A Time Zone is a geographic region that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Most time zones are defined by their offset from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), such as UTC+5:30 for India. The global system of time zones ensures synchronisation across countries and continents, especially in sectors like aviation, international trade, and broadcasting.

Several factors contribute to a country having multiple time zones:

Large east-west landmass (e.g., Russia, USA)
Overseas territories scattered across the globe (e.g., France, UK)
Seasonal changes due to Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Administrative and political divisions

List of Countries With Most Time Zones 2025

Time Zones are established based on one or more deviations from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). In certain regions, these deviations vary according to specific dates due to the implementation of daylight saving time (DST). As a result, such regions may alternate between time offsets throughout the year. The range of UTC offsets extends from UTC−12:00 to UTC+14:00, commonly measured in full-hour increments. However, a few regions, such as India (UTC+5:30), South Australia (UTC+9:30), and Nepal (UTC+5:45), follow non-standard offsets of 30 or 45 minutes.

The table below includes the List of Countries With Most Time Zones 2025:

List of Countries With Most Time Zones 2025
S. No.	Countries	No. of time zones	Time zone
1	France	12	UTC−10:00 — Society Islands, Tuamotus, Austral Islands UTC−09:30 — Marquesas Islands UTC−09:00 — Gambier Islands UTC−08:00 — Clipperton Island UTC−04:00 (AST) — Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin UTC−03:00 (PMST)— French Guiana, Saint Pierre and Miquelon UTC+01:00 (CET) — metropolitan France UTC+03:00 — Mayotte, Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean UTC+04:00 — Réunion, Crozet Islands UTC+05:00 — Kerguelen Islands, Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands UTC+11:00 — New Caledonia UTC+12:00 — Wallis and Futuna
2	Russia	11	UTC+02:00 (Kaliningrad Time) — Kaliningrad Oblast UTC+03:00 (Moscow Time) — Most of European Russia UTC+04:00 (Samara Time) — Astrakhan Oblast, Samara Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Udmurtia, and Ulyanovsk Oblast UTC+05:00 (Yekaterinburg Time) — Bashkortostan, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Khanty–Mansia, Kurgan Oblast, Orenburg Oblast, Perm Krai, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Tyumen Oblast, and Yamalia UTC+06:00 (Omsk Time) — Omsk Oblast UTC+07:00 (Krasnoyarsk Time) — Altai Krai, Altai Republic, Kemerovo Oblast, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Novosibirsk Oblast, Tomsk Oblast, and Tuva UTC+08:00 (Irkutsk Time) — Buryatia and Irkutsk Oblast UTC+09:00 (Yakutsk Time) — Amur Oblast, western Sakha Republic, and Zabaykalsky Krai UTC+10:00 (Vladivostok Time) — Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, Primorsky Krai, and central Sakha Republic UTC+11:00 (Magadan Time) — Magadan Oblast, eastern Sakha, and Sakhalin Oblast UTC+12:00 (Kamchatka Time) — Chukotka and Kamchatka Krai
3	United States	11	UTC−12:00 (AoE) — Baker Island and Howland Island UTC−11:00 (ST) — American Samoa, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll and Palmyra Atoll UTC−10:00 (HT) — Hawaii, most of the Aleutian Islands, and Johnston Atoll UTC−09:00 (AKT) — most of the state of Alaska UTC−08:00 (PT) — Pacific Time zone: the Pacific coast states, the Idaho Panhandle and most of Nevada and Oregon UTC−07:00 (MT) — Mountain Time zone: most of Idaho, part of Oregon, and the Mountain states plus western parts of some adjacent states UTC−06:00 (CT) — Central Time zone: a large area spanning from the Gulf Coast to the Great Lakes UTC−05:00 (ET) — Eastern Time zone: roughly a triangle covering all the states from the Great Lakes down to Florida and east to the Atlantic coast UTC−04:00 (AST) — Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands UTC+10:00 (ChT) — Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands UTC+12:00 (WAKT) — Wake Island
4	Antarctica	9	UTC−03:00 (ART) — Palmer Station, Rothera Station UTC±00:00 (GMT) — Troll Station UTC+03:00 — Syowa Station UTC+05:00 — Mawson Station UTC+06:00 — Vostok Station UTC+07:00 — Davis Station UTC+10:00 — Dumont-d'Urville Station UTC+11:00 — Casey Station UTC+12:00 — McMurdo Station, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
5	Australia	9	UTC+05:00 — Heard and McDonald Islands UTC+06:30 — Cocos (Keeling) Islands UTC+07:00 (CXT) — Christmas Island UTC+08:00 (AWST) — Western Australia, Indian Pacific railway when travelling between Port Augusta, South Australia and Kalgoorlie, Western Australia) UTC+08:45 (CWT) – South Australia (Border Village), Western Australia (Caiguna, Cocklebiddy, Eucla, Madura, Mundrabilla) UTC+09:30 (ACST) — South Australia, Northern Territory, New South Wales (Yancowinna County) UTC+10:00 (AEST) — Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, Tasmania UTC+10:30 — Lord Howe Island UTC+11:00 (NFT) — Norfolk Island
6	United Kingdom	9	UTC−08:00 — Pitcairn Islands UTC−05:00 — Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands UTC−04:00 (AST) — Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat UTC−03:00 (FKST) — Falkland Islands UTC−02:00 — South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands UTC±00:00 (GMT in winter/BST in summer) — main territory of the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey UTC+01:00 (CET) — Gibraltar UTC+02:00 (EET) — Akrotiri and Dhekelia UTC+06:00 — British Indian Ocean Territory
7	Canada	6	UTC−08:00 (PT) — larger western part of British Columbia, Tungsten and the associated Cantung Mine in Northwest Territories, Yukon UTC−07:00 (MT) — Alberta, some eastern parts of British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories, Nunavut (west of 102°W and all communities in the Kitikmeot Region), Lloydminster and the surrounding area in Saskatchewan UTC−06:00 (CT)— Manitoba, Nunavut (between 85° West and 102°W except for western Southampton Island), Ontario (Northwestern Ontario west of 90°W with some exceptions and Big Trout Lake area east of 90°W), Saskatchewan except Lloydminster UTC−05:00 (ET) — Nunavut east of 85°W and entire Southampton Island, Ontario east of 90°W (except Big Trout Lake area) plus several more western areas, Quebec (most of the province) UTC−04:00 (AT) — Labrador (all but southeastern tip), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern part of Quebec UTC−03:30 (NT) — Labrador (southeastern), Newfoundland
8	Denmark	5	UTC−04:00 — Pituffik Space Base in Greenland UTC−03:00 — most of Greenland, including inhabited south coast and west coast UTC−01:00 — Ittoqqortoormiit and the surrounding area in Greenland's Tunu county UTC±00:00 — Danmarkshavn weather station and surrounding area in Greenland's Tunu county, Faroe Islands UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of Denmark
9	New Zealand	5	UTC−11:00 — Niue UTC−10:00 — Cook Islands UTC+12:00 — main territory of New Zealand UTC+12:45 — Chatham Islands UTC+13:00 — Tokelau
10	Brazil	4	UTC−05:00 (Brasília time −2) — Acre and Southwestern Amazonas UTC−04:00 (Brasília time −1) — Most part of the Amazonas State, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Rondônia, Roraima UTC−03:00 (Brasília time) — the Southeast Region, the South Region, the Northeast Region (except some islands), Goiás, Distrito Federal, Tocantins, Pará, Amapá UTC−02:00 (Brasília time +1) — A few islands on the east coast of Brazil (Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago)
11	Mexico	4	UTC−08:00 (Zone 4 or Northwest Zone) — the state of Baja California UTC−07:00 (Zone 3 or Pacific Zone) — the states of Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Sinaloa and Sonora UTC−06:00 (Zone 2 or Central Zone) — most of Mexico UTC−05:00 (Zone 1 or Southeast Zone) — the state of Quintana Roo
12	Chile	3	UTC−06:00 — Easter Island UTC−04:00 — main territory of Chile UTC−03:00 — Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica
13	Indonesia	3	UTC+07:00 (Western Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of Sumatra, Java, Madura, provinces of Bangka Belitung Islands, Riau Islands, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan UTC+08:00 (Central Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of Sulawesi, Bali, provinces of East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan and South Kalimantan UTC+09:00 (Eastern Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of the Maluku Islands and Western New Guinea
14	Kiribati	3	UTC+12:00 — Gilbert Islands UTC+13:00 — Phoenix Islands UTC+14:00 — Line Islands
15	Democratic Republic of the Congo	2	UTC+01:00 (WAT) — provinces of Équateur, Kinshasa, Kongo Central, Kwango, Kwilu, Mai-Ndombe, Mongala, Nord-Ubangi, Sud-Ubangi and Tshuapa UTC+02:00 (CAT) — provinces of Bas-Uele, Haut-Katanga, Haut-Lomami, Haut-Uele, Kasaï, Kasaï-Central, Kasaï Oriental, Lomami, Lualaba, Maniema, Nord-Kivu, Sankuru, Sud-Kivu, Tanganyika, Tshopo and Ituri Interim Administration
16	Ecuador	2	UTC−06:00 (GALT) — Galápagos Province UTC−05:00 (Ecuador Time) — main territory of Ecuador
17	Federated States of Micronesia	2	UTC+10:00 — the states of Chuuk and Yap UTC+11:00 — the states of Kosrae and Pohnpei
18	Kazakhstan	2	UTC+05:00 — western Kazakhstan (Aktobe, Atyrau, Kyzylorda, Mangystau and West Kazakhstan) UTC+06:00 — eastern Kazakhstan
19	Kingdom of the Netherlands	2	UTC−04:00 (AST) — Caribbean municipalities and constituent countries UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of the Netherlands
20	Mongolia	2	UTC+07:00 — the provinces of Khovd, Uvs and Bayan-Ölgii UTC+08:00 — most of the country
21	Papua New Guinea	2	UTC+10:00 — most of the country UTC+11:00 — Autonomous Region of Bougainville (Bougainville Standard Time)
22	Portugal	2	UTC−01:00 — Azores UTC±00:00 (WET) — Madeira and the main territory of Portugal
23	South Africa	2	UTC+02:00 (South African Standard Time) — main territory of South Africa UTC+03:00 — Prince Edward Islands
24	Spain	2	UTC±00:00 (WET) — Canary Islands UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of Spain

Top Countries With the Most Time Zones (2025)

France - 12 Time Zones: France surprisingly tops the list, not due to the size of its mainland, but because of its numerous overseas departments and territories spread across the globe. These include territories in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and even Antarctica.

Time zones: UTC−10:00 to UTC+12:00

Russia - 11 Time Zones: As the largest country in the world by area, Russia spans 11 time zones from its western exclave of Kaliningrad to the eastern edge of Kamchatka. Unlike France, all of Russia’s time zones exist within its mainland territory.

Time zones: UTC+02:00 to UTC+12:00

United States - 11 Time Zones: The United States covers a significant expanse and includes several unincorporated territories, which contribute to its 11 time zones.

Time zones: UTC−12:00 to UTC+12:00

Antarctica - 9 Time Zones: Antarctica is unique because it doesn't have a permanent population, yet hosts various research stations operated by different countries. Each station uses the time zone of the country that runs it or the supply base it connects with.

Time zones: UTC−03:00 to UTC+12:00

United Kingdom - 9 Time Zones: Despite being relatively small in size, the UK has numerous overseas territories that contribute to its broad time zone coverage.

Time zones: UTC−08:00 to UTC+06:00

Australia - 9 Time Zones: Australia itself covers three official time zones, but when its external territories are considered, the count rises to nine.

Time zones: UTC+05:00 to UTC+11:00

Canada - 6 Time Zones: Canada spans from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, resulting in six different time zones. Unlike France or the UK, Canada does not have overseas territories, so all time zones are domestic.

Time zones: UTC−08:00 to UTC−03:30

Denmark - 5 Time Zones: Denmark's mainland may follow just one time zone, but its autonomous territories, including Greenland and the Faroe Islands, span several others.

Time zones: UTC−04:00 to UTC+01:00

New Zealand - 5 Time Zones: New Zealand includes several island dependencies, which extend its time zone reach.

Time zones: UTC−11:00 to UTC+13:00

Brazil - 4 Time Zones: Brazil spans four time zones across its continental mass and distant islands. It’s the largest country in South America and follows Brasília Time as the standard.

Time zones: UTC−05:00 to UTC−02:00

List of Countries With the Most Time Zones FAQs

Q1: Which country has the highest number of time zones in 2025?

Ans: France has the most with 12 official time zones, due to its widespread overseas territories.

Q2: How many time zones does India have?

Ans: India has only one official time zone (IST - UTC+5:30) despite spanning over 29 degrees longitude.

Q3: Why does Russia have so many time zones?

Ans: Due to its east-west expanse, Russia requires 11 time zones to align local time with the solar position.

Q4: Does the US observe all its time zones equally?

Ans: No, most mainland operations follow four time zones, while others apply to territories like Guam and Samoa.

Q5: Is there a country with UTC+14:00?

Ans: Yes, Kiribati’s Line Islands use UTC+14:00, making them among the first places to see each new day.

Bomb Cyclone

January 2, 2026

Bomb Cyclone Latest News

A powerful “bomb cyclone” barreled across the northern United States recently, triggering severe winter weather in the Midwest and the East Coast.

About Bomb Cyclone

It is a large midlatitude storm resulting from explosive cyclogenesis (or, informally, bombogenesis), a type of accelerated extratropical cyclone development in which surface pressure falls substantially over a 24-hour period.
In structure, a bomb cyclone is indistinguishable from any other intense midlatitude storm.
- The center of the storm is a low-pressure cell (or cyclone) that draws winds near the surface inward.
However, a bomb cyclone is set apart by its rapid rate of intensification. The intensification required to classify as "bombogenesis" varies by latitude.
- For example, at 60 degrees latitude, the requirement is 24 millibars in 24 hours.
- Around 40 degrees latitude, a storm only has to intensify by 17.8 millibars in 24 hours.
Bomb cyclones are often associated with atmospheric rivers and typically form in winter when cold and warm air masses collide.
The four most active regions where extra-tropical explosive cyclogenesis occurs in the world are
- the Northwest Pacific,
- the North Atlantic,
- the Southwest Pacific, and
- the South Atlantic
The precipitation associated with a bomb cyclone is intense, ranging from heavy downpours to strong thunderstorms to blizzards and heavy snowfalls, along with strong winds.

Source: IE

Bomb Cyclone FAQs

Q1: What causes Bombogenesis?

Ans: Collision of cold and warm air masses

Q2: What is a Bomb Cyclone?

Ans: A rapidly intensifying storm with a pressure drop of 24 millibars in 24 hours.

Q3: What drives the strong winds in a Bomb Cyclone?

Ans: Pressure gradients

Pralay Missile

January 2, 2026

Pralay Missile Latest News

Recently, the Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) carried out a salvo launch of two indigenous Pralay missiles.

About Pralay Missile

It is an indigenously developed short-range, surface-to-surface missile.

Features of Pralay Missile

It is a solid propellant quasi-ballistic missile.
The missile is capable of carrying multiple types of warheads against various targets.
Range: The missile has a range of 150-500 km and can be launched from a mobile launcher.
Payload capacity: It has a payload capacity of 500-1,000 kg.
The missile is capable of carrying conventional warheads.
It is equipped with guidance systems that provide a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of less than 10 meters.
Speed: It reaches terminal speeds of Mach 6.1 and can engage targets such as radar installations, command centers, and airstrips.
It has the ability to change its path after covering a certain range midair.
Developed by: It has been developed by Research Centre Imarat and in collaboration with other Defence Research & Development Organisation labs.
Industry partners: Bharat Dynamics Limited & Bharat Electronics Limited and many other industries and MSMEs.

Source: TH

Pralay Missile FAQs

Q1: What is the range of the Pralay missile?

Ans: 150-500 km

Q2: What type of missile is Pralay?

Ans: Quasi-ballistic missile

Stingless Bees

January 2, 2026

Stingless Bees Latest News

Amazonian stingless bees have become the first insect in the world to be granted legal rights, after two municipalities — Satipo and Nauta — in Peru passed an ordinance earlier this month.

About Stingless Bees

Stingless Bees are a class of bees which either do not have stingers or have stingers that cannot cause much pain.
Common genera of stingless bees: Austroplebeia, Melipona, and Tetragonula
They do possess stingers, but they are too small to be useful in defense. Instead of stinging, stingless bees use their mandibles to bite their attackers.
Stingless bees are among the planet’s oldest pollinators, with a remarkable concentration of species in the Amazon rainforest.
Distribution: They are found in tropical regions across the world, and about half of the 500 known species live in the Amazon.
- Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Americas are the main areas where the stingless bee is found.
- In India, these bees are reported primarily from the northeastern, eastern, and southern Indian States.
Benefits: Stingless bees can be used for pollination without fear of being stung. They are known for their popular medicinal honey and pollination potential.
Threats: Deforestation has reduced nesting sites, while pesticide use, climate change and competition from invasive honeybees have further weakened populations.

Source: IE

Stingless Bees FAQs

Q1: Where are Stingless Bees primarily found?

Ans: Tropical regions of the world

Q2: What is the primary role of Stingless Bees in ecosystems?

Ans: Pollination

Monthly Current Affairs October 2025 for UPSC Prelims & Mains

January 2, 2026

UPSC Current Affairs for October 2025 are one of the common and crucial components of the UPSC CSE syllabus. Current affairs are the events and issues that are happening in the present time, both in India and around the world. They cover various domains, such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, sports, etc. In this article, we are going to cover the UPSC Current Affairs for October 2025 for both Prelims and Mains.

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025

Current affairs October 2025 are an important part of UPSC CSE preparation, and to assist aspirants, Vajiram & Ravi publish Monthly Current Affairs Magazine, The Recitals, daily prelims pointers, mains articles, editorial analysis, daily newspaper analysis video- The Analyst. These sources consolidate and simplify all the important current affairs topics from the month into high-quality, well-researched magazines. Drawing from reliable sources like PIB, Yojana, Kurukshetra, The Hindu, Indian Express, Economic Times, and Down to Earth, the content is presented through text, infographics, charts, and tables, ensuring easy understanding and effective learning.

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 for Prelims & Mains

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 for Prelims & Mains includes Daily Prelims Pointers and Mains Articles as well as Daily Editorial Analysis that are carefully curated by experts and updated on our website on a daily basis. These topics, derived from The Hindu and Indian Express, simplify the preparation process by providing a thorough analysis of current affairs . They cover both backward and forward linkages, offering a comprehensive understanding of each topic. Designed as concise daily notes, they ensure that aspirants efficiently address all the key subjects. While Prelims Pointers have a more concise and focused approach, the Mains Articles are crafted to enable students to effectively utilize the information for answer writing in the Mains exam. The Daily Editorial Analysis analyses the daily editorial news in the Indian Express and The Hindu Newspaper. The Analyst – Daily Newspaper Analysis Video by Vajiram & Ravi provides a thorough and insightful breakdown of the most significant news stories from The Hindu and Indian Express. Each video is paired with a handout summarizing the key points, presented in a clear, bullet-point format for easy comprehension and effective research.

UPSC October Current Affairs 2025

We publish ten Prelims Pointers, four Main Articles and three Editorial Analysis on a daily basis. Apart from this we also post daily MCQ Quiz for practice and The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis. Here is a link to our Daily Prelims Pointers and Mains Articles, Editorial Analysis, Daily Quiz and The Analyst Video created using multiple sources to ease UPSC preparation for the aspirants:

Date	Prelims Pointers	Mains Articles	Editorial Analysis	The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis Video
1 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
2 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
3 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
4 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
5 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
6 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
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12 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
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29 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
30 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link
31 October 2025	Link	Link	Link	Link

Importance of Current Affairs October 2025 for UPSC Aspirants

Current affairs remain one of the most crucial components of the UPSC CSE syllabus, covering events and issues of present relevance in India and across the world. They span diverse areas such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, and sports. The importance of current affairs for October 2025 lies in their direct role in shaping the knowledge base and analytical ability of aspirants, making them indispensable for exam success.

Testing Awareness and Understanding of the Contemporary World
Current affairs October 2025 are not just about memorizing facts but about analyzing events and their wider implications. They test your awareness of global and national happenings, along with your ability to understand causes, consequences, and possible solutions. For aspirants, this builds global perspective and critical thinking qualities central to civil services.
Connecting Static and Dynamic Portions of the Syllabus
Current affairs October 2025 act as a bridge between static knowledge and real-time developments. Events such as policy changes, international summits, or socio-economic shifts can be linked to static subjects like history, polity, geography, and economy. This integration strengthens conceptual clarity and improves answer writing by enabling aspirants to connect theory with practice.
Unpredictable and Dynamic Nature of UPSC Preparation
The importance of current affairs for October 2025 also lies in their dynamic and evolving nature. Unlike static subjects, they change daily and require consistent updates. This unpredictability challenges aspirants to remain alert and well-informed, while also adding variety to UPSC preparation. It ensures that aspirants do not rely solely on rote learning but instead develop adaptability and analytical flexibility.

Relevance to Civil Services and Real-World Administration
Above all, current affairs October 2025 are vital as they reflect the realities future civil servants must deal with. They highlight governance challenges, policy decisions, and social issues that administrators directly engage with. Moreover, they are critical during the interview stage, where aspirants are tested on their opinions and depth of understanding regarding contemporary issues.

Current Affairs October 2025 FAQs

Q1: How to prepare current affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: By consistently reading newspapers, using standard monthly magazines, and revising through reliable compilations with answer writing practice.

Q2: What is the importance of studying current affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: Current Affairs link static subjects with real-time issues, test analytical skills, and form a significant part of Prelims, Mains, and Interview.

Q3: What are Vajiram & Ravi Prelims Pointers?

Ans: They are concise, exam-focused current affairs notes prepared by Vajiram & Ravi for UPSC Prelims revision uploaded on their website on a daily basis.

Q4: Which newspaper to read to prepare UPSC Current Affairs?

Ans: The Hindu and The Indian Express are the most recommended newspapers for UPSC preparation.

Q5: How to prepare newspaper notes for UPSC CSE?

Ans: By focusing on exam-relevant issues, summarizing in bullet points, and organizing under GS syllabus topics for quick revision.

Ethiopia Volcano Eruption, Hayli Gubbi, Map, Location, History

January 2, 2026

A massive eruption from Ethiopia’s Hayli Gubbi volcano, dormant for nearly 12,000 years, released an enormous volcanic ash cloud rising to 45,000 ft (FL450). The plume has drifted across the Red Sea and the Arabian Peninsula and is now moving toward western India, raising concerns over aviation safety, visibility, and atmospheric impacts. While it is a high-altitude ash event, its indirect effects on India’s aviation and upper-atmosphere pollution remain under watch.

Ethiopia Volcano Eruption Hayli Gubbi

Hayli Gubbi is a shield volcano located in Ethiopia’s Afar Region, known for its wide, gently sloping structure formed by highly fluid basaltic lava. It lies within the Afar Depression, one of the most tectonically active rift zones on Earth. The volcano is part of the broader Erta Ale volcanic range, famous for continuous lava activity and rift-related Ethiopia Volcano Eruption. Its geological setting makes it a part of the ongoing rifting process shaping the East African landscape.

Broad, low-gradient volcanic shield built from thin basaltic lava flows.
Located in the Afar Depression at the southern end of the Erta Ale range.
Part of the divergent boundary where the African Plate is splitting.
Known for geothermal features, fissure vents, and low-viscosity lava fields.

Ethiopia Volcano Eruption Hayli Gubbi
Parameter	Details
Volcano Type	Shield Volcano
Location	Afar Region, Ethiopia
Last Known Eruption	~10,000–12,000 years ago
Latest Eruption	23 November 2025
Eruption Style	Sub-Plinian
Ash Cloud Height	45,000 ft
Key Components	Ash, SO₂, glass shards
Drift Path	Yemen → Oman → Arabian Sea → Western India

Tectonic Background: East African Rift System (EARS)

The Hayli Gubbi volcano lies within the East African Rift System, where the Nubian Plate and the Somali Plate are gradually separating. This rifting process thins the crust, allowing magma from the mantle plume beneath Afar to rise easily. The Afar Triple Junction, where the Red Sea Rift, Gulf of Aden Rift, and East African Rift meet, makes this region a hotspot for volcanic and seismic activity.

One of the world’s most active continental rift zones.
Mantle plume beneath Afar contributes high heat flow.
Frequent earthquakes precede volcanic events.
Produces both fissure eruptions and shield-type eruptions.

Hayli Gubbi Volcano Location

Hayli Gubbi Volcano is situated in the Afar Depression, a sunken rift valley characterised by salt flats, lava fields, and deep fissures. This area is geologically unique for being below sea level and directly above a thinning continental crust. Its proximity to the Red Sea and the Erta Ale range places it in a zone that frequently experiences tectonic stretching and geothermal activity.

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Ethiopia Volcano Eruption Hayli Gubbi History

The Hayli Gubbi volcano had no confirmed eruption for nearly 10,000-12,000 years, making its 2025 Ethiopia Volcano Eruption a major geological event. On 23 November 2025, it produced a sub-plinian eruption, characterised by a strong vertical ash column and widespread dispersal. The ash plume travelled across Yemen and Oman before drifting eastward towards India.

Last major activity was during the Holocene period.
2025 eruption classified as sub-plinian due to eruption column height.
Ash plume reached 45,000 ft, entering commercial flight altitudes.
Carried volcanic ash, SO₂, glass shards, and fine rock particles.

Ethiopian Volcanic Eruptions Causes

Ethiopian volcanic Eruptions occur primarily due to the active rifting process underway in the East African Rift System (EARS), where the Nubian and Somali plates are gradually pulling apart.

Divergent Plate Boundary: Separation of the Nubian and Somali plates creates fissures for magma ascent.
Afar Mantle Plume: Deep mantle hotspot enhances heat and magma supply.
Crustal Thinning: Stretching crust reduces pressure, enabling magma movement.
Fissure Eruptions: Long cracks release large volumes of basaltic lava.
Seismic Activity: Earthquakes indicate magma movement and precede eruptions.

Composition of the Volcanic Plume

The ash cloud contains a mix of volcanic ash, sulphur dioxide, glass shards, and rock fragments, transported at high altitudes between 15,000-45,000 ft. These aerosols can persist in the atmosphere for days to weeks depending on wind patterns and atmospheric stability.

Ash particles (silicates and rock debris).
SO₂ gas responsible for haze and acid formation.
Volcanic glass shards that pose risks to aircraft engines.
Fine aerosols that affect visibility and solar radiation.

Ethiopia Volcano Eruption Economic Implications

Ethiopian Volcano Eruption impose significant economic burdens, especially in the Afar and Rift Valley regions where agriculture, pastoralism, and trade routes dominate livelihoods. Ashfall damages crops, grazing land, and livestock, directly affecting food security and rural income.

Agricultural Losses: Ash destroys crops, contaminates soil, and reduces livestock productivity.
Transport & Aviation Disruption: Flight cancellations and road blockages raise logistics costs.
Relief & Rehabilitation Costs: Government spending increases sharply during resettlement and recovery.
Tourism Decline: Adventure tourism in Afar and Danakil suffers temporary slowdown.
Trade Impact: Exports and regional supply chains may face delays due to restricted routes.

Ethiopia Volcano Eruption Environmental Consequences

Ethiopian Volcano Eruption significantly alter the physical environment by releasing ash, lava, and sulphur-rich gases into the atmosphere. Ashfall disrupts vegetation, contaminates water sources, and affects soil chemistry, impacting local ecosystems.

Air Pollution: SO₂, ash, and aerosols degrade air quality and reduce visibility.
Water Contamination: Ash deposits pollute rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources.
Habitat Disruption: Lava flows and ash burial damage wildlife habitats and vegetation.
Soil Alteration: Volcanic materials change soil pH and nutrient composition.
Climate Effects: Aerosols can cool the atmosphere and alter rainfall patterns.
Landscape Modification: Formation of new lava fields, fissures, and geothermal features.

Other Major Volcanoes in Africa

Africa contains several prominent volcanic systems, especially along the East African Rift. These volcanoes vary from shield types to stratovolcanoes and caldera systems.

Mount Nyiragongo (DR Congo) – Known for extremely fast-moving lava.
Mount Silali (Kenya) – Extinct caldera with past massive eruptions.
Dabbahu Volcano (Ethiopia) – Famous for large fissure eruptions.
Mount Alayta (Ethiopia) – A shield volcano within the Afar Rift.
Ardoukoba (Djibouti) – Last erupted in 1978.
Mallahle (Ethiopia) – Stratovolcano in Danakil Depression.
Asavyo (Ethiopia) – Large volcanic field with widespread vents.

Ethiopia Neighbouring Countries

Ethiopia shares its borders with six countries: Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan, and Sudan. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Djibouti in the northeast, and Somalia along the eastern frontier. To the south lies Kenya, while South Sudan borders Ethiopia on the west, and Sudan forms the northwestern boundary.

Why the Ash Reached India

Upper-level westerly winds and jet streams transported the ash cloud across continents. The altitude of the plume allowed it to bypass local weather systems and move efficiently toward India. Because the ash layer is positioned high above the troposphere, its descent toward the surface is slow and unlikely to significantly impact ground-level air quality.

Ethiopia Volcano Eruption FAQs

Q1: Why does Ethiopia experience frequent volcanic eruptions?

Ans: Because Ethiopia lies on the East African Rift System, where the Nubian and Somali plates are diverging, creating fissures that allow magma to rise easily.

Q2: Which volcanic regions of Ethiopia are most active?

Ans: The Afar Depression, Erta Ale Range, and Central Rift Valley are the most active volcanic belts.

Q3: What type of eruptions commonly occur in Ethiopia?

Ans: Most eruptions are fissure eruptions or shield-volcano eruptions, producing basaltic lava and high-altitude ash plumes.

Q4: How does volcanic ash affect local communities?

Ans: Ashfall damages crops, contaminates water, reduces visibility, affects livestock, and poses respiratory health risks.

Q5: Can volcanic eruptions in Ethiopia impact India?

Ans: Yes, high-altitude ash clouds transported by jet streams can reach India, affecting aviation routes, visibility, and upper-atmosphere pollution, but not usually ground-level air quality.

Top 10 Longest Rivers in India List, Origin, Length, Other Facts

January 2, 2026

Top 10 Longest Rivers in India: India, known for its rich network of rivers, depends on these waterways for both its environment and economy. Indian rivers are broadly classified into two types: Himalayan Rivers, which are fed year-round by melting glaciers, and Peninsular Rivers, which rely on seasonal rainfall. Leading them all, the Ganga stretches over 2,525 km, making it the Longest River in India. In this article, we’ll explore the Top 10 Longest Rivers in India List and their importance.

Longest Rivers in India

The Ganges River, or Ganga, stands as Longest Rivers in India, spanning roughly 2,525 kilometers from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. Beyond its length, the Ganga holds deep cultural and spiritual significance, impacting the lives and beliefs of millions across the country. The Ganges River originates high in the Himalayas, beginning its journey at the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand, India. The Ganges River travels through multiple states, starting from Uttarakhand and flowing through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, before merging with the Bay of Bengal. A detailed map of the Ganges highlights its path and the diverse regions it nourishes along the way.

Top 10 Longest Rivers of India

Discover Top 10 Longest Rivers of India ranked by their length:

Top 10 Longest Rivers of India
S.No	River	Length in India (km)	Total Length (km)	Origin	Empties Into
1	Ganga	2,525	2,525	Gangotri Glacier, Uttarakhand	Bay of Bengal
2	Godavari	1,464	1,465	Trimbak, Maharashtra	Bay of Bengal
3	Krishna	1,400	1,400	Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra	Bay of Bengal
4	Yamuna	1,376	1,376	Yamunotri Glacier, Uttarakhand	Confluence with Ganga
5	Narmada	1,312	1,312	Amarkantak Plateau, Madhya Pradesh	Arabian Sea
6	Indus	1,114	3,180	Tibet (near Lake Mansarovar)	Arabian Sea
7	Brahmaputra	916	2,900	Angsi Glacier, Tibet	Bay of Bengal
8	Mahanadi	890	890	Sihawa Hills, Chhattisgarh	Bay of Bengal
9	Cauvery	800	800	Brahmagiri Hills, Karnataka	Bay of Bengal
10	Tapi (Tapti)	724	724	Satpura Range, Madhya Pradesh	Arabian Sea

Longest Rivers in India in Brief

Top 10 Longest Rivers of India each tell a unique story as they flow across the country, sustaining its people, culture, and rich history. From the mighty Ganga, the longest, to the more modest Tapi, these rivers shape India’s landscapes and heritage. Here’s a closer look at the Top 10 Longest Rivers of India:

Ganga River

The Ganga River, with a total length of 2,525 kilometers, holds the title of the Longest River in India, flowing entirely through the mainland. It originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand and travels across multiple states, including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, before merging with the Bay of Bengal. Along its journey, the Ganga is fed by numerous tributaries. On the left bank, it receives waters from the Ramganga, Garra, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, and Mahananda rivers. Its right bank tributaries include the Yamuna, Tamsa, Son, Punpun, Kiul, Karmanasa, and Chandan rivers.

Godavari River

The Godavari River, spanning a length of 1,464 kilometers, holds the title of the Longest Rivers in India in peninsular region. It originates from the Triambakeshwar region near Nashik in Maharashtra. The river flows through the states of Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Along its journey, the Godavari is joined by several tributaries: the left bank tributaries include the Banganga, Kadva, Shivana, and Purna rivers, while the right bank tributaries are Nasardi, Darna, and Pravara.

Krishna River

The Krishna River spans 1,400 kilometers, originating from the Western Ghats at an elevation of approximately 1,337 meters, just north of Mahabaleshwar, about 64 kilometers from the Arabian Sea. Its left bank tributaries include the Bhima, Dindi Musi, Paleru, and Munneru rivers, while the right bank is fed by the Vienna, Koyna, and Panchganga rivers. The Krishna River ultimately flows into the Bay of Bengal. Known for its vital role in irrigation, it is a major water source for the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

Yamuna River

The Yamuna River, spanning a length of 1,376 kilometers, originates from the Yamunotri Glacier, located at the Banderpoonch Peak in Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand. As one of the primary tributaries of the Ganges, the Yamuna’s tributaries include Hindon, Sharda on the left bank, and Chambal, Betwa, and Ken on the right. The river flows through several key states, including Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

Narmada River

The Narmada River, stretching over 1,312 kilometers, originates from the Amarkantak Peak in Madhya Pradesh. Its left-bank tributaries include Burhner, Banjar, Sher, and Karjan, while the right bank tributaries consist of Hiran, Tendoni, and Choral. The river flows westward, ultimately emptying into the Arabian Sea. Often referred to as the "Lifeline of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat," the Narmada plays a crucial role in the agricultural and economic development of both states.

Indus River

The Indus River holds the distinction of being the longest river in terms of the total distance it covers, stretching over 3,180 kilometers. However, within India, it flows for approximately 1,114 kilometers, with the majority of the river's course running through present-day Pakistan. Originating from the northern slopes of the Kailash Range in Tibet, near Lake Manasarovar, the river traverses vast regions. Prominent cities situated along its banks include Leh and Skardu. The river is fed by several tributaries, with the left bank contributing Zanskar, Suru, Soan, Jhelum, Chenab, and Luni, while the right bank is nourished by Shyok, Hunza, Gilgit, Gomal, and Zhob. Ultimately, the Indus River empties into the Arabian Sea.

Brahmaputra River

The Brahmaputra River, stretching 2,900 kilometers from Tibet’s Kailash Ranges, flows 916 kilometers through India, entering via Arunachal Pradesh. Its left bank tributaries include Dibang, Lohit, and Dhansiri, while the right bank is fed by Kameng, Manas, Jaldhaka, Teesta, and Subansiri. In Bangladesh, it becomes the Jamuna River, merging with the Padma (Ganges) before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Majuli, an island in Assam’s Brahmaputra, became India’s first river island district in 2016, once covering 880 square kilometers at the turn of the 20th century.

Mahanadi River

The Mahanadi River, stretching 890 km, begins its journey in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. Its left bank tributaries include the Mand, Ib, and Hasdeo rivers, while its right bank tributaries are the Ong and Parry. The river ultimately empties into the Bay of Bengal. Due to its impact on Odisha, it has historically been referred to as "the distress of Odisha." However, the construction of the Hirakud Dam has significantly changed the situation, providing much-needed regulation and flood control.

Cauvery River

The Cauvery River, spanning 800 km, originates from the Brahmagiri Range in the Western Ghats, located in the Coorg District of Karnataka. On its left bank lies the Harangi Reservoir, while its primary right bank tributary is the Lakshmana Tirtha. The river ultimately flows toward the Grand Anicut in the south, before branching into numerous distributaries. These tributaries form a vast delta, often referred to as the "Garden of Southern India," before the Cauvery empties into the Bay of Bengal, in Tamil Nadu.

Tapi River

The Tapi River, stretching over 724 kilometers, begins its journey from the Satpura Range. It flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat before emptying into the Gulf of Khambhat, part of the Arabian Sea. The river is fed by six tributaries, including Purna and Girna.

Largest River in India

The Ganga is the largest river in India, stretching for about 2,525 kilometers. It originates from the Himalayas, flows across northern India, and enters Bangladesh before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Beyond its geographical significance, the Ganges holds immense cultural and spiritual importance for Hindus, who revere it as a sacred goddess.

Top 10 Longest Rivers in India FAQs

Q1: Which is the longest river in India?

Ans: The Ganges River is the longest river in India with a length of 2525 Kms.

Q2: Which is the inland longest river of India?

Ans: Ganges is the longest inland river of India.

Q3: Which is the longest tributary river of India?

Ans: Yamuna is the longest tributary river of India.

Q4: Which is the longest river of South India?

Ans: Godavari is the longest river of South India.

Q5: Which is the largest river island of India?

Ans: Majuli is the largest river island of India.

Economic Survey 2025, Highlights, Key Figures, Download PDF

January 2, 2026

The Economic Survey is an important document that is prepared for the country’s economic performance analysis over the past financial year and offers policy recommendations for the upcoming fiscal year. In India, the Economic Survey is released one day before the Union Budget. The Economic Survey 2025 was published on January 31, 2025. It is prepared by the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) under the Ministry of Finance, and serves as a resource for policymakers, economists and researchers.

Economic Survey 2025

Economic Survey 2024-25 provides an elaborated analysis of the economic performance of the country over the previous year (2024-2025) and includes key policy recommendations for the upcoming fiscal year (2025-2026).

Structure of the Economic Survey 2025

The Economic Survey 2025 is divided into two parts:

Part A: Focuses on economic trends, key challenges, and policy recommendations that shape the government's approach to economic management.
Part B: Provides detailed statistical analysis of various sectors, including agriculture, industry, services, infrastructure, healthcare, and environmental concerns.

Economic Survey 2025 History

The Economic Survey was first presented in 1950-51 as part of the Union Budget and since 1964, it has been presented as a stand-alone document. This change was made to ensure an elaborated review of economic developments in the previous year before budget release This year the Economic Survey 2025 is released on 31st January 2025 whereas the Union Budget is released on 1st February 2025.

Economic Survey 2025 Highlights

The Economic Survey 2025 was released on January 31, 2025. It includes in-depth analysis of the economic performance of India in the previous year. Here are the Economic Survey 2025 Key Highlights:

India’s real GDP growth is projected at 6.4% for FY25, The real GVA (Gross Value Added) is also expected to grow at 6.4% in FY25. GDP growth for FY26 is forecasted between 6.3% and 6.8%.
All the sectors are functioning as expected. The Agriculture Sector continues to operate above trend levels. Industrial Sector rebounded strongly post-pandemic whereas Service Sector has stabilized its growth at pre-pandemic levels.
Retail inflation has reduced from 5.4% (FY24) to 4.9% (April-December 2024) due to government interventions. Consumer price inflation is expected to align around 4% in FY26.
Gross NPAs (Non-Performing Assets) of banks dropped to a record low of 2.6% (as of Sept 2024). Credit-GDP gap reduced from -10.3% (Q1FY23) to -0.3% (Q1FY25). Insurance market has grown 7.7% year-over-year, reaching ₹11.2 lakh crore in FY24.
Foreign Direct Investment has increased by 17.9% year-over-year, reaching $55.6 billion in FY25. Overall exports (merchandise + services) grew 6% year-over-year, in the first nine months of FY25.
The Union Government’s capital expenditure (capex) on infrastructure increased by 38.8% (FY20-FY24).
Industrial sector grew by 6.2% in FY25 (as per first GDP advance estimates). Steel production grew by 4.6%, while automobile domestic sales increased by 12.5% in FY24.
Electronics production grew at a CAGR of 17.5% (FY15-FY24). Textiles, apparel, pharmaceuticals, and steel industries witnessed steady growth.
Service sector contributes 55.3% to total GVA in FY25 (up from 50.6% in FY14) majorly focusing on the Skill development for workforce and simplifying grassroots-level regulations.
Agriculture & other related activities contribute 16% to GDP (FY24).

Economic Survey 2025 PDF

The Economic Survey 2025 offers a detailed analysis of India’s economic performance and projections for the upcoming year. Download the Economic Survey 2025 PDF.

Economic Survey 2025 PDF

Why is the Economic Survey Released Before the Budget?

The Economic Survey is released a day before the Union Budget to ensure transparency and build the foundation for budget decisions. It offers an economic overview by analyzing growth trends, challenges, and opportunities while highlighting key issues such as inflation, fiscal deficit, unemployment, and sectoral performance.

The Economic Survey helps to shape policy direction, influencing budget allocations and reforms. Understanding the linkage between the Economic Survey and the Union Budget 2025 is important, as it reflects the government’s economic strategy, policy priorities, and governance approach.

Economic Survey 2025 FAQs

Q1: Who publishes the Economic Survey?

Ans: The Ministry of Finance publishes the Economic Survey every year.

Q2: When is the economic survey 2025 released?

Ans: The Economic Survey is typically tabled a day before the budget speech, so it is mostly presented on January 31.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act, Objectives

January 2, 2026

The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Bill was introduced in 2000 by the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government to give legal shape to the idea of fiscal discipline in India. It aimed to bring accountability and transparency to government finances. The bill became law in 2003, marking a major shift in how public funds were to be managed. The FRBM Act 2003 set specific targets for reducing fiscal deficits, improving financial management, and promoting long-term fiscal stability.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act

The Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management Act, 2003 (FRBMA), is a law enacted by the Indian Parliament to enforce principles of sound financial management and keep fiscal deficits under control. Its core aim is to ensure a balanced budget and promote fiscal discipline.

The Act initially targeted eliminating the revenue deficit and capping the fiscal deficit at 3% of GDP by March 2008. However, the 2007 global financial crisis forced the government to delay and eventually suspend these targets in 2009. In 2011, as the economy began recovering, the Economic Advisory Council recommended revisiting the FRBM framework. A review committee, chaired by N. K. Singh, set up under the Ministry of Finance, was later tasked with evaluating and updating the Act’s provisions.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Needs

In May 2016, the government appointed N. K. Singh to head a committee to review the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act. The committee recommended a phased reduction in the fiscal deficit starting with a target of 3% of GDP by March 2020, then lowering it to 2.8% in 2020-21, and further to 2.5% by 2022-23.

During COVID-19 pandemic, the economic slowdown and increased spending on welfare and healthcare led to a major revenue shortfall. As a result, the government recorded a fiscal deficit of 9.2% of GDP in FY21, slightly better than the revised estimate of 9.5%. For FY22, the deficit target was scaled down to 6.8%, with a longer-term goal of bringing it down to 4.5% by FY26.

The FRBM Act, 2003 is designed not just to limit deficits but also to improve transparency in fiscal management of India. Over the long term, it aims to achieve budgetary stability while giving the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) the space it needs to manage inflation effectively.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Objectives

The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, passed by the Indian Parliament in 2003, was a significant step toward institutionalizing financial discipline in the country. Its core objective is to ensure responsible fiscal management by reducing the fiscal deficit and improving the quality of macroeconomic governance. The key goals of the Act can be understood across four broad themes:

The FRBM Act mandates specific targets to bring down the fiscal deficit, revenue deficit, and total government debt as a percentage of GDP.
To promote openness in fiscal operations, the FRBM Act requires the government to present documents such as the Medium-Term Fiscal Policy Statement, Fiscal Policy Strategy Statement, and Outcome Budget to Parliament.
The FRBM Act aims to reduce inflationary pressures and maintain a stable macroeconomic environment.
One of the Act’s long-term aims is to prevent the economy from falling into a debt trap by ensuring that debt levels remain within sustainable limits.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Features

To achieve the objectives, Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Features were incorporated which are mentioned below:

The FRBM Act sets limits on fiscal deficit and revenue deficit, expressed as a percentage of GDP. Initially, the Act aimed to reduce the fiscal deficit to 3% of GDP by 2008. These targets are periodically updated based on economic needs and government priorities.
Under the FRBM Act, the central government is mandated to present three critical fiscal documents every financial year: the Medium-Term Fiscal Policy Statement, the Fiscal Policy Strategy Statement, and the Macroeconomic Framework Statement.
Each year, the government outlines specific fiscal goals and performance determiners in line with FRBM principles.
The FRBM Act is not static, it includes a built-in review mechanism. This means fiscal targets can be reassessed and modified based on changing economic conditions.

FRBM Act Escape

The FRBM Act Escape allows the government to exceed the fiscal deficit target in case of extraordinary circumstances which includes war, natural calamity, severe economic downturn or other significant events beyond control. While this provides flexibility and the government is expected to return to the fiscal path once the crisis passes. Even when invoked, the government must justify the deviation and lay out a path to correction.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Advantages

FRBM Act sets legal limits on fiscal and revenue deficits, discouraging excessive borrowing and forcing the government to prioritize essential spending.
Mandates regular reports like the Medium-Term Fiscal Policy and Fiscal Strategy Statements. These documents provide reliable insights into government finances, helping stakeholders plan based on data rather than guesswork.
By keeping deficits under control, the Act helps reduce inflationary pressure, stabilizes interest rates, and avoids crowding out private investment which creates a more stable environment for long-term economic growth.
Transparent and rule-based fiscal policy enhances the government's credibility. It attracts both domestic and foreign investors, strengthens market confidence, and supports better sovereign credit ratings.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act Issues

Though the FRBM Act Escape clause allows deviation from targets during unforeseen circumstances, frequent use undermines the Act’s credibility. It raises doubts about the government’s commitment to long-term fiscal discipline.
Strict fiscal targets may limit necessary investments in critical sectors like health, education, and infrastructure. This can hurt long-term growth and weaken efforts to improve social outcomes.
The success of the Act relies on strong institutions and political commitment. Inconsistent implementation across different governments and regimes hampers its effectiveness and enforcement.

Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act FAQs

Q1: What is the FRBM Act?

Ans: A law to ensure responsible fiscal management by reducing fiscal deficits and promoting transparency in India's financial operations.

Q2: When was the FRBM Act passed?

Ans: The FRBM Act was enacted in 2003 by the Indian Parliament.

Q3: What is the main objective of the FRBM Act?

Ans: To reduce fiscal deficit, eliminate revenue deficit, and ensure macroeconomic stability.

Q4: Who implements the FRBM Act?

Ans: The Ministry of Finance, under the Government of India.

Q5: What are fiscal and revenue deficits?

Ans: Fiscal deficit is excess expenditure over income; revenue deficit is excess revenue spending over revenue receipts.

List of Government Schemes in India, Objectives, Impacts

January 2, 2026

Government Schemes are a foundational element of UPSC CSE Exam 2026 preparation, as they play a major role in the nation’s developmental priorities and the execution of public policy. Spanning across various sectors such as health, education, agriculture, and the economy, these Important Government Schemes provide insights into governance frameworks, social inclusion, and public service delivery framework. Questions related to government initiatives are frequently asked across the Prelims, Mains, and Interview stages of the UPSC Exam 2025.

Government Schemes for UPSC CSE Exam 2026 Prelims

In Prelims, UPSC often has factual questions about the Important Government Scheme. Aspirants must know the launch year, objectives, implementing ministry, beneficiaries, and key features of Important Government Schemes. Focus should be on those featured in the Union Budget, Economic Survey, and PIB updates from the past two years. Schemes like PM-KISAN, Ayushman Bharat, or PM Gati Shakti have often appeared.

Government Schemes for UPSC CSE Exam 2026 Mains

In Mains, especially in GS Paper II (Governance, Social Justice) and GS Paper III (Economy, Environment), Important Government Schemes are used to support arguments and showcase awareness. Topics like rural development, women empowerment, MSMEs, and health require references to relevant schemes. Writing answers with examples like MGNREGA, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, or Jal Jeevan Mission adds credibility.

Government Schemes for UPSC CSE Exam 2026 Interview

In Interview stage, during the UPSC CSE Exam 2026 often evaluates the understanding of ongoing government initiatives and their real-world impact. Questions may be asked about schemes related to home states, optional subjects, or academic background. Knowledge of schemes like Aspirational Districts Programme or Ayushman Bharat helps form informed opinions. Referring to Government Schemes also reflects your awareness of national development issues and policy implementation, which can leave a strong impression on the board.

Government Schemes for UPSC Importance

Important Government Schemes are directly linked to topics in GS Paper II (Governance, Social Justice) and GS Paper III (Economy, Environment, Agriculture, Infrastructure).
UPSC regularly asks factual questions about schemes, launch year, objectives, ministry, and features making them important areas for Prelims.
Citing Important Government Schemes in Mains answers adds credibility, relevance, and depth to your arguments, especially in topics like rural development, health, and employment.
Important Government Schemes reflect governance values like transparency, accountability, and social justice making them valuable in Ethics and Essay papers.
Government Schemes are frequently covered in PIB, Yojana, Budget, and Economic Survey, making them an essential part of dynamic preparation.
Understanding Important Government Schemes shows your awareness of real-world policy implementation, especially during discussions on your home state or optional subject.
The Important Government Schemes provide insights into how the government tackles national challenges such as poverty, education, health, infrastructure, etc. through targeted interventions.

How to Study Government Schemes for UPSC

To study Government Schemes for UPSC effectively, first categorize them under GS Papers, e.g., health under GS II, economy under GS III. Refer to authentic sources such as PIB, Yojana, Kurukshetra, and the official portals of relevant ministries. Focus on the objectives, launch year, key features, budgetary allocation, challenges, and impact. Create mind maps, flowcharts, and comparative tables for revision. Practice MCQs and answer writing based on schemes for better elaboration.

Important Government Schemes List for UPSC

Below in the table including newly launched and strategically Important Government Schemes relevant for UPSC Exam 2026:

Important Government Schemes for UPSC
Scheme Name	Launch Date	Department	Key Features	Budget	Beneficiaries	Completion Date
PM Awas Yojana	2015	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Affordable housing for all by 2022	₹6.85 lakh crore	Urban and rural poor	2022
Model Skill Loan Scheme	2015	Ministry of Skill Development	Provides loans for skill development courses	N/A	Students pursuing skill development	Ongoing
Mudra Yojana	2015	Ministry of Finance	Financial support to small businesses	₹3 lakh crore	Small entrepreneurs	Ongoing
PMGSY (Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana)	2000	Ministry of Rural Development	Rural road connectivity	₹1.8 lakh crore	Rural population	Ongoing
Urban 2.0 Initiative	2021	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Urban renewal and smart city development	₹2.05 lakh crore	Urban residents	Ongoing
PM Vishwakarma Scheme	2023	Ministry of MSME	Skill enhancement for traditional artisans	₹13,000 crore	Traditional artisans	Ongoing
Amrit Bharat Station Scheme	2023	Ministry of Railways	Redevelopment of railway stations	₹10,000 crore	Railway passengers	2025
Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)	2022	Ministry of Environment	Promoting sustainable living practices	N/A	General public	Ongoing
National Logistics Policy (NLP)	2022	Ministry of Commerce & Industry	Improve efficiency in logistics sector	N/A	Logistics companies	Ongoing
PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan	2021	Ministry of Commerce & Industry	Integrated infrastructure planning	₹100 lakh crore	Infrastructure sector	2025
PM Schools for Rising India (PM SHRI)	2022	Ministry of Education	Strengthen schools with modern facilities	₹27,360 crore	Students and educators	2026-27
Rashtriya Udyamita Vikas Pariyojana	2024	Ministry of Skill Development	Entrepreneurship development for youth	N/A	Young entrepreneurs	Ongoing
Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Unnat Gram Abhiyan	2024	Ministry of Tribal Affairs	Development of tribal villages	₹7,000 crore	Tribal communities	2026
Vatsalya Scheme	2024	Ministry of Women & Child Development	Child welfare and protection	N/A	Children in need	Ongoing
Purvodaya	2024	Ministry of Steel	Boosting Eastern India's steel sector	N/A	Steel industry	2030
Pradhan Mantri Surya Ghar Yojana	2024	Ministry of New & Renewable Energy	Solar energy adoption in households	₹75,000 crore	Residential households	2027
Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme	2024	Ministry of Heavy Industries	Promotion of electric vehicles	₹10,000 crore	EV manufacturers and buyers	2030
Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Nidhi	2021	Ministry of Health & Family Welfare	Health infrastructure funding	₹64,180 crore	Health institutions	Ongoing
Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Aarogya Yojana	2018	Ministry of Health & Family Welfare	Health insurance for the poor	₹64,180 crore	Low-income families	Ongoing
National Digital Health Mission	2020	Ministry of Health & Family Welfare	Digital health records for all citizens	₹1,600 crore	General public	Ongoing
Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojna	2006	Ministry of Health & Family Welfare	Establish AIIMS-like institutions across India	₹14,970 crore	Medical students, patients	Ongoing
Intensified Mission Indradhanush 3.0	2021	Ministry of Health & Family Welfare	Immunization drive for children and pregnant women	N/A	Children and pregnant women	Ongoing
STARS Project	2020	Ministry of Education	Strengthening teaching-learning outcomes	$500 million (World Bank)	School students	2025
Institutions of Eminence Scheme	2018	Ministry of Education	Promote world-class higher education institutions	₹10,000 crore	Universities	Ongoing
Mid-Day Meal	1995	Ministry of Education	Free meals to school children	₹11,000 crore	School students	Ongoing
Swach Vidyalaya Abhiyan	2014	Ministry of Education	Build separate toilets for boys and girls in schools	N/A	School students	Completed 2019
Kala Utsav	2015	Ministry of Education	Promote art and cultural activities in schools	N/A	School students	Ongoing
Shikshav Parv Initiative	2020	Ministry of Education	Discuss and implement NEP 2020	N/A	Educators, students	Ongoing
Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC)	2018	Ministry of Education	Promote research collaboration between Indian and foreign institutions	₹418 crore	Researchers	Ongoing
Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA)	2017	Ministry of Education	Finance infrastructure projects in higher education	₹1 lakh crore	Educational institutions	Ongoing
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojna	2017	Ministry of Women & Child Development	Maternity benefit scheme for pregnant and lactating women	₹12,661 crore	Pregnant women	Ongoing
Poshan Abhiyan	2018	Ministry of Women & Child Development	Improve nutritional outcomes for children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers	₹9,046 crore	Women and children	Ongoing
Rashtriya Poshan Maah	2018	Ministry of Women & Child Development	Nutrition awareness campaign	N/A	General public	Annual event
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojna	2015	Ministry of Skill Development	Skill development and certification	₹12,000 crore	Youth	Ongoing
Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN) Scheme	2021	Ministry of Rural Development	Assign unique IDs to land parcels	N/A	Landowners	Ongoing
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)	1995	Ministry of Rural Development	Social pensions for elderly, widows, and disabled persons	₹9,200 crore	Vulnerable groups	Ongoing
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)	2006	Ministry of Rural Development	Guarantee 100 days of wage employment to rural households	₹1.11 lakh crore	Rural workers	Ongoing
Rashtriya Aajivika Mission	2011	Ministry of Rural Development	Promote self-employment and skilled wage employment	₹5,000 crore	Rural poor	Ongoing
Gram Panchayat Development Plans	2015	Ministry of Panchayati Raj	Bottom-up planning at Gram Panchayat level	N/A	Rural population	Ongoing
Startup Village Entrepreneurship Programme	2016	Ministry of Rural Development	Promote entrepreneurship in rural areas	₹700 crore	Rural entrepreneurs	Ongoing
DDU Grameen Kaushalya Yojna	2014	Ministry of Rural Development	Skill training for rural youth	₹1,500 crore	Rural youth	Ongoing
Global Housing Technology Challenge	2019	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Promote innovative construction technologies	N/A	Construction sector	Ongoing
Safaimitra Suraksha Challenge	2020	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Promote mechanized cleaning of sewers	N/A	Sanitation workers	Ongoing
PM SVANIDI	2020	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Micro-credit scheme for street vendors	₹10,000 crore	Street vendors	Ongoing
Climate-Smart City Assessment Framework	2021	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Evaluate climate actions in cities	N/A	Urban residents	Ongoing
Swachh Sarvekshan	2016	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	Annual cleanliness survey	N/A	Urban population	Annual event
Rashtriya Swachhta Kendra	2020	Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs	National center for cleanliness awareness	N/A	General public	Ongoing
Grand ICT Challenge	2020	Ministry of Electronics & IT	Promote innovative ICT solutions	N/A	Tech startups	Ongoing
Ambekar Social Innovation & Incubation Mission	2019	Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment	Promote social entrepreneurship	N/A	Social entrepreneurs	Ongoing
Saral Jeevan Bima	2021	IRDAI	Standard term life insurance policy	N/A	Insurance buyers	Ongoing
One District One Product Scheme	2018	Ministry of Commerce & Industry	Promote district-specific products	₹6,000 crore	Local entrepreneurs	Ongoing
PRARAMBH: Startup India International Summit	2021	Ministry of Commerce & Industry	Global platform for startups	N/A	Startups	Annual event
Merchandise Export From India Scheme	2015	Ministry of Commerce & Industry	Incentives for goods exporters	₹40,000 crore	Exporters	Ongoing
SAMARTH Scheme	2017	Ministry of Textiles	Skill development in textile sector	₹1,300 crore	Textile workers	Ongoing
National Technical Textile Mission	2020	Ministry of Textiles	Promote technical textiles	₹1,480 crore	Textile industry	2024
Sagarmala Sea Plane Services	2020	Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways	Enhance coastal and inland water connectivity	N/A	Tourists, travelers	Ongoing
Atal Beemit Vyakti Kalyan Yojna	2018	Ministry of Labour & Employment	Provide financial support to unemployed insured persons	₹6,500 crore	Unemployed persons	Ongoing
Nation Career Service Project	2015	Ministry of Labour & Employment	Employment services and career counseling	₹1,000 crore	Job seekers	Ongoing
Vision 2035	2020	NITI Aayog	Long-term policy vision for India	N/A	Policy makers	2035
NPMPF (‘National Program and Project Management Policy Framework’)	2020	NITI Aayog	Improve project management practices	N/A	Government agencies	Ongoing
Aatmanirbhar Bharat ARISE-Atal New India Challenge	2020	Atal Innovation Mission	Support startups with innovative solutions	₹500 crore	Startups	Ongoing
Startup India Seed Fund Scheme (SISFS)	2021	Department for Promotion of Industry & Internal Trade	Financial support to early-stage startups	₹945 crore	Startups	2025

Important Government Schemes FAQs

Q1: How many government schemes should I study for UPSC 2026?

Ans: Focus on 80–100 current and flagship schemes, especially those mentioned in PIB, Budget, and Economic Survey.

Q2: Which government source is best for reading about schemes?

Ans: Use PIB, Yojana magazine, Kurukshetra, and ministry websites. Avoid relying solely on coaching material.

Q3: How to remember so many schemes effectively?

Ans: Use short notes, categorization (GS Paper-wise), and visual tools like flowcharts or tables for memory retention.

Q4: Should I quote schemes in Ethics and Essay papers?

Ans: Yes, referring to schemes in Ethics case studies or Essay themes like social justice enhances answer quality.

Q5: Are schemes relevant for all UPSC stages?

Ans: Absolutely. Schemes play a key role in Prelims (MCQs), Mains (GS, Essay, Ethics), and even in Interview discussions.

Cyclone Montha, Location, Formation, Vulnerable Zones, Impact

January 2, 2026

Cyclone Montha is a cyclonic system forming over the southeast Bay of Bengal in late October 2025, which is expected to make landfall on the east coast of India. The storm is raising significant concern for states such as Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and parts of Tamil Nadu. As preparations intensify and weather alerts are issued, understanding its trajectory, potential impact and the response measures is critical.

Cyclone Montha

Cyclone Montha emerged from a well-marked low-pressure area over the southeast Bay of Bengal on about 24 October 2025, according to the India Meteorological Department (IMD). By 26 October, it had intensified into a deep depression, with wind speeds rising to 80-100 km/h and the likelihood of developing into a severe cyclonic storm by 28 October. The IMD forecast it would make landfall near the coastal area between Machilipatnam and Kalingapatnam, close to Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh, possibly on the evening or night of 28 October. Wind gusts may reach up to about 110 km/h, while sea conditions are labelled “very rough to high”, with storm-surge risk along low-lying zones.

Cyclone Montha Location

As of 27 October 2025, Cyclone Montha is located over the west-central Bay of Bengal, approximately 350 km southeast of Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh. It is moving in a north-northwest direction at nearly 14 km/h and is expected to make landfall between Machilipatnam and Kalingapatnam, close to Kakinada, by the evening of 28 October. Its influence extends to Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and coastal Telangana, bringing widespread rainfall and gusty winds to these regions.

Cyclone Montha Formation

Cyclone Montha developed from a well-marked low-pressure area that formed over the southeast Bay of Bengal around 24 October 2025. The system gradually intensified into a deep depression by 26 October and further strengthened into a cyclonic storm under favourable conditions- warm sea surface temperatures above 28 °C, low vertical wind shear, and sufficient moisture inflow. IMD forecasts show the storm’s intensity could reach the Severe Cyclonic Storm category before landfall.

Cyclone Montha Naming

The name “Montha” was contributed by Thailand to the list of cyclones prepared by the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) regional committee. It means “a fragrant flower” or “beautiful flower” in Thai. Each member country in the region suggests cyclone names sequentially for future systems. This naming practice helps easy public identification, improves communication during warnings, and avoids confusion among multiple active storms in the same season.

Cyclone Montha Response Measures

Authorities are mobilising in full readiness to minimise loss of life and damage:

The government of Andhra Pradesh has activated a detailed action plan: stock-piling essential supplies, positioning Public Distribution System (PDS) items, monitoring power and telecom, evacuating pregnant women and preparing temporary shelters.
The IMD along with the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), the Indian Coast Guard, Army and other agencies are on high alert; more than 900 fishing vessels have been shepherded ashore.
Coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh (including Kakinada, Konaseema, West Godavari, Krishna, Bapatla, Prakasam and Nellore) are under red alerts, while Tamil Nadu, Odisha and others are under orange/yellow alerts based on intensity forecasts.
Schools in high-risk districts have been closed till 31 October to restrict movement and ensure safety.
The public has been advised not to travel unnecessarily, fishing activities suspended, and constant updates issued via IMD bulletins and state disaster management cells.

Cyclone Montha Vulnerable Zones

The coastal region of Andhra Pradesh including the Godavari delta, interior Rayalaseema and adjoining districts are highly vulnerable due to:

Dense population in low-lying areas prone to inundation
Agricultural land and fishing communities that depend on sea/ coastal ecosystem
Limited local infrastructure in remote mandals, making evacuation and relief logistics challenging
Past storms indicate that even moderate cyclonic storms can trigger heavy rainfall and flash-floods in Rayalaseema (>210 mm in 24 hrs forecast) leading to landslips and distress.
The fisheries sector is deeply affected: the weather advisory for fishermen and sea-return indicates the concern for livelihood, as 985 fishing boats have been guided to safety.
In neighbouring states like Odisha, 30 districts have been alerted, emphasizing regional inter-state cooperation in disaster management.

Cyclone Montha Significance

Cyclone Montha is notable for the reasons listed below:

It is the first major land-falling cyclone of 2025 on the Indian mainland after earlier systems moved away.
The event underscores the need for improved early warning, community preparedness, and resilient coastal infrastructure as India faces increasing frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change.
It tests the implementation of the national disaster management framework - from central agencies (NDMA) to state/ district disaster committees - and indicates the increasing role of military and paramilitary readiness in natural disasters.
It highlights the vulnerability of coastal ecology, agriculture and fisheries; and reminds of the importance of ecosystem-based adaptation and resilient infrastructure.

Cyclone Montha Impacts

The threat posed by Cyclone Montha is multi-dimensional. The Cyclone is expected to impact in below mentioned ways:

Heavy rainfall: The IMD has warned of heavy to extremely heavy rain (≥21 cm in 24 hrs) in isolated places, especially along coastal Andhra Pradesh, south Odisha and nearby states.
Strong winds: Sustained winds of 90-100 km/h with gusts up to 110 km/h are predicted during landfall, which could lead to uprooting of trees, damage to buildings and disruption of power/communication.
Storm surge and coastal flooding: Low-lying coastal pockets around the landfall zone face the risk of storm-surge inundation of about 1 metre above astronomical tide, as per the IMD advisory.
Marine hazards: Fishing communities are especially at risk; advisories have been issued to avoid venturing into the sea between 26 - 29 October off Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Odisha coastlines
Wider weather effects: Rain and thunderstorms may also affect adjoining states such as Telangana, Chhattisgarh and parts of West Bengal, delaying relief and transportation.

Cyclone Montha FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Montha?

Ans: Cyclone Montha is a tropical cyclone formed over the southeast Bay of Bengal in October 2025, affecting India’s east coast.

Q2: Which country named the Cyclone Montha?

Ans: The name “Montha” was given by Thailand under the World Meteorological Organization’s regional cyclone naming system.

Q3: Where will Cyclone Montha make landfall?

Ans: IMD predicts Cyclone Montha will make landfall near Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, between Machilipatnam and Kalingapatnam on 28 October 2025.

Q4: What are the expected wind speeds during Cyclone Montha?

Ans: According to IMD, Cyclone Montha may bring winds of 100-110 km/h with very heavy rainfall in coastal Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

Q5: What measures has the government taken for Cyclone Montha?

Ans: NDRF teams, evacuation plans, and relief shelters have been deployed in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha for cyclone preparedness and safety.

Putin’s India Visit, India-Russia Summit 2025, Impact on India-Russia Ties

January 2, 2026

Russian President Vladimir Putin visited India on 4-5 December 2025, coinciding with the 23rd India-Russia Annual Summit. This visit comes amid shifting global geopolitics, including sanctions on Russia, U.S. tariff pressures on India, and global energy volatility.

During the summit, both nations reaffirmed their Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership, a cornerstone of bilateral relations since 2000.

Putin's India Visit 2025 Why Now?

The timing of Putin's India Visit 2025 is significant for several reasons:

Institutionalised Annual Summits: India and Russia have held annual summits since the 2000 Strategic Partnership Declaration to reinforce long-term cooperation.
First Visit Since 2021: This is Putin’s first visit to India after a gap of four years, underlining renewed engagement.

Recent Developments:

Russia acknowledges U.S. pressure on India regarding trade and tariffs.
Russia seeks a “third-country-proof” payment mechanism to facilitate smoother bilateral trade.

Historical Anchoring:

The 1971 Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation laid the foundation for a strategic partnership.
Since the Soviet era, India and Russia have maintained deep defence, energy, and nuclear synergies.

Also Read: RELOS Agreement

India-Russia Bilateral Relations Evolution

India-Russia Bilateral Relations have evolved from strategic and defence-focused ties during the Cold War to multi-dimensional cooperation today. The partnership has strengthened through defence deals, energy trade, nuclear collaboration, and regional/global forum coordination.

1971: USSR supported India during the Bangladesh Liberation War, using its UNSC veto three times in India’s favour.
Cold War Era: Transfer of advanced military platforms to India strengthened defence capability.
2000: Strategic Partnership formalised, leading to annual summits.
2010: Upgraded to Special & Privileged Strategic Partnership, signalling deeper trust.
2019 onwards: Renewed engagement through initiatives like the Eastern Economic Forum and India’s “Act Far East Policy.”
Post-2022: Russia became India’s largest crude oil supplier via discounted oil arrangements amid sanctions.

Also Read: India-Russia Relations

India-Russia Summit 2025 Outcomes

India and Russia held the 23rd Annual Summit in New Delhi on 4–5 December 2025, marking 25 years of the Strategic Partnership (2000–2025). The visit reaffirmed the Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership, emphasizing continuity, trust, and strategic alignment despite global uncertainties.

Political & Diplomatic Engagement

High-level exchanges across parliaments, ministries, and NSA-level talks.
Opening of new Indian Consulates in Yekaterinburg and Kazan.
Active cooperation in UN, SCO, BRICS, G20, and support for UNSC reforms with Russia backing India’s permanent seat.

Trade & Economic Partnership

Revised trade target: USD 100 billion by 2030.
Adoption of “Programme 2030” for expanding bilateral economic cooperation.
Progress on India–EAEU Free Trade Agreement and Investment Protection Agreement.

Key Areas

Cooperation in energy, fertilizers, precious metals, minerals, critical raw materials.
Push for smooth payment systems, national currency settlements, CBDC cooperation.
Joint efforts to remove logistics bottlenecks, tariff/non-tariff barriers, and insurance issues.

Energy Partnership

One of the strongest pillars of the relationship.
Broad cooperation in:
- Oil & gas, LNG, petrochemicals, refineries
- Underground coal gasification
- Nuclear energy (Kudankulam NPP; India’s 100 GW nuclear capacity goal by 2047)
Agreement to resolve pending investment issues.

Connectivity & Transport

Major push for three strategic corridors:
- International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC)
- Chennai–Vladivostok Maritime Corridor
- Northern Sea Route (NSR)
MoU on training Indian specialists for polar water navigation.

Russian Far East & Arctic Cooperation

Framework: India–Russia Far East Cooperation Programme (2024–29).
Areas: agriculture, mining, manpower, diamonds, pharmaceuticals, shipping.
India ready to expand role as Observer in Arctic Council.

Defence & Military-Technical Cooperation

Defence cooperation shifting from “buyer–seller” to co-development & co-production.
Joint manufacturing of spare parts for Russian-origin weapons in India.
Expansion of INDRA joint exercises and military delegations.
Emphasis on Make-in-India and joint development of high-tech systems.

India-Russia Annual Summit 2025 Significance

The 23rd India-Russia Annual Summit 2025 on 4-5 December 2025 holds major diplomatic, economic, and defence importance at a time of shifting global geopolitics, energy volatility, and Western sanctions on Russia.

Diplomatic Significance

Reaffirmation of Strategic Partnership despite global tensions and sanctions.
Strengthens India’s strategic autonomy by maintaining balanced ties with Russia, the U.S., Europe, and the Global South.
Russia’s continued support for India’s bid for a UNSC permanent seat.
Reinforces cooperation in BRICS, SCO, RIC, G-20, and the Arctic.
Helps India maintain influence in Eurasia and Central Asia, where Russia remains a major player.

Economic & Energy Significance

Russia remains India’s largest crude supplier, providing discounted oil post-2022.
Expected creation of a non-USD, “third-country-proof” payment mechanism to bypass sanctions.
Push for long-term oil & gas supply contracts for price stability.
Discussion on expanding civil nuclear projects, possibly Kudankulam Units 7-8 or SMR cooperation.
Boost to connectivity projects like INSTC and the Chennai-Vladivostok maritime corridor.

Defence Significance

Ensures continuity in major defence deliveries including S-400, spare parts, engines.
Expansion of joint defence manufacturing, including localisation of components for Su-30, T-90, and helicopters.
Strengthens BrahMos cooperation and potential upgrades in air defence systems.
Discussions on joint R&D in hypersonic systems, UAVs, aircraft engines, etc.
Establishment of joint MRO hubs to reduce dependency and delays.
Helps India maintain operational readiness, as 60-70% of India’s defence equipment is Russian-origin.

Challenges in India-Russia Relations

Severe Trade Imbalance: Russia-India trade is heavily skewed in Russia’s favour (imports ~$63.8 bn vs exports ~$4.9 bn), creating long-term sustainability concerns and limiting India’s bargaining power.
Sanctions & Payment Mechanism Issues: Western sanctions complicate rupee-ruble settlements, banking channels, and large defence/energy payments, slowing trade and creating financial uncertainty.
Defence Dependence & Delivery Delays: With 60-70% of India’s military equipment being Russian-origin, supply delays after the Ukraine conflict and reduced production capacity affect India’s operational readiness.
Russia’s Growing Proximity to China: Deepening Russia-China strategic and defence ties, especially amid India-China border tensions, reduce India’s leverage and introduce new security challenges.
Diverging Geopolitical Alignments: India’s closer partnerships with the U.S., QUAD, and Indo-Pacific frameworks diverge from Russia’s Eurasian and China-centric approach, creating diplomatic friction.

Way Forward

Rebuild Strategic Trust: Regular high-level consultations and transparency on defence ties with China can prevent strategic misperceptions.
Expand Non-Defence Trade: Prioritise trade in pharma, IT, agriculture, and logistics to reduce overdependence on energy and defence sectors.
Secure Long-Term Energy Deals: Finalise multi-year contracts on discounted oil, LNG, nuclear fuel, and critical minerals to stabilise India’s energy basket.
Advance Connectivity Projects: Fast-track INSTC, Chennai–Vladivostok Maritime Corridor, and Eurasian Economic Union FTA to cut logistics costs and boost market access.
Strengthen People-Centric Engagement: Improve medical education standards for Indian students in Russia, boost tourism, and increase cultural/academic exchanges for durable ties.

Putin's India Visit 2025 FAQs

Q1: Why is Vladimir Putin visiting India in 2025?

Ans: Putin is visiting India to participate in the India–Russia Annual Summit 2025, aimed at strengthening strategic, defence, energy, and economic cooperation.

Q2: What is the main agenda of the India–Russia Annual Summit 2025?

Ans: The agenda includes discussions on defence modernisation, long-term energy cooperation, nuclear projects, trade expansion, and geopolitical coordination on regional security.

Q3: How often do India and Russia hold Annual Summits?

Ans: India and Russia hold annual leaders’ summits since 2000, making it one of India’s most institutionalised strategic dialogues.

Q4: What are the key defence outcomes expected from the visit?

Ans: Expected outcomes include progress on Su-30MKI upgrades, joint production of spare parts, BrahMos expansion, and new agreements on air defence and maintenance support.

Q5: How will this visit impact India’s energy security?

Ans: India aims to secure discounted crude supplies, expand LNG trade, boost nuclear reactor cooperation, and explore investments in Arctic energy projects.

SHANTI Bill 2025, Objectives, Provisions, Concerns, Way Forward

January 2, 2026

Why SHANTI Bill 2025 in News?

The Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India, SHANTI Bill 2025, officially called the Atomic Energy Bill 2025, is in the news because the Union Government has approved it to open India’s nuclear energy sector to private and foreign participation.

What is the SHANTI Bill 2025?

The SHANTI Bill 2025 is a proposed law to reform India’s civil nuclear energy sector and make it more open, modern, and investment-friendly. It replaces the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, which earlier kept the sector under strict government control. The Bill allows limited private and foreign participation in nuclear power while retaining state oversight.

SHANTI Bill 2025 Objectives

The SHANTI Bill 2025 aims to reform India’s civil nuclear energy sector to meet future power and climate needs. Its objectives are:

Expand nuclear power capacity to provide reliable, round-the-clock (baseload) electricity and reduce dependence on coal.
Support India’s climate commitments by promoting low-carbon and clean energy sources alongside renewables.
Open the nuclear sector to private and foreign participation in a controlled manner to attract long-term capital and investment.
Promote Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for faster deployment, industrial decarbonisation, and captive power use.
Improve grid stability as renewable energy capacity increases across the country.
Strengthen India’s energy security by diversifying the power mix and reducing fuel import risks.
Leverage international nuclear cooperation, including the Indo-US civil nuclear deal, while maintaining strategic oversight.

Provisions of the SHANTI Bill 2025

Expanded role of the private sector in areas such as: Exploration and mining of atomic minerals, Nuclear fuel fabrication, Manufacturing of nuclear equipment and components, and Research and Development (R&D) in civil nuclear technologies
Minority equity participation: Private companies are permitted to hold up to 49% equity in nuclear power projects, with the government retaining majority control.
Promotion of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for industrial use, captive power, and quicker deployment of nuclear capacity.
Foreign investment framework through partnerships and sovereign wealth funds, aligned with global nuclear practices.
Nuclear Energy Mission support, including a ₹20,000 crore outlay for SMR research and development.
Long-term capacity target of achieving 100 GWe nuclear power by 2047.
Government oversight and safety control to remain with state agencies such as NPCIL, ensuring nuclear safety and security.
Framework for liability and risk-sharing mechanisms to make nuclear projects commercially viable while protecting public interest.

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) is India’s premier authority responsible for ensuring nuclear and radiation safety. It was constituted in November 1983 by the President of India under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962. The AERB derives its regulatory powers from rules and notifications issued under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Key functions include:

Regulates nuclear and radiation safety across civilian nuclear installations
Issues safety codes, standards, and licensing conditions
Enforces safety provisions under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
Administers industrial safety provisions of the Factories Act, 1948 for units under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) as per Section 23 of the Atomic Energy Act
Conducts safety inspections and reviews to prevent radiation hazards
Plays a crucial role in strengthening regulatory oversight under the SHANTI Bill 2025 amid increased private sector participation

SHANTI Bill: Comparison with Existing Laws

The SHANTI Bill 2025 marks a significant shift from India’s earlier nuclear laws by reforming ownership, participation, and liability frameworks in the civil nuclear sector. The comparison of this bill and existing laws has been discussed below:

SHANTI Bill: Comparison with Existing Laws
Aspect	Atomic Energy Act, 1962 & CLNDA, 2010	SHANTI Bill 2025
Sector Control	Complete government monopoly over nuclear energy	Government control retained, but limited private participation allowed
Private Participation	No role for private companies	Private firms allowed up to 49% minority equity
Foreign Involvement	Effectively restricted due to legal and policy barriers	Foreign participation permitted through partnerships
Liability Framework	Strict supplier liability under CLNDA	Risk-sharing and liability management mechanisms proposed
Technology Focus	Large, indigenous nuclear reactors	Emphasis on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
Investment Environment	Closed and risk-heavy for investors	More investment-friendly and aligned with global practices

Concerns and Challenges Related to the Bill

Nuclear safety concerns: Expanding private participation raises fears about safety standards, making strong and independent nuclear regulation essential.
Public trust and acceptance: Nuclear projects often face local opposition due to health, environmental, and displacement concerns.
Liability and compensation issues: Changes in nuclear liability rules may raise worries about whether victims will receive timely and adequate compensation in case of an accident.
Commercial viability for private players: High costs, long project timelines, and uncertainty in tariff recovery may discourage private investment.
Regulatory capacity: Existing regulatory institutions may face challenges in effectively supervising a larger and more complex nuclear sector.
Technology and scalability issues: India’s heavy reliance on indigenous reactor designs may limit rapid scaling and global integration.

Way Forward

Strengthen nuclear safety regulation by enhancing the autonomy, capacity, and transparency of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB).
Ensure clear and fair liability mechanisms that protect victims while providing certainty to investors and suppliers.
Promote Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for industrial decarbonisation, captive power, and improved grid stability.
Build public trust through stakeholder consultations, transparency, and awareness about nuclear safety.
Encourage phased private participation to test commercial viability before large-scale expansion.
Integrate nuclear energy into India’s climate strategy, aligning it with renewable energy growth and net-zero targets.

SHANTI Bill 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is the SHANTI Bill 2025?

Ans: The SHANTI Bill 2025 is a proposed law to reform India’s civil nuclear energy sector by replacing the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

Q2: Why was the SHANTI Bill introduced?

Ans: It was introduced to expand nuclear power, attract private and foreign investment, ensure energy security, and support India’s climate and net-zero goals.

Q3: Does the SHANTI Bill allow privatisation of nuclear power?

Ans: No. The Bill allows only limited private participation, with private companies permitted up to 49% minority equity while the government retains control.

Q4: What role do Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) play in the Bill?

Ans: SMRs are promoted for faster deployment, industrial decarbonisation, captive power generation, and improved grid stability.

Q5: How does the Bill address nuclear liability issues?

Ans: It proposes risk-sharing and liability management mechanisms to align India’s laws with global practices while ensuring victim compensation.

Lord Macaulay Minute, Objectives, Features, Historical Background

January 2, 2026

Lord Macaulay Minute was an important document in colonial India’s educational history as it advocated the introduction and promotion of English education for Indians. British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay introduced this document on 2 February 1835. Macaulay’s vision was to create a class of Indians who could act as intermediaries between the British rulers and the Indian masses. He aimed to develop individuals who would be “Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, opinions, morals, and intellect.” Macaulay dismissed the worth of traditional Indian learning, claiming that European knowledge especially in science and social thought was way above. In this article, we are going to cover Lord Macaulay minute, its historical background, features and objectives.

Lord Macaulay Minute Historical Background

In the beginning, the British East India Company showed little interest in education, focusing solely on trade and profit.
Over the period, they realized the strategic importance of education and began setting up limited institutions of higher learning.
Early efforts promoted Indian classical learning in languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian (the court language at the time).
The Charter Act of 1813 was the first concrete step, allocating ₹1 lakh annually for education. However, missionary efforts largely focused on religious and moral instruction, aiming to Christianize Indians.
A major debate emerged between:
- Orientalists : who supported traditional Indian learning in native languages.
- Anglicists: who advocated for English education and Western sciences.
To resolve this, Macaulay arrived in India in 1834 as the President of the General Committee of Public Instruction (GCPI). His Minute finally tilted the balance in favour of the Anglicists.

Macaulay’s Minute Features

Following were the features of Macaulay’s Minutes:

Education funds should be used exclusively for promoting European literature and science in English.
Stipends for students already enrolled in traditional institutions would continue, but no new grants would be provided for Oriental studies.
No government support for printing Oriental works.
All resources were to be diverted towards English education, with the belief that it would serve as the gateway to modern knowledge.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute Objectives

Following are the objectives of Lord Macaulay’s Minute:

Prioritization of Western Education: Funds should be spent only on Western sciences and literature.
Closure of Oriental Colleges: Institutions teaching only Eastern philosophy and classics were to be discontinued.
Downward Filtration Theory: Only a small group of elites would be educated, who in turn were expected to spread knowledge to the masses.
Cultural Assimilation: Creating a loyal class of Indians aligned with British values and interests.

Lord Macaulay

Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859) was a politician, historian, and essayist.
He is known as the architect of India’s modern education system under British rule.
Lord Macaulay advocated the superiority of Western knowledge, famously stating that “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.”
He was a strong believer in liberal progress and European traditions, while dismissing Indian and Arabic learning as inferior.

Downward Filtration Theory

Downward Filtration Theory was proposed in Macaulay’s Minute of 1835.
The theory suggested providing education only to a small upper-class elite, who would act as agents of knowledge diffusion for the wider population.
It is based on the belief that education would “trickle down” from elites to the masses.
In practice, it led to a social and educational divide, benefiting the upper classes while leaving the majority uneducated.

Lord Macaulay Minute FAQs

Q1: What was introduced following Macaulay's Minute of 1835?

Ans: Macaulay’s minute introduced English education and promotion of Western literature and science were officially introduced in India.

Q2: What were the main features of Lord Macaulay's recommendations?

Ans: Lord Macaulay recommended promotion of English education, closure of Oriental institutions, focus on Western sciences, and the Downward Filtration Theory.

Q3: Who was the Governor-General of India during Macaulay's Minute?

Ans: Lord William Bentinck was the governor general of India during Macaulay’s minute.

Q4: What is the difference between Macaulay Minute and Wood's Despatch?

Ans: Macaulay’s Minute (1835) emphasized English education for elites, while Wood’s Despatch (1854) laid down a comprehensive plan for mass education and institutions at all levels.

Q5: What was Macaulay's Minute?

Ans: Macaulay’s Minute is a policy document of 1835 recommending English as the medium of instruction and Western knowledge for Indian education.

World Organisations and Their Headquarters, List, Established Date

January 2, 2026

A World Organisation is a grouping composed of member states from multiple countries. These organisations serve as catalysts for collaboration, incorporating cooperation among their member nations. Their primary role is to promote the welfare and development of these nations, often by offering financial support to countries in need.

List of World Organisations and Their Headquarters is an important General Knowledge topic. The question from this topic can be asked in the General Awareness section. Candidates preparing for UPSC must learn the list given in this article.

World Organisations and Their Headquarters

In today’s world, creating unity in the world to maintain peace, the International Organisation came into existence and has functioned since then. One of the key objectives of such organisations is to ensure peace among the member countries while contributing to their economic and social progress. These organisations tackle the conflicts where more than one country is being affected and the diversity is being hampered.

List of World Organisations and Their Headquarters

In recent days where there are conflicts going on in various nations,these organisations are the incharge to maintaining the peace and improving the quality of lives of the citizens of that country. Below in the table we have shared the List of World Organisations and Their Headquarters to know which organisations work for which concern and are there any similar common goals to address.

List of World Organisations and Their Headquarters
Organisation	Headquarters	Established
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)	New York City, USA	1965
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)	Nairobi, Kenya	1972
United Nations Population Fund (UNPF)	New York City, USA	1969
United Nations Human Settlement Programme (UN-Habitat)	Nairobi, Kenya	1978
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)	New York City, USA	1946
World Food Programme (WFP)	Rome, Italy	1961
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)	Rome, Italy	1945
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)	Montreal, Canada	1947
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)	Rome, Italy	1977
International Labour Organization (ILO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1919
International Monetary Fund (IMF)	Washington, DC, USA	1944
International Maritime Organization (IMO)	London, United Kingdom	1948
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)	Geneva, Switzerland	1865
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)	Paris, France	1945
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)	Vienna, Austria	1966
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)	Madrid, Spain	1974
Universal Postal Union (UPU)	Bern, Switzerland	1874
World Health Organization (WHO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1948
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1967
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1950
World Bank	Washington, DC, USA	1944
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)	Geneva, Switzerland	1994
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)	Geneva, Switzerland	1950
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)	Geneva, Switzerland	1980
United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)	Geneva, Switzerland	1963
United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS)	Copenhagen, Denmark	1973
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA)	Amman, Jordan	1949
United Nations System Staff College (UNSSC)	Turin, Italy	2002
United Nations University (UNU)	Tokyo, Japan	1973
UN Women	New York City, USA	2010
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)	Vienna, Austria	1957
International Organization for Migration (IOM)	Geneva, Switzerland	1951
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)	The Hague, Netherlands	1997
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)	Bonn, Germany	1994 (Signed in 1993)
World Trade Organization (WTO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1995
International Trade Centre (ITC)	Geneva, Switzerland	1964
African Development Bank Group	Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire	1964
African Union (AU)	Addis Abab, Ethiopia	2002
Amnesty International (AI)	London, United Kingdom	1961
Andean Community	Lima, Peru	1969
Arctic Council	Tromso, Norway	1996
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)	Queenstown, Singapore	1989
Asian Development Bank (ADB)	Mandaluyong, Philippines	1966
Association of Caribbean States (ACS)	Port of Spain, Trinidad, Tobago	1994
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)	Jakarta, Indonesia	1967
Bank for International Settlements (BIS)	Basel, Switzerland	1930
Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)	Istanbul, Turkey	1992
Caribbean Community (CARICOM)	Georgetown, Guyana	1973
Central American Bank for Economic Integration	Tegucigalpa, Honduras	1960
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)	Lusaka, Zambia	1994
Commonwealth Secretariat	London, United Kingdom	1965
Council of Europe	Strasbourg, France	1949
Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR)	Geneva, Switzerland	1951
Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS)	Stockholm, Switzerland	1992
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)	Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria	1975
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)	London, United Kingdom	1991
European Central Bank (ECB)	Frankfurt, Germany	1998
European Free Trade Association (EFTA)	Geneva, Switzerland	1960
Association of European Parliamentarians with Africa (AWEPA)	Amsterdam, Netherlands	1984
European Space Agency (ESA)	Paris, France	1975
European Union (EU)	Brussels, Belgium	1993
Group of Eight (G8)	New York, USA	1975
G-15 Summit	Geneva, Switzerland	1990
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)	Washington, DC, USA	1959
Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)	Djibouti, Djibouti	1986
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)	Vienna, Austria	1957
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)	Montreal, Canada	1947
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)	Paris, France	1919
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)	Geneva, Switzerland	1863
International Court of Justice (ICJ)	The Hague, Netherlands	1945
International Development Association (IDA)	Washington, DC, USA	1960
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)	Geneva, Switzerland	1919
International Finance Corporation (IFC)	Washington, DC, USA	1956
International Labour Organization (ILO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1919
International Olympic Committee (IOC)	Lausanne, Switzerland	1894
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)	Geneva, Switzerland	1947
International Peace Bureau (IPB)	Geneva, Switzerland	1891
International Seabed Authority (ISA)	Kingston, Jamaica	1994
International Service for Human Rights (ISHR)	Geneva, Switzerland	1984
Inter-Parliamentary Union	Geneva, Switzerland	1889
League of Arab States	Cairo, Egypt	1945
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)	Washington, DC, USA	1988
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)	Central Jakarta, Indonesia	1961
Nordic Council of Ministers	Copenhagen, Denmark	1971
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)	Washington, DC, USA	1949
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)	Paris, France	1961
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)	Vienna, Austria	1975
Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC)	Kuwait, Middle East	1968
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)	Jeddah, Saudi Arabia	1969
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)	Vienna, Austria	1960
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)	Noumea, New Caledonia	1947
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)	Kathmandu, Nepal	1985
Unión Latina	Paris, France	1954
United Cities & Local Governments (UCLG)	Barcelona, Spain	2004
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)	Bangkok, Thailand	1947
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)	Beirut, Lebanon	1973
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)	Nairobi, Kenya	1972
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)	Rome, Italy	1945
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR)	Geneva, Switzerland and New York City, USA	1993
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)	Vienna, Austria	1997
United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW)	Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic	1975
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)	Geneva, Switzerland and New York City, USA	1991
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)	Amman, Jordan	1949
Western European Union (WEU)	Paris, France	1954
World Federation of United Nations Associations (WFUNA)	Geneva, Switzerland and New York City, USA	1946
World Organization Against Torture (OMCT)	Geneva, Switzerland	1985
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)	Gland, Switzerland	1961

List of International Organizations where India is Member

India's membership in various international organisations plays an important role in its development and global standing. Although the United States has re-classified India from a developing nation to a developed one. These international organisations offer crucial aid, making it essential to acknowledge the key global bodies to which India belongs.

List of International Organizations where India is Member
International Organization	Headquarters	Year of Foundation
AALCO - Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization	New Delhi	1956
ADB - Asian Development Bank	Manila, Philippines	1956
AfDB - African Development Bank (non-regional members)	Tunis, Tunisia	1964
AG - Australia Group	Brussels, Belgium	1985
ASEAN Regional Forum - The Association of Southeast Asian Nations	Jakarta, Indonesia	1967
BIMSTEC - Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation	Dhaka, Bangladesh	1997
BIS - Bank for International Settlements	Basel, Switzerland	1930
BRICS - Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa	Shanghai, China	2006
CoN - Commonwealth of Nations	London, UK	1931
CERN - European Organization for Nuclear Research	Geneva, Switzerland	1954
CP - Colombo Plan	Colombo, Srilanka	1950
EAS - East Asia Summit	Colombo, Sri Lanka	1950
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations	Rome, Itlay	1945
G-15 - Group of 15	Geneva, Switzerland	1989
G-20 - Group of 20	Cancun, Mexico	1999
G-77 - Group of 77	New York	1964
IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency	Vienna, Austria	1957
IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)	Washington DC, US	1944
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization	Montreal, Canada	1944
ICC - International Chamber of Commerce	Paris, France	1919
IDA - International Development Association	Washington DC	1950
IEA - International Energy Agency	Paris, France	1974
IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development	Rome, Italy	1977
IFC - International Finance Corporation	Washington DC, US	1956
ILO - International Labour Organization	Geneva, Switzerland	1919
IMF - International Monetary Fund	Washington DC, US	1945
IMO - International Maritime Organization	London, UK	1948
IMSO - International Mobile Satellite Organization	London, UK	1999
Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization	Lyon, France	1923
IOC - International Olympic Committee	Lausanne, Switzerland	1894
IPEEC - International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation	Paris, France	2009
ISO - International Organization for Standardization	Geneva, Switzerland	1947
ITSO - International Telecommunications Satellite Organization	Washington DC	1964
ITU - International Telecommunication Union	Geneva, Switzerland	1864
ITUC - International Trade Union Confederation (the successor to ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions) and the WCL (World Confederation of Labour))	Brussels, Belgium	2006
MTCR Missile Technology Control Regime	Japan	1987
NAM - Non-Aligned Movement	Jakarta, Indonesia	1961
OPCW - Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons	Hague, Netherland	1997
PCA - Permanent Court of Arbitration	Hague, Netherland	1899
PIF - Pacific Islands Forum (partner)	Suva, Fiji	1971
SAARC - South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation	Kathmandu, Nepal	1985
SACEP - South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme	Colombo, Sri Lanka	1982
SCO - Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (member)	Beijing, China	1996
UN - United Nations	New York	1945
UNAIDS - United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS	New York	1994
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation	London, Uk	1946
WHO- World Health Organization	Geneva, Switzerland	1948

International Organization and Their Headquarters Types

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs):

IGOs are formed through agreements between sovereign nations to address common global or regional concerns. They play a vital role in fostering international cooperation on matters such as health, development, trade, and security. Notable examples include the United Nations (UN), World Health Organization (WHO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and World Trade Organization (WTO).

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

NGOs are independent, non-state entities that operate across borders to advocate for social, humanitarian, and environmental causes. Though not affiliated with governments, their influence in shaping policy and delivering aid is significant. Prominent examples include Amnesty International, Greenpeace, and Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders).

Regional Organizations:

These organizations focus on strengthening political, economic, and cultural ties within a specific geographic area. They are designed to address regional challenges through dialogue and cooperation among member states. Examples include the European Union (EU), African Union (AU), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

International Organization and Their Headquarters Characteristics

International Organizations are established through multilateral agreements among sovereign states, allowing member countries to collaborate on shared interests and global challenges. Participation is voluntary, and cooperation is based on mutually agreed principles.
While International Organizations promote collective decision-making, member states maintain their sovereign authority. Most decisions are made through consensus or voting systems to ensure fair representation and respect for each nation’s autonomy.
Each organization operates under clearly defined objectives and mandates, as outlined in its founding charter. These goals shape the organization’s strategies, programs, and areas of engagement.
Most international Organizations have permanent headquarters in key global cities. Their governance structures typically include bodies such as a General Assembly, Executive Council, Secretariat, and specialized agencies tailored to their operational needs.
International Organizations are funded through contributions from member states, as well as grants and voluntary donations. The financial contribution from each country is usually determined by its economic capacity or agreed-upon criteria.

International Organizations and Their Headquarters Roles

International Organizations such as the United Nations play a vital role in promoting peace and stability across the globe. Through peacekeeping missions, diplomatic interventions, and mediation efforts, they help manage and resolve political and armed conflicts.
In times of natural disasters, armed conflicts, or humanitarian crises, international bodies provide essential relief, including food, shelter, medical care, and logistical support, to affected populations.
Institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) assist developing nations by offering financial aid, policy advice, and infrastructure development programs aimed at promoting sustainable economic growth.
Organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) address cross-border health challenges and environmental concerns, promoting global public health standards and environmental sustainability.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) and similar institutions work to streamline international trade, reduce barriers, and ensure fair and equitable trade practices among member countries.

Tricks to remember World Organisations and Their Headquarters

Memorising the names of World Organisations and Their Headquarters can be challenging, but we’ve got you covered. Below, you'll find some simple tricks to help you recall them effortlessly.

Tricks to remember World Organisations and Their Headquarters
Headquarters	Organisations
The organisation which Starts with World and ends with Organization has its headquarters in Geneva	World Health Organisation
	World Meteorological Organization
	World Intellectual Property Organization
Organisations having money associated with them usually have Headquarters in Washington DC	International Monetary Fund (IMF)
	World Bank
Organisations connected to Industrial development, Petroleum, and atomic research have their headquarters in Vienna	United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
	International Atomic Energy Agency
	Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Organisations which are related to the Economy or Education usually have headquarters in Paris	International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
	United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
	Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

World Organisations and Their Headquarters FAQs

Q1: How many international organisations and their headquarters are there?

Ans: There are 107 international organisations.

Q2: How many organisations are there in the world?

Ans: There are more than 300 intergovernmental organisations around the world.

Q3: What is the world's largest organisation?

Ans: The United Nations is the largest organisation having 193 member states and 2 observer states.

Q4: What is the world No 1 organisation?

Ans: The United Nations (UN) is considered as the world’s no. 1 organisation.

Q5: What are the 8 agencies of the UN and their headquarters?

Ans: FAO. Headquarters: Rome, Italy ICAO. Headquarters: Montreal, Canada IFAD. Headquarters: Rome, Italy ILO. Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland IMF. Headquarters: Washington, DC, USA IMO. Headquarters: London, United Kingdom ITU. Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland UNESCO. Headquarters: Paris, France

Maharatna Companies in India 2025, List, Eligibility, Benefits

January 2, 2026

The Government of India classifies Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) into three categories: Maharatna, Navratna, and Miniratna based on specific eligibility criteria. As of 2025, there are 14 Maharatna Companies in India with the latest addition of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in the year 2024. This article outlines the criteria for achieving these statuses and provides a detailed list of Maharatna companies, along with key information about each.

Maharatna Company Eligibility Criteria

Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) in India are also classified based on their specific non-financial objectives and are registered under Section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013 (formerly Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956). In 2010, the government introduced the Maharatna category to recognise higher-performing PSUs.

Eligibility Criteria for a Maharatna Company:

Must hold Navratna status.
Listed on the Indian stock exchange with the required minimum public shareholding as per Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) regulations.
Should have an average annual net profit after tax exceeding Rs. 5,000 crore over the last three years.
Must maintain an average annual turnover of Rs. 25,000 crore for three years, or
An average annual net worth of Rs. 15,000 crore for three years.
Must demonstrate a global presence or international operations.

Maharatna Companies Benefits

Maharatna status is a prestigious designation granted to select Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) in India. Here are some key benefits of Maharatna status:

Greater Autonomy: Maharatna companies enjoy greater operational and financial autonomy compared to other CPSEs. This allows them to make quicker and more efficient decisions.
Investment Capabilities: These companies can invest up to ₹5,000 crore or 15% of their net worth in a single project without requiring government approval.
Strategic Flexibility: Maharatna companies have the freedom to undertake mergers, acquisitions, and strategic investments both domestically and internationally.
Human Resource Management: The Board of Directors of Maharatna companies has the authority to create posts below the level of the Board of Directors and make decisions related to human resource management and training.
Global Expansion: The status aims to empower these companies to expand their operations and emerge as global giants.
Financial Performance: To qualify for Maharatna status, companies must demonstrate exceptional financial performance, including high turnover, net worth, and profitability over the past three years.

List of 14 Maharatna Companies in India

Here is the list of 14 Central Public Sector Enterprises that are classified as Maharatna Companies:

Sl.No	Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSE – Maharatna Company)
1	NTPC Limited (NTPC)
2	Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC)
3	Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)
4	Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)
5	Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL)
6	Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL)
7	Coal India Limited (CIL)
8	GAIL India Limited (GAIL)
9	Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL)
10	Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID)
11	Power Finance Corporation
12	Rural Electrification Corporation Limited
13	Oil India Ltd
14	Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)

14 Maharatna Company in India Details

Brief Details about 14 Public Sector Maharatna Companies:

National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
NTPC, founded on 7th November 1975, was granted Maharatna status in May 2010 by the Government of India. Operating from 70 locations in India and abroad (Sri Lanka and Bangladesh), NTPC has five regional headquarters. It offers services in electricity generation, distribution, and natural gas exploration, production, and distribution.
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
Established on 14th August 1956, ONGC is India’s largest crude oil and natural gas company, responsible for 75% of the country’s domestic production. With over 11,000 km of pipelines, it holds Maharatna status since 2010. ONGC has subsidiaries like ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), and ONGC Mangalore Petrochemicals Limited (OMPL).
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)
SAIL, based in New Delhi, is the 20th largest steel producer in the world and the third largest in India. It operates five integrated steel plants and three special steel plants across the country.
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)
BHEL specializes in the design, engineering, and servicing of products for core sectors such as power, transportation, renewable energy, oil & gas, and defense. It supplies locomotives to Indian Railways and defense equipment like naval guns and simulators.
Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL)
IOCL is India’s largest commercial oil company, with ventures into alternative energy and international downstream operations. It operates across the entire hydrocarbon value chain, including refining, pipeline transportation, and petrochemicals.
Coal India Limited (CIL)
CIL, granted Maharatna status in 2011, is the world’s largest coal producer. Founded in 1975, it is headquartered in Kolkata and operates through subsidiaries like Western Coalfields Limited (WCL), Central Coalfields Limited (CCL), and others.
Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL)
Founded in 1984, GAIL is India’s largest state-owned natural gas processing and distribution company. It received Maharatna status in February 2013 and is under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL)
BPCL, India’s second-largest fuel retailer, was granted Maharatna status in 2017.
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID)
Incorporated in 1989, POWERGRID handles electric power distribution, transmission, and energy trading. It is headquartered in Gurugram and holds Maharatna status.
Power Finance Corporation (PFC)
PFC, a non-banking financial corporation established in 1986, serves as the financial backbone of India’s power sector.
Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC)
REC, incorporated in 1969, provides long-term financing for infrastructure projects. It is a Public Financial Institution (PFI) and a Non-Banking Finance Company (NBFC) under the Ministry of Power.
Oil India Ltd (OIL)
OIL, founded in 1959, is India’s second-largest national oil and gas company, engaged in the exploration and production of crude oil, natural gas, and LPG. It operates under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) Founded in 1940 and granted Maharatna status in 2024, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is a Bengaluru-based government-owned aerospace and defence giant that designs, manufactures, and maintains aircraft, helicopters, engines, avionics, and related systems. It plays a crucial role in strengthening India’s military and civil aviation capabilities while also supporting ISRO in key space missions through advanced engineering and collaborative technology development.

Maharatna Companies in India FAQs

Q1: What is the 12th Maharatna company in India?

Ans: Power Finance Corporation (PFC) is the 12th Maharatna company in India.

Q2: Which is the 13th Maharatna company?

Ans: Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC) is the 13th Maharatna company.

Q3: How many Maharatna companies are there in India now?

Ans: There are 14 Maharatna companies in India now.

New Labour Codes 2025, Download PDF, Changes, Benefits, Impact

January 2, 2026

The New Labour Codes 2025 represent a historic transformation in India’s labour governance framework, consolidating 29 outdated and fragmented labour laws into four new labour codes: the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 which are modern, progressive and worker-centric Codes. These reforms significantly improve wage protection, workplace safety, social security access, and ease of compliance for industries. With their implementation starting 21 November 2025, India’s labour ecosystem now reflects global standards and supports the vision of a future-ready workforce and a resilient, competitive economy.

Together, the Codes lay the foundation for Aatmanirbhar Bharat, ensuring that workers, especially women, youth, gig, migrant, and unorganised workers, receive stronger rights and welfare protection.

What Are the Four New Labour Codes?

The Four New Labour Codes, notified by the Government, streamline decades-old laws into a simpler, efficient structure designed for modern economies.

Four New Labour Codes
Labour Code	Key Focus Area	Major Benefit
Code on Wages, 2019	Wages, minimum wages, payment of wages	Ensures statutory minimum wages for all workers
Industrial Relations Code, 2020	Hiring, firing, dispute resolution, unions	Faster dispute resolution, flexibility in employment
Code on Social Security, 2020	PF, ESIC, maternity, gig workers, unorganised workers	Universal social security coverage
Occupational Safety, Health, and Working Conditions Code, 2020	Occupational safety, health, working conditions	Safer workplaces across all industries

New Labour Codes PDF

The New Labour Codes consolidate 29 existing labour laws into 4 comprehensive codes to simplify and modernise India’s labour regulations. These codes aim to improve the ease of doing business, ensure better social security, and strengthen workers’ rights in a unified framework. The link to download the New Labour Codes has been shared below.

New Labour Codes PDF Download

Why India Needed the New Labour Codes

For decades, India operated under labour laws designed during the 1930s-1950s, a period when the nature of employment, technology and work structures were drastically different. Many provisions became outdated and ineffective for today’s gig economy, digital workforce, MSMEs, and large-scale industries. The Codes solve this by modernising regulations, improving legal clarity, and providing equitable protection across all forms of employment.

Reasons for Reform

The old laws were fragmented across 29 Acts with inconsistent definitions and processes.
New forms of work, gig, platform, and contractual work need legal recognition.
Labour dispute resolution was slow and unpredictable.
Social security coverage was extremely limited, excluding gig and informal workers.
Women’s participation in night shifts and high-paying sectors was restricted by outdated norms.

[youtube url="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nMpr5BYtBbo" width="560" height="315"]

Changes Under New Labour Codes

The transition highlights how the New Labour Codes bring India closer to global labour practices. Workers benefit through formalisation, financial stability and access to social protection, while businesses enjoy simplified compliance and operational flexibility. The Codes strike a balance between worker welfare and industry growth, ensuring that reforms support both productivity and protection.

Changes Under New Labour Codes
Area	Pre-Labour Codes	Post-Labour Codes (2025)
Formalisation	No mandatory appointment letter	Mandatory appointment letters for all
Social Security	Limited coverage	Universal PF, ESIC, insurance for all workers
Minimum Wages	Only for scheduled employments	Statutory minimum wage for every worker
Healthcare	No annual check-up requirement	Free annual health check-up for workers 40+
Timely Wages	No strict enforcement	Mandatory timely wage payment
Women’s Employment	Restrictions in night shifts	Women allowed in all jobs with safety measures
ESIC Coverage	Only notified areas	PAN-India ESIC coverage, including small units
Compliance	Multiple returns and licences	Single registration, single licence, single return

New Labour Codes Benefits

Fixed-Term Employees (FTE): FTEs get equal pay, benefits and gratuity after one year, reducing excessive contractual hiring.
Gig & Platform Workers: Gig workers receive legal recognition, aggregator-funded welfare, and fully portable Aadhaar-linked benefits.
Contract Workers: Contract workers get equal benefits as permanent staff with gratuity after one year and free annual health check-ups.
Women Workers: Women get equal pay, legal protection, night-shift options with safety and mandatory committee representation.
Youth Workers: Youth receive guaranteed minimum wages, formal appointment letters and mandatory paid leave protection.
MSME Workers: MSME employees gain social security coverage, standard working hours and assured timely wage payment.
Beedi & Cigar Workers: Workers get minimum wages, capped working hours and double overtime rates with bonus eligibility.
Plantation Workers: Plantation workers receive safety training, protective gear and full ESI coverage for families.
Audio-Visual & Digital Media Workers: AV and digital media workers get appointment letters, timely wages and double overtime pay.
Mine Workers: Mine workers receive accident-related coverage, free health check-ups and regulated 8–12 hour work shifts.
Hazardous Industry Workers: Hazardous industry workers get annual health check-ups, national safety standards and gender-inclusive job access.
Textile Workers: Textile workers get equal wages, migrant benefits, longer claim periods and double overtime rates.
IT & ITES Workers: IT workers are assured salary by the 7th, anti-harassment protections and mandatory social

security coverage.

Dock Workers: Dock workers receive legal recognition, PF/pension/insurance benefits and employer-funded health check-ups.
Export Sector Workers: Export workers get gratuity, timely wages, annual leave after 180 days and safe, consent-based night-shift options.

Impact of New Labour Codes on India’s Labour Landscape

India has rapidly expanded social security coverage from 19% in 2015 to 64% in 2025, and the New Labour Codes accelerate this trajectory by making benefits portable, inclusive and technology-driven. They empower workers while easing compliance for industries, creating a balanced and future-ready labour ecosystem that aligns with global standards.

Formalisation of the workforce
Expanded ESIC and PF coverage
Increased women’s participation
Better safety and health standards
Boost to employment and industry growth

New Labour Codes FAQs

Q1: What are the four new Labour Codes?

Ans: They are the Code on Wages, Industrial Relations Code, Social Security Code, and Occupational Safety, Health & Working Conditions (OSH) Code.

Q2: What is the main objective of Labour Codes?

Ans: To simplify 29 labour laws into 4 codes for ease of compliance, transparency, and worker welfare.

Q3: Are the Labour Codes implemented in India?

Ans: They are notified but not yet fully implemented as states must frame corresponding rules.

Q4: How will the new Labour Codes affect salaries?

Ans: They may reduce take-home pay but increase social security contributions due to a 50% cap on allowances.

Q5: What is the ‘floor wage’ under the Wage Code?

Ans: It is a nationally fixed minimum wage benchmark set by the Centre for all states.

Cyclone Shakti, Naming, Formation, Location, Classification

January 2, 2026

Cyclone Shakti is a recent example of a tropical cyclone that formed over the Arabian Sea in 2025. It provides an important case study for understanding cyclone formation, movement, and classification in India. The event highlights the increasing trend of severe cyclones over the Arabian Sea as reported by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) due to warming ocean temperatures.

Cyclone Shakti

Cyclone Shakti was classified as a Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) by the IMD. It formed over the east-central Arabian Sea with wind speeds expected reaching 130-145 km/h. The cyclone serves as a representative example for studying the physical processes of tropical cyclone development, including oceanic heat content, Coriolis force, and atmospheric instability. Such cyclones are part of the tropical storm system in the North Indian Ocean Basin.

Cyclone Shakti 2025 Naming

The naming of Cyclone Shakti 2025 follows the guidelines of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones. The name “Shakti,” proposed by Sri Lanka, symbolizes power and resilience. Names are selected from lists contributed by 13 member countries, including India, Bangladesh, Oman, and Myanmar. The purpose of naming cyclones is to facilitate better communication and public awareness during weather forecasting and disaster management.

Cyclone Shakti Formation

Cyclone Shakti formed through a process typical of tropical cyclone development. Warm ocean waters above 27°C provided latent heat, fueling convection. Rising moist air created low pressure at the surface, while the Coriolis effect caused rotation, forming a cyclonic system. In the upper troposphere, outflow maintained the system’s structure. The low vertical wind shear over the Arabian Sea in October 2025 allowed the cyclone to intensify into a Severe Cyclonic Storm.

Factors Affecting Cyclone Formation in Arabian Sea

The Arabian Sea has become increasingly favorable for cyclones due to changing climatic and oceanic conditions. According to a 2017 study by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) the annual mean temperature of India has increased by about 1.2℃ since 1901. This warming has enhanced the frequency of intense cyclones. Additionally, reduced vertical wind shear and increased moisture transport from the equatorial region have supported cyclone formation near India’s west coast.

Cyclone Shakti Geographical Location and Path

Cyclone Shakti developed over the east-central Arabian Sea, roughly near 21°N latitude and 66.8°E longitude. Located about 270 km southwest to Naliya, 300km east to Porbandar and 360 km south of Karachi, as of Oct 03, 2025 morning. Its path followed a typical northwestward movement under the influence of subtropical westerly winds. The Arabian Sea’s unique geography- enclosed by landmasses on three sides and open toward the southwest- helps trap heat and moisture, providing ideal conditions for cyclone formation. This path also reflects the regional wind circulation patterns during the post-monsoon season.

Classification of Cyclones in India

The IMD classifies cyclones based on their wind speeds and pressure levels. Cyclone Shakti falls under the “Severe Cyclonic Storm” category with sustained wind speeds between 118 and 165 km/h. The classification of cyclones helps in understanding cyclone intensity and potential damage levels. Such categorization also aligns with the international Saffir-Simpson Scale, though the Indian scale has region-specific terminology for the North Indian Ocean basin.

Classification of Cyclones in India
IMD Category	Wind Speed (km/h)	Example
Cyclonic Storm	62-88	Cyclone Nilam (2012)
Severe Cyclonic Storm	89-117	Cyclone Ockhi (2017)
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm	118-165	Cyclone Hudhud (2014)
Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm	166-220	Cyclone Tauktae (2021)
Super Cyclone	>221	Odisha Super Cyclone (1999)

Cyclone Trends in the Arabian Sea

The Arabian Sea, traditionally less active than the Bay of Bengal, has witnessed a rise in intense cyclones over the past two decades. The IITM and Union Ministry of Earth Sciences’ 2021 Annual Climate Report noted a 52% increase in Severe Cyclonic Storms in the Arabian Sea between 2001 and 2019. Cyclone Shakti exemplifies this growing pattern, showing how climatic warming and Indian Ocean Dipole events influence cyclone frequency and intensity.

Cyclone Shakti Challenges

Cyclone Shakti poses multi-dimensional challenges affecting ecology, economy, and human settlements along the western coast of India.

Climate Change Intensification: Rising Arabian Sea temperatures increase cyclone frequency and intensity, stressing existing coastal ecosystems.
Coastal Erosion and Landform Damage: Strong winds and storm surges erode beaches, deltas, and mangroves, altering natural buffers.
Agricultural Losses: Salinity intrusion and flooding damage crops, fisheries, and aquaculture-based livelihoods.
Infrastructure Vulnerability: Roads, power lines, and small coastal settlements face high risk due to inadequate climate-resilient design.
Socio-economic Impact: Displacement, loss of income, and disruption of local economies challenge recovery and development in affected areas

Way Forward:

Addressing Cyclone Shakti’s impacts requires integrated approaches combining environmental, social, and infrastructural strategies.

Coastal Ecosystem Restoration: Strengthen mangroves, dunes, and wetlands to act as natural storm buffers.
Climate-resilient Infrastructure: Upgrade housing, roads, and electricity networks to withstand high winds and flooding.
Sustainable Agriculture and Fisheries: Promote salt-tolerant crops, aquaculture planning, and adaptive farming practices.
Disaster-Resilient Livelihood Programs: Support local communities with alternate income sources and insurance schemes.
Research and Monitoring: Track Arabian Sea warming trends, coastal erosion, and socio-economic vulnerabilities for long-term mitigation planning.

Cyclone Shakti Recent Developments

Cyclone Shakti, the first cyclonic storm of the Arabian Sea season, has intensified into a severe cyclonic storm as of October 4, 2025. Expected 45-55 kmph wind speed, that may intensify. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) reported that the storm is moving west-southwestward at a speed of 18 km/h and is expected to continue intensifying. As of 12 PM on October 4, the storm was located approximately 420 km from Dwarka in Gujarat. The IMD has issued warnings for rough seas and squally winds along the Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts. Authorities have advised fishermen to avoid venturing into the sea, and coastal residents are urged to stay alert.

Impact of Cyclone Shakti

Cyclone Shakti is likely to affect coastal environments, landforms, and ecosystems, demonstrating the geographical and socio-economic effects of severe cyclones.

Coastal Erosion: Shorelines experienced sediment displacement and loss of 2-3 meters in vulnerable areas, altering landforms.
Flooding: Heavy rainfall leading to temporary inundation of low-lying coastal zones and river mouths.
Soil and Agriculture: Saline water intrusion damages soil fertility, affecting crops and mangroves.
Fisheries and Livelihoods: Disruption of marine ecosystems and fishing zones impacted local economies dependent on coastal resources.

Government Initiatives for Cyclone Management

India has established multiple institutions and policies to improve disaster preparedness and cyclone resilience across coastal states.

National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP): Strengthens early warning, evacuation, and infrastructure along the coast.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): Promotes sustainable coastal development and environmental conservation.
Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC), IMD: Monitors cyclones, issues forecasts, and provides scientific data.

Community Awareness Programs: Focus on training local populations for preparedness and response during severe cyclonic events.

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Cyclone Shakti Maharashtra FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Shakti?

Ans: Cyclone Shakti is a Severe Cyclonic Storm that formed over the Arabian Sea in 2025.

Q2: Why was the Cyclone named Shakti?

Ans: The name “Shakti” was proposed by Sri Lanka and approved by the WMO panel.

Q3: What factors caused Cyclone Shakti?

Ans: It was caused by warm sea temperatures, Coriolis force, and low wind shear.

Q4: How are cyclones classified in India?

Ans: IMD classifies them based on wind speed, from Depression to Super Cyclone.

Q5: Why are Arabian Sea cyclones increasing?

Ans: Due to rising sea surface temperatures and changing climatic conditions.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), Report 2025, Indicator, Calculation

January 2, 2026

The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) goes beyond traditional income-based measures to evaluate poverty through various deprivations that people face in their daily lives. It includes factors like education, health, and living standards to capture the real extent of hardship. The 2025 Global MPI, released on October 17, 2025, marks a significant milestone by combining climate hazard data with poverty measures, highlighting how environmental risks and poverty are deeply connected across the world.

Multidimensional Poverty Index

The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is an international measure of poverty developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI). Unlike monetary poverty, which measures income alone, MPI identifies people who are deprived in multiple aspects of life such as education, health, and standard of living.

Each of these three dimensions carries several specific indicators. A household is considered multidimensionally poor when it is deprived in at least one-third of the weighted indicators. The MPI value ranges from 0 to 1, where a lower value indicates better performance. It serves as a crucial policy tool for governments to monitor and address poverty more effectively.

Multidimensional Poverty Index 2025

The Global MPI Report 2025, titled “Overlapping Hardships: Poverty and Climate Hazards”, presents an in-depth look at how poverty and environmental vulnerability overlap. It evaluates data from 109 countries, with subnational estimates for 1,359 regions across 101 nations. Key Findings from MPI 2025 Report:

1.1 billion people out of 6.3 billion live in acute multidimensional poverty.
More than 50% of the poor are children, highlighting generational vulnerability.
Around 740 million poor people, approximately 64.5%, live in middle-income countries.
887 million poor individuals are exposed to at least one of four major climate hazards: high heat, drought, floods, and air pollution.
Among these, 309 million face three or four concurrent hazards, intensifying their hardship.
Common deprivations include lack of clean cooking fuel, housing, sanitation, nutrition, and electricity.
India’s MPI value stands at 0.069, indicating significant progress compared to past years.

Multidimensional Poverty Index Indicators

The Multidimensional Poverty Index measures deprivation through three key dimensions, each containing specific indicators. Every indicator is assigned a particular weight, contributing to the overall MPI score.

Health (1/3 Total Weight)

- Nutrition (1/6): A person is deprived if any adult or child in the household is undernourished.
- Child Mortality (1/6): A family is deprived if any child under 18 has died in the past five years.

Education (1/3 Total Weight)

- Years of Schooling (1/6): Deprivation occurs if no household member above school entrance age + six years has completed six years of schooling.
- School Attendance (1/6): A household is deprived if any school-aged child is not attending school up to class eight.

Standard of Living (1/3 Total Weight)

- Cooking Fuel (1/18): Using wood, charcoal, dung, or coal counts as deprivation.
- Sanitation (1/18): Sanitation is considered deprived if facilities are unimproved or shared with other households.
- Drinking Water (1/18): If improved water is unavailable or over a 30-minute round trip away, it is deprived.
- Electricity (1/18): Absence of electricity is a deprivation.
- Housing (1/18): If walls, roof, or floor are made from natural or rudimentary materials, it is deprived.
- Assets (1/18): If the household owns fewer than one asset such as a radio, TV, or bicycle, and no vehicle, it is deprived.

Multidimensional Poverty Index Calculation

The Multidimensional Poverty Index is calculated using a systematic and data-driven process. It includes the following steps:

Identification of Deprivations: Each household is assessed across the ten indicators.
Scoring: Each indicator is given a specific weight, and households are assigned scores based on their deprivation status.
Cut-off Point: If the cumulative deprivation score is 33% or more, the household is identified as multidimensionally poor.
Headcount Ratio (H): This represents the proportion of people identified as poor.
Intensity (A): It measures the average proportion of indicators in which poor people are deprived.
MPI Value (H × A): The final MPI score is obtained by multiplying the Headcount Ratio and Intensity.

Multidimensional Poverty Index India

India’s multidimensional poverty reduction has been a global success story. Between 2015-16 and 2019-21, around 135 million people escaped multidimensional poverty according to earlier MPI findings.

The national MPI value of 0.069 reflects a headcount ratio of 16.4%, meaning that about 16 out of every 100 Indians experience multidimensional poverty. The intensity of deprivation stands at 42%, which is the average proportion of indicators in which poor people are deprived. Breakdown by major dimensions:

Health deprivation: 32.2%
Education deprivation: 28.2%
Standard of living: 39.7%

States like Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh still have higher MPI values, showing deeper deprivations. In contrast, states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Goa perform far better, with very low poverty intensity and higher educational attainments.

Kerala to Announce Extreme Poverty Free Status

On November 1, 2025, Kerala will become the first Indian state officially declared free from extreme poverty. The Extreme Poverty Eradication Programme, launched in 2021, identified 64,006 extremely poor families through detailed surveys assessing deprivation in food, health, livelihood, and shelter. Following this, micro-plans were prepared for each family, ensuring access to essentials like housing, land, and documents. As of 2025, 59,277 families have been successfully uplifted. Kerala’s poverty rate, just 0.7% (NITI Aayog, 2021), is the lowest in India. The official declaration will be made by Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan in Thiruvananthapuram, marking a historic milestone.

Multidimensional Poverty Index Challenges

Despite global progress, multidimensional poverty remains a critical challenge. The intertwining of poverty and climate vulnerability is one of the biggest threats of the 21st century. The 2025 report highlights several ongoing challenges that demand urgent global attention.

Climate and Environmental Risks: Nearly 887 million poor people live in regions facing at least one major climate hazard, and 309 million face multiple hazards. Droughts, floods, and extreme heat directly impact livelihoods, food security, and health, pushing millions back into poverty.
Unequal Access to Resources: Inequality persists both within and between countries. Rural areas continue to lag behind in sanitation, drinking water, and energy access, showing that infrastructure development remains incomplete.
Child Poverty: Children constitute more than half of the global multidimensionally poor population. Malnutrition, low school attendance, and poor living standards threaten their long-term development.
Data Gaps and Measurement Challenges: Many low-income countries lack regular data collection, making it difficult to monitor poverty reduction accurately. Reliable and timely data are essential for effective policy interventions.
Policy Fragmentation: Policies addressing poverty often operate in silos, missing the interconnected nature of deprivations. Integrating environmental and social policies is key to sustainable poverty alleviation.

Way Forward:

Integrated Development Approach: Governments must combine poverty reduction with climate adaptation strategies.
Focus on Education and Skill Development: Education remains a critical tool for breaking poverty cycles.
Inclusive Growth Policies: Ensuring equitable access to healthcare, housing, and sanitation can accelerate progress.
Community Participation: Local empowerment and decentralized planning can enhance efficiency in poverty eradication.
Data-Driven Decision Making: Expanding data collection and sharing across regions will improve monitoring and accountability.
International Cooperation: Richer nations and global institutions must provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries.

Multidimensional Poverty Index UPSC

The 2025 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index reminds the world that poverty is not just about income, it is about overlapping hardships that affect human dignity and opportunity. India’s progress, especially the success of states like Kerala, shows that strategic investment in health, education, and social protection can yield powerful results. However, the growing link between poverty and climate hazards calls for renewed global commitment to building a poverty-free and climate-resilient future.

This year’s report provides valuable insight into how climate change and poverty interact, stressing that countries facing the steepest temperature rises are often those already struggling with high poverty rates.

Multidimensional Poverty Index FAQs

Q1: What is the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)?

Ans: The MPI measures poverty using multiple indicators beyond income, including health, education, and living standards, developed by UNDP and Oxford University.

Q2: What is India’s MPI value in 2025?

Ans: As per the 2025 Global MPI Report, India’s MPI value is 0.069, reflecting a steady improvement in multidimensional poverty reduction.

Q3: How many people live in multidimensional poverty globally in 2025?

Ans: According to the UNDP Global MPI 2025, around 1.1 billion people across 109 countries live in acute multidimensional poverty.

Q4: Which states in India have the lowest multidimensional poverty?

Ans: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh have the lowest multidimensional poverty levels, due to better education, health, and infrastructure outcomes.

Q5: How is the MPI different from income-based poverty?

Ans: Unlike income measures, the MPI considers ten indicators across three dimensions, health, education, and standard of living, to capture holistic poverty levels.

Bharat Ratna Award Winners List from 1954 to 2025, Recipients Name

January 2, 2026

The Bharat Ratna is India’s most prestigious civilian honour award which was established in 1954. This award recognizes individuals who have made extraordinary contributions to the nation, whether through public service or exceptional achievements in literature, science, art, or other fields. Each year, a maximum of 3 individuals may be honoured with this title. Below, we present a Bharat Ratna Award Winners List from 1954 to 2025, along with their important contribution in the history of the nation.

Bharat Ratna Award Winners

The recommendation for the most prestigious Bharat Ratna Award is given by the Prime Minister of India and is presented by the President of India. Till 2025, 48 aspiring personalities have been awarded with the Bharat Ratna Award, including 14 posthumously.

As per Article 18(1) of the Indian Constitution, no titles related to the award can be used as prefixes or suffixes to a person’s name. This rule also applies to the Bharat Ratna, meaning awardees cannot add the award to their names officially. The award doesn’t hold any monetary rewards. Recipients are given a certificate (Sanad) signed by the President and a peepal-leaf-shaped medal. This medal displays the state emblem of India and the national motto, “Satyamev Jayate” (Truth Alone Triumphs).

Bharat Ratna Award Winners List from 1954 to 2025

The Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian honour, has a rich history associated with its recipients and nominations. For instance, in 1992, the Government of India decided to present the award posthumously to Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. However, his family and supporters opposed it, questioning the circumstances surrounding his death. Similarly, the legendary hockey player Major Dhyan Chand’s name has frequently surfaced for this honour, yet he has not been awarded to date.

No Bharat Ratna awards were presented in 2021 or 2022. Below is a year-wise Bharat Ratna Award Winners List from 1954 to 2025, with posthumous recipients marked by an asterisk (*).

Bharat Ratna Award Winners List from 1954 to 2025
Recipients (State/UT)	Year	Key Notes
C. Rajagopalachari/ Rajaji (Tamil Nadu)	1954	He was the last Governor General of India and also founder of the Swatantra Party. He was the conscience keeper of MK Gandhi.
Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan (Tamil Nadu)	1954	He was the first Vice President of India and the country's second President.
C. V. Raman (Tamil Nadu)	1954	He became the first Asian scientist to receive a Nobel Prize in any branch of science, also famous for his discoveries in physics like Raman Scattering.
Bhagwan Das (Uttar Pradesh)	1955	He co-founded the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith, also contributed to the foundation of Banaras Hindu University.
M. Visvesvaraya (Karnataka)	1955	He was a civil engineer who contributed much to the country's dam development.
Jawaharlal Nehru (Uttar Pradesh)	1955	Jawaharlal Nehru became the first and longest tenure Prime Minister (PM) of India, He was PM at the time of receiving this award.
Govind Ballabh Pant (Uttarakhand)	1957	He was elected to be the first chief minister of the state of Uttar Pradesh who was a huge supporter of making Hindi a national language.
Dhondo Keshav Karve (Maharashtra)	1958	Dhondo Keshav Karve was a great social reformer and was famous for women's education, and widow remarriage also founded the Widow Marriage Association.
Bidhan Chandra Roy (West Bengal)	1961	Bidhan Chandra Roy is recognized as the Maker of Modern West Bengal.
Purushottam Das Tandon (Uttar Pradesh)	1961	Purushottam Das Tandon was titled Rajarshi. He became the speaker in Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly. He supported the Hindi language making it the official language.
Rajendra Prasad (Bihar)	1962	Rajendra Prasad swore as the first President of India. He was actively involved in the non-cooperation movement with Mahatma Gandhi Ji.
Zakir Husain (Andhra Pradesh)	1963	Zakir Husain was elected to be the second Vice President and third President of India. He became the Vice Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University.
Pandurang Vaman Kane (Maharashtra)	1963	He was a great Indologist and Sanskrit scholar who was well known for his works like ‘History of Dharmasastra: Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Laws in India’.
Lal Bahadur Shastri (Uttar Pradesh) *	1966	Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first posthumous recipient of the Bharat Ratna Award, He was elected to be the second PM of India. He is popular in the country for his slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’.
Indira Gandhi (Uttar Pradesh)	1971	Indira Gandhi was the first female recipient of the Bharat Ratna Award, She was PM during the Indo-Pak War of 1971.
V. V. Giri (Odisha)	1975	V. V. Giri, 4th President of India, was a trade union leader and freedom fighter championing workers' rights and democracy.
K. Kamaraj (Tamil Nadu) *	1976	K. Kamaraj, "Kingmaker," played a pivotal role in Indian politics by supporting Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi as Prime Ministers.
Mother Teresa (West Bengal, born in North Macedonia)	1980	Mother Teresa, a Bharat Ratna recipient and Nobel Laureate, founded the Missionaries of Charity, dedicating her life to humanitarian service.
Vinoba Bhave (Maharashtra) *	1983	Vinoba Bhave, a Gandhian, is renowned for the Bhoodan Movement and received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for his humanitarian efforts.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Pakistan)	1987	Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, "Frontier Gandhi," founded the Red Shirt Movement and was the first non-citizen Bharat Ratna recipient.
M. G. Ramachandran (Tamil Nadu) *	1988	M. G. Ramachandran, the first actor to receive Bharat Ratna, founded AIADMK and became the first actor-turned-Chief Minister.
B.R. Ambedkar (Maharashtra)	1990	B.R. Ambedkar, chief architect of the Indian Constitution and first Law Minister, strongly opposed the caste system in Hinduism.
B.R. Ambedkar (South Africa)	1990	B.R. Ambedkar, known as the "Gandhi of South Africa," was the second non-citizen Bharat Ratna recipient and Nobel laureate.
Rajiv Gandhi (Uttar Pradesh)	1991	Rajiv Gandhi, India’s youngest PM at 40, passed landmark laws like the Anti-defection Law during his tenure from 1984.
Vallabhbhai Patel (Gujarat)	1991	Vallabhbhai Patel, the "Iron Man of India," served as Deputy Prime Minister and led the Bardoli Satyagraha and All India Services.
Morarji Desai (Gujarat)	1991	Morarji Desai, India's first non-Congress PM and oldest PM, is the only Indian awarded Pakistan's Nishan-e-Pakistan honour.
Abul Kalam Azad (West Bengal)	1992	Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, India's first Education Minister, is honoured on his birth anniversary (11th November) as National Education Day.
J. R. D. Tata (Maharashtra)	1992	J. R. D. Tata, an industrialist and aviation pioneer, founded Air India and established institutes like TIFR, TCS, and Tata Motors.
Satyajit Ray (West Bengal)	1992	Satyajit Ray, renowned for bringing Indian cinema global recognition, directed Pather Panchali and received the Dadasaheb Phalke Award.
Gulzarilal Nanda (Punjab)	1997	Gulzarilal Nanda served twice as interim PM and deputy chairman of the Planning Commission, advocating labor issues nationally.
Aruna Asaf Ali (West Bengal)	1997	Aruna Asaf Ali, the first post-independence Mayor of Delhi, played a key role in the Quit India Movement of 1942.
A.P.J Abdul Kalam (Tamil Nadu)	1997	A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the "Missile Man of India," advanced missile technology, served as 11th President, and authored notable works.
M. S. Subbulakshmi (Tamil Nadu)	1998	M. S. Subbulakshmi, the Queen of Songs, was India's first musician awarded the Ramon Magsaysay for her charity work.
Chidambaram Subramaniam (Tamil Nadu)	1998	Chidambaram Subramaniam contributed to the Green Revolution in India and the International Rice Research Institute of Manila, Philippines.
Jayaprakash Narayan (Bihar)	1999	Jayaprakash Narayan, known as Loknayak, led the Total Revolution Movement against the Congress government, advocating for political and social reforms.
Amartya Sen (West Bengal)	1999	Amartya Sen, Nobel Laureate in Economics, contributed to welfare economics, social justice, and social choice theory, influencing global policies.
Gopinath Bordoloi (Assam)	1999	Gopinath Bordoloi, Assam's first chief minister, is honored as Lokapriya for his dedication to Assam's development and progress.
Ravi Shankar (Uttar Pradesh)	1999	Ravi Shankar, the world’s leading Hindustani classical musician, is renowned for his mastery and received a Grammy Award for his work.
Lata Mangeshkar (Maharashtra)	2001	Lata Mangeshkar, the Nightingale of India, honoured with the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, is celebrated as the Queen of Melody.
Bismillah Khan (Uttar Pradesh)	2001	Bismillah Khan, a renowned shehnai virtuoso, popularised the instrument in Indian music and became the third classical musician honoured with Bharat Ratna.
Bhimsen Joshi (Karnataka)	2009	Bhimsen Joshi, a renowned Hindustani classical singer from Kirana Gharana, was celebrated for his mastery in the Khyal genre.
C. N. R. Rao (Karnataka)	2014	C. N. R. Rao, an eminent chemist, contributed to solid-state chemistry and received numerous prestigious awards, including the Marlow Medal.
Sachin Tendulkar (Maharashtra)	2014	Sachin Tendulkar is known as the Master Blaster in cricket history. He is the only batsman to score more than 30,000 runs in entire forms of international cricket matches.
Madan Mohan Malaviya (Uttar Pradesh)	2015	Madan Mohan Malaviya was the founder of the Banaras Hindu University and Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha.
Atal Bihari Bajpayee (Madhya Pradesh)	2015	Atal Bihari Vajpayee, a three-time PM and 1994 Best Parliamentarian, was also a renowned poet and statesman.
Pranab Mukherjee (West Bengal)	2019	Pranab Mukherjee, the 13th President of India and former Lok Sabha leader, passed away in 2020 due to COVID-19.
Nanaji Deshmukh (Maharashtra)	2019	Nanaji Deshmukh, also known as Chandikadas Deshmukh, contributed to education, rural development, health, and led Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
Bhupen Hazarika (Assam)	2019	Bhupen Hazarika, known as Sudhakantha, was an influential filmmaker, poet, lyricist, playback singer, and musician in India.
Karpoori Thakur (Bihar)*	2024	Karpoori Thakur, Bihar's former CM and Jan Nayak, passed away on 17th February 1988; award recognized 35 years later.
Lal Krishna Advani	2024	He served as Home Minister and later Deputy Prime Minister in Atal Bihari Vajpayee's cabinet from 1999 to 2004.
MS Swaminathan (Thiruvananthapuram)	2024	Conferred with the Bharat Ratna - the country's highest civilian honour.
Chaudhary Charan Singh (Uttar Pradesh)*	2024	He dedicated his life to farmers' welfare, opposed the Emergency, and inspired through his unwavering commitment to farmers.
PV Narasimha Rao (Andhra Pradesh)	2024	Narasimha Rao led major economic reforms in the 1990s, transforming India's economy while heading a Congress government at Centre.

First Three Bharat Ratna Award Winners

The Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian honour, was first awarded in 1954. Among the inaugural recipients were C. Rajagopalachari, C.V. Raman, and Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, all from Tamil Nadu.

Rajagopalachari, a multifaceted leader, was a prominent activist, statesman, and lawyer.
Dr. Radhakrishnan, renowned for his contributions to education, served as India's first Vice-President and later became its second President.
C.V. Raman, a distinguished physicist and mathematician, is celebrated for his groundbreaking work in the field of physics, particularly for the discovery of Raman Scattering. His remarkable achievements led him to become the first Asian scientist to win a Nobel Prize in a scientific field.

Bharat Ratna Award Winner Indian Presidents

Between 1954 and 2025, several Indian Presidents have been honoured with the Bharat Ratna Award. Out of the 48 individuals who have received this esteemed recognition, six of them have served as Presidents of India. Below is a table listing the names of these Presidents and the years they were awarded the Bharat Ratna.

Bharat Ratna Award Winner Indian Presidents
Presidents of India	Year of Award
Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan	1954
Rajendra Prasad	1962
Zakir Hussain	1963
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam	1997
Dr. V V Giri	1975
Pranab Mukherjee	2019

What Are The Benefits For Bharat Ratna Award

Bharat Ratna awardees are placed at Position 7A in the Table of Precedence, alongside top dignitaries like Governors, Former Presidents, and the Deputy Prime Minister, ensuring high-level recognition during official events.
Awardees receive a diplomatic passport, granting them access to separate immigration counters, VIP lounges at airports, and other privileges reserved for top government officials.
Recipients enjoy lifetime free air travel in executive class across domestic routes, sponsored by the Government of India.
They receive the same treatment as senior government dignitaries during official travels, including protocol services and access to government guest houses.
The Bharat Ratna Award includes a bronze medallion shaped like a peepal leaf, a miniature replica, and a certificate signed by the President of India.
Any financial rewards or accompanying honors received by Bharat Ratna Awardees are exempt from income tax under Indian tax laws.
Bharat Ratna recipients are revered across the country. Their names are often associated with public institutions, and they hold a permanent place of respect in Indian history and society.

Youngest Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award

The Youngest Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award is Sachin Tendulkar, who received the honour in 2014 at the age of 40. He made history not only as the youngest awardee but also as the first sportsperson to receive India’s highest civilian honour. Tendulkar was recognised for his exceptional contribution to Indian cricket, having inspired millions through his sporting achievements and discipline.

Oldest Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award

The Oldest Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award is Dhondo Keshav Karve, who was honoured in 1958 at the age of 100. A renowned social reformer and educator, Karve played a crucial role in women’s education and widow remarriage in India during the early 20th century. His lifetime of service to society earned him this prestigious recognition at a remarkably advanced age.

Bharat Ratna Award Winners FAQs

Q1: Who became the first Bharat Ratna Award winner?

Ans: The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna Award were C Rajagopalachari, CV Raman, and S Radhakrishnan in 1954. Interestingly all first recipients were from the state of Tamil Nadu.

Q2: Who became the youngest Bharat Ratna Awardee?

Ans: The youngest recipient of the Bharat Ratna award is Sachin Tendulkar who was awarded in 2014.

Q3: Who were the first three recipients of Bharat Ratna?

Ans: The first three recipients of Bharat Ratna were C Rajagopalachari, CV Raman, and S Radhakrishnan. All three were awarded with the Bharat Ratna award in 1954.

Q4: Who are the recipients of the Bharat Ratna Award 2019?

Ans: The latest recipients of the Bharat Ratna Award are Pranab Mukherjee, Nanaji Deshmukh, and Bhupen Hazarika who were awarded in 2019.

Q5: How many people have received the Bharat Ratna Award till now?

Ans: The total number of recipients of the Bharat Ratna Award is 48 as of now.

Planning Commission of India, Historical Background, Composition

January 2, 2026

The Planning Commission of India was formed on 15th March 1950 and marked a landmark institution that laid the foundation of India’s economic and social development in the post-independence era. Its responsibilities included formulating and overseeing the five year plans and taking the nation towards planned development, resource mobilization and focusing on socio-economic growth objectives. In this article, we are going to cover all about the Planning Commission, its historical background, its functions and objectives.

Planning Commission of India

The Planning Commission was an apex body established by a Government of India resolution in 1950, under the chairmanship of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It was a non-constitutional and non-statutory body. Its purpose was to guide India’s economic development through structured Five-Year Plans. Its responsibilities included:

Assessing national resources (natural, financial, and human).
Formulating plans and setting developmental priorities.
Allocating resources for different sectors and ministries.
Monitoring plan implementation and making mid-course corrections.
Advising the government on policy matters concerning development.
In essence, the Commission worked as the chief architect of India’s post-independence economic strategy.

Planning Commission of India Historical Background

The creation of Planning Commission of India can be traced back on the lines of the following historical background:

First Five-Year Plan (1951–1956): Focused on agriculture, irrigation, and energy to address food security and basic needs.
Second Plan (1956–1961): Inspired by the Mahalanobis model, it emphasized rapid industrialization and the growth of the public sector.
Third Plan (1961–1966): Aimed at making India self-reliant but was disrupted by wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965), along with a severe drought.
Plan Holiday (1966–1969): Annual plans were introduced due to resource constraints, inflation, and currency depreciation.
Fourth Plan (1969–1974): Restarted the planned development framework with a focus on growth with stability and self-reliance.
Eighth Plan (1992–1997): Introduced after the 1991 economic crisis and liberalization, focusing on modernization, privatization, and globalization.
Ninth Plan onwards (1997–2002): Shifted attention towards social justice, poverty alleviation, and decentralized planning.
The Planning Commission continued its work until the Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012–2017), after which it was abolished and replaced by NITI Aayog.

Planning Commission of India Composition

The Planning Commission of India consists of the following members:

Chairman: The Prime Minister of India served as the ex-officio Chairman.
Deputy Chairman: The de facto executive head responsible for drafting and presenting the Five-Year Plans. Equivalent in status to a Cabinet Minister but without voting powers.
Full-time Members: Experts in economics, planning, agriculture, industry, and administration.
Part-time Members: Central Ministers holding key portfolios.
Ex-Officio Members: The Finance Minister and Planning Minister.

Planning Commission of India Functions

The Planning Commission body of India served the following functions:

Formulating Five-Year Plans: Designing developmental blueprints with clear objectives, targets, and investment patterns.
Resource Assessment: Evaluating India’s financial, natural, and human resources.
Prioritization: Allocating resources to sectors based on national priorities.
Monitoring and Evaluation: Reviewing implementation, identifying bottlenecks, and suggesting corrective action.
Inter-Ministerial Coordination: Ensuring policy alignment across ministries and departments.
Research and Innovation: Encouraging scientific research and supporting institutions.
Policy Advisory Role: Advising the government on economic, industrial, and social development strategies.
Regional Balance: Promoting equitable development among states and regions.
Social Justice: Emphasizing inclusion of marginalized sections – women, minorities, and disadvantaged communities.
Stakeholder Participation: Involving experts, industries, and citizens in shaping policies.

Difference Between the Planning Commission and NITI Aayog

The Planning Commission of India was finally dissolved in 2014 and taken over by the NITI Aayog. This new planning body reflects India’s shift from centralised, top-down planning to a more flexible, decentralised and participatory policy framework. Here is a list of differences between the Planning Commission of India and the NITI Aayog.

Feature	Planning Commission	NITI Aayog
Nature	Centralized, top-down approach	Decentralized, cooperative federalism
Role	Drafted and enforced Five-Year Plans	Acts as think tank & policy advisory body
States’ Role	Limited, indirect via National Development Council	Direct, full participation of states & UTs
Functioning	Resource allocation and plan implementation	Knowledge hub, innovation, and strategy
Leadership	PM as Chairman, Deputy Chairman as executive head	PM as Chairman, supported by Vice-Chairperson, CEO, and experts
Approach	One-size-fits-all	Flexible, state-specific policy tailoring

Planning Commission of India FAQs

Q1: Who is the current Planning Commission of India?

Ans: The Planning Commission no longer exists; it was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.

Q2: Why did NITI Aayog replace the Planning Commission?

Ans: NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission to promote cooperative federalism, decentralized planning, and flexible policy-making suited to contemporary needs.

Q3: In which year was the Planning Commission of India set up?

Ans: The Planning Commission was established in 1950.

Q4: What is the difference between the Planning Commission and NITI Aayog?

Ans: The Planning Commission followed a centralized, top-down approach with Five-Year Plans, while NITI Aayog is a decentralized think tank promoting state participation and policy innovation.

Q5: What are the functions of the NITI Aayog?

Ans: NITI Aayog functions as a policy think tank, focusing on strategy formulation, innovation, cooperative federalism, monitoring developmental programs, and fostering sustainable growth.

National Song of India, Vande Mataram, Lyrics, Significance

January 2, 2026

The national song of India, Vande Mataram, holds a deeply rooted place in the country’s history and cultural heritage. Written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, it became a rallying cry in the freedom struggle. On 24 January 1950, the Constituent Assembly of India officially adopted it as the national song, giving it enduring significance.

National Song of India Why in News?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi will inaugurate the year-long commemoration of 150 years of the National Song “Vande Mataram” on 7th November 2025 at the Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium, New Delhi. Written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee on Akshaya Navami in 1875, Vande Mataram symbolizes India’s unity and patriotism. The event features mass singing of the full version nationwide at 9:50 AM and the release of a commemorative stamp and coin, marking the beginning of celebrations that will continue until 7th November 2026 across the country.

National Song of India

A national song serves as a symbol of national pride, unity and cultural identity. In India, Vande Mataram represents devotion to the mother-land and the spirit of selfless service. Composed in a mix of Sanskrit and Bengali, it reflects India’s plurality and storied past.

National Song of India Historical Background

The key milestones related to the historical background of the National Song of India has been listed below:

Origin (1875): Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote the poem Vande Mataram on November 07, 1885.
1882: Publication of Anandamath including Vande Mataram
First public rendition (1896): It was sung at the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress, evoking patriotic fervour.
1905: Surge of popularity during the Swadeshi Movement
Adoption as National Song: On 24 January 1950, the Constituent Assembly declared Vande Mataram as the national song; President Rajendra Prasad emphasised its status equal to the national anthem.
2025: Celebration of 150 years of the song’s composition.

National Song of India Lyrics

The opening lines of the National Song of India is mentioned below:

“Vande Mataram!

Sujalam, suphalam, malayaja shitalam,

Shasyashyamalam, Mataram!

Vande Mataram!

Shubhrajyotsna pulakitayaminim,

Phullakusumita drumadala shobhinim,

Suhasinim sumadhura bhashinim,

Sukhadam varadam, Mataram!

Vande Mataram, Vande Mataram!”

The meaning of the refrain “Vande Mataram” is “I bow to thee, Mother.” It captures both reverence and devotion.

National Song of India during the Freedom Struggle

National Song of India- “Vande Mataram” became a beacon of resistance against colonial rule.

It inspired freedom fighters to embrace national service despite repression.
The British government at one point banned its public singing in Bengal, which only amplified its symbolic power.
The song unified diverse communities under the shared aspiration of independence.
Many of the freedom fighters sacrificed their life while chanting “Vande Mataram” including Shirish Kumar, Babu Genu, etc.

National Song of India Significance

Even today, National Song of India Vande Mataram is sung at national events, schools and flag hoist ceremonies. It stands as:

A tribute to India’s cultural heritage and freedom legacy.
A symbol of patriotism and collective identity.
A reminder of service and sacrifice for the nation.
Although the Constitution does not explicitly mention a “national song,” the Indian government’s official portal affirms its unique status.
It highlights unity in diversity, written in a mixed language form and sung across communities.
It embodies service to the nation and respect for freedom fighters’ sacrifice.
It enriches India’s national identity, alongside other national symbols like the flag and anthem.

National Song of India Code of Conduct

While the National Anthem of India has formal guidelines and a legally mandated duration (52 seconds) under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971, the National Song of India- “Vande Mataram” does not carry mandatory legal etiquette. However, it is deeply respected and has been accorded equal honour by the President.

National Song of India UPSC

Vande Mataram, the national song of India, is more than a melody, it’s a living legacy of the struggle for freedom, cultural pride and national unity. Its words echo the aspirations of a young nation and continue to stir hearts across generations. Its equal status with the national anthem underlines the importance of remembering where we came from, even as we look ahead.

National Song of India FAQs

Q1: Who wrote the National Song of India?

Ans: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee wrote Vande Mataram in 1875, originally appearing in his novel Anandamath.

Q2: When is the 150th anniversary of Vande Mataram being celebrated?

Ans: It will be celebrated from 7th November 2025 to 7th November 2026.

Q3: What special events are planned for the commemoration of National Song of India?

Ans: The events include a mass singing of Vande Mataram, and the release of a commemorative stamp and coin by the Prime Minister.

Q4: What does the National Song of India- Vande Mataram symbolize?

Ans: It symbolizes India’s strength, unity, and devotion to the motherland.

Q5: When was the National Song of India Vande Mataram first published?

Ans: It was first published in the literary journal Bangadarshan as part of the novel Anandamath in 1882.

Sex Ratio in India, NFHS-5 Survey, Current Status, Projected 2036 Estimate

January 2, 2026

The sex ratio in India is one of the key demographic indicators used to measure gender balance within the population. It represents the number of females per 1,000 males and reflects the country’s socio-economic and cultural dynamics. A balanced sex ratio is vital for equitable development, social stability, and sustainable population growth. However, India has long struggled with gender disparities rooted in deep-seated social and cultural preferences.

Sex Ratio in India

The sex ratio serves as a mirror to gender equity, social progress, and health conditions. As per Census 2011, India’s overall sex ratio stood at 943 females per 1,000 males, marking an improvement from 933 in 2001. The Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2023 estimated India’s sex ratio at 1,020 females per 1,000 males, showing gradual improvement, especially in southern states. However, the child sex ratio (0-6 years) remains a concern, declining from 927 in 2001 to 919 in 2011, indicating persistent issues like sex-selective abortions and gender bias

Read About: Neighbouring Countries of India

Sex Ratio in India Historical Background

India’s sex ratio has witnessed significant fluctuations since the early 20th century. In 1901, the sex ratio was 972 females per 1,000 males. It declined to 933 by 2001, before slightly improving in 2011. The fall was mainly due to gender discrimination, preference for male children, and unequal healthcare access. The NFHS-5 (2019-21) data later revealed a positive trend, showing 1,020 females per 1,000 males, indicating gradual social transformation and better health outcomes for women.

Sex Ratio in India State-Wise

According to Census 2011, states like Kerala (1084) and Puducherry (1037) recorded the highest sex ratios, while Haryana (879), Delhi (868), and Chandigarh (818) had the lowest. Key highlights include:

Kerala: 1084 females per 1000 males
Puducherry: 1037
Tamil Nadu: 996
Uttar Pradesh: 912
Haryana: 879
Punjab: 895
Delhi: 868

Child Sex Ratio in India

The Child Sex Ratio (CSR), which measures the number of girls per 1,000 boys aged 0–6 years, is a crucial indicator of gender bias at birth. As per Census 2011, the child sex ratio in India stood at 919, down from 927 in 2001. The SRS Statistical Report 2023 shows improvement in CSR to around 935, supported by schemes like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and awareness against prenatal sex selection.

States such as Chhattisgarh (969) and Kerala (964) show balanced ratios, while Haryana (834) and Punjab (846) remain among the lowest, though improving in recent years.

Factors Influencing Sex Ratio in India

Various factors that influence the Sex Ratio in India are:

Socio-Cultural Preference for Sons: Historical patriarchal beliefs and inheritance patterns favor male children for economic and social reasons.
Female Foeticide and Infanticide: Widespread use of sex determination tests in past decades led to declining birth rates of girls.
Migration Patterns: Male-dominated labor migration from rural to urban areas skews the ratio in certain states.
Health Inequalities: Poor nutrition, limited access to maternal healthcare, and early marriages impact female survival rates.
Educational and Economic Gaps: Lower education and employment levels among women often translate to less empowerment and autonomy.

Read About: Highest Peak in India

Sex Ratio in India Government Initiatives to Improve

The Government of India has prevailed several initiatives and policies to improve the Sex Ratio in India as given below:

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015): Launched in Panipat, Haryana, this flagship scheme aims to prevent gender-biased sex selection and promote the education and survival of girl children. It helped improve the child sex ratio in Haryana from 834 (2011) to 923 (2022).
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana (2015): A savings scheme for the girl child that provides financial security and encourages families to value female education and empowerment.
Janani Suraksha Yojana: Promotes institutional deliveries and maternal healthcare, reducing female infant mortality.
Poshan Abhiyan (2018): Addresses malnutrition and anemia among adolescent girls and women, improving overall health indicators contributing to sex ratio balance.
National Girl Child Day: Celebrated every year on January 24, it promotes gender equality and awareness about rights of the girl child.

Sex Ratio in India Regional Variation

The southern and northeastern states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Meghalaya consistently report higher sex ratios due to better female literacy, healthcare access, and matrilineal traditions. In contrast, northern states like Haryana, Punjab, and Delhi lag behind due to stronger patriarchal structures and lower participation of women in workforce and decision-making.

Sex Ratio in India Impact

The skewed Sex Ratio in India has several impacts on the social, cultural, developmental and other aspects as mentioned here:

Marriage Squeeze: Shortage of women in northern states leads to delayed marriages and rise in trafficking.
Social Instability: Gender imbalance increases violence against women.
Labor Market Effects: Reduced female participation affects economic growth.
Population Aging: Declining female birth rates impact demographic stability in the long term.
Health Burden: Poor reproductive health and stress among women in male-dominated societies.

Sex Ratio in India Challenges

The challenges faced in the balancing of the Gender disparities are:

Persistent Gender Bias: Deep-rooted son preference in rural and semi-urban India continues. Way Forward: Gender sensitization programs in schools and local governance reforms are vital.
Economic Dependence of Women: Limited job opportunities restrict women’s empowerment. Way Forward: Promote skill-based employment and financial inclusion.
Incomplete Enforcement of Laws: Laws like PCPNDT Act often face poor implementation. Way Forward: Strengthen monitoring and impose strict penalties for violations.
Health Disparities: Maternal and infant health services remain inadequate in some regions. Way Forward: Expand healthcare outreach and nutritional programs.
Cultural Resistance: Traditions favoring dowry and son preference still prevail. Way Forward: Promote awareness campaigns and incentivize girl child education.

Sex Ratio in India International Comparison

According to World Bank Data and UN, the global average sex ratio is 984 females per 1,000 males, while India’s ratio stands around 1,020 as per NFHS-5 (2019-20), indicating notable improvement but still facing child sex ratio concerns. Countries like China (926) continue to struggle with similar issues, showing that socio-cultural bias remains a global challenge.

Sex Ratio in India SDG

Balanced sex ratio directly contributes to achieving SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being). Ensuring equal survival, education, and employment opportunities for women forms the foundation for inclusive development in India.

Sex Ratio in India Status of Women

Today, India is witnessing gradual improvement in gender parity, reflected in higher political participation, rising education levels, and workforce inclusion. Women now hold 33% of Parliament seats and increasingly occupy leadership positions. The narrowing gender gap is reshaping India’s social fabric and contributing to its human capital growth.

NFHS-5 Survey on Sex Ratio in India (2019-21)

The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) conducted in 2019-21 provided updated demographic insights into India’s population and gender balance. It reported a total sex ratio of 1,020 females per 1,000 males, a significant rise from 991 in NFHS-4 (2015-16), showing gradual improvement. However, the sex ratio at birth remained low at 929, below the natural level of 950-970, due to continued sex-selective practices. The child sex ratio also stood at 929, reflecting regional variations and modest progress in reducing gender imbalance.

Projected Sex Ratio in India by 2036

By 2036, India’s population is projected to reach 152.2 crore, with women forming 48.8% of the total, up from 48.5% in 2011. The overall sex ratio is expected to improve to 952 females per 1,000 males, reflecting a more balanced demographic structure. With declining fertility rates, enhanced maternal healthcare, and rising female literacy and workforce participation, India’s demographic future looks more gender equitable. The emphasis on women’s education, entrepreneurship, and participation in policymaking will further shape a progressive and inclusive Vision 2036.

Sex Ratio in India UPSC

The journey of India’s sex ratio, from 933 (2001) to over 1,020 (2019-20), represents progress driven by awareness, legal reforms, and policy interventions. However, regional disparities, cultural prejudices, and child sex ratio decline remain pressing concerns. Strengthening gender-sensitive education, enforcing anti-discrimination laws, and promoting economic independence for women are crucial to achieving a balanced and equitable demographic future.

As per the recent estimates, India’s overall sex ratio has reached 1,020 females per 1,000 males, marking a significant milestone. This improvement is attributed to better maternal health, rising female literacy (77.70% in 2021-2022, according to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) and the National Statistical Office), and government-led welfare programs focusing on girl child education and protection.

NFHS-5 (2019-20) reported 1,020 females per 1,000 males, for the first time showing a slightly higher number of females.
Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) dropped from 556 (1990) to 97 (2020) per 100,000 live births (WHO data).
Female Literacy improved to 77.70% in 2021 from 54.16% in 2001 (Census).
Government interventions and legal bans on sex selection have curbed female foeticide significantly.

Sex Ratio in India FAQs

Q1: What is the Sex Ratio in India as per Census 2011?

Ans: The sex ratio of India in 2011 was 943 females per 1,000 males, an increase from 933 in 2001.

Q2: Which state has the highest Sex Ratio in India?

Ans: According to Census 2011, Kerala recorded the highest sex ratio of 1084 females per 1,000 males.

Q3: What is India’s current sex ratio as per NFHS-5 (2019-20)?

Ans: India’s sex ratio improved to 1,020 females per 1,000 males, reflecting progress toward gender balance.

Q4: Which states have the lowest Sex Ratio in India?

Ans: Haryana (879), Punjab (895), and Delhi (868) recorded the lowest sex ratios in 2011, though improving in recent years.

Q5: What measures has the government taken to improve the Sex Ratio in India?

Ans: Key schemes include Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana, and strict enforcement of the PCPNDT Act (1994) to prevent sex-selective practices

RELOS Agreement and India-Russia Relations, Objectives, News

January 2, 2026

Why in News?

Russia has officially approved the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Support (RELOS) agreement with India ahead of President Vladimir Putin’s India Visit 2025.

Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Agreement (RELOS) Agreement

The Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Agreement (RELOS) is a bilateral military logistics pact between India and Russia that allows their armed forces to access each other's military facilities for refuelling, repairs, supplies, berthing, and maintenance.

This agreement significantly strengthens India–Russia defence cooperation and expands India’s strategic reach from the Indo-Pacific to the Arctic and Eurasian regions.

Also Read: India-Russia Relations

RELOS Agreement Objectives

Provide reciprocal access to each other’s military bases, ports, and airfields for refuelling, repairs, and logistical support.
Strengthen defence cooperation by enabling smoother logistics during joint exercises and coordinated operations.
Enhance operational efficiency by reducing deployment time and costs, especially for long-range naval missions.
Support faster and more coordinated humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations during emergencies.

RELOS and India-Russia Defence Cooperation

The RELOS Agreement represents a strategic leap in India-Russia defence ties, complementing decades of military collaboration. It formalizes logistics support, allowing reciprocal access to over 40 Russian naval and air bases, including key Arctic and Pacific facilities, which significantly extends India’s operational reach beyond the Indian Ocean.

Boosts Interoperability: RELOS facilitates seamless coordination during joint exercises such as INDRA (tri-service), enabling Indian and Russian forces to deploy over 20 ships, multiple aircraft, and ground units simultaneously.
Enhances Naval Reach: Indian Navy access to Russian ports like Vladivostok, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, and Murmansk allows for long-range maritime patrols, Arctic missions, and monitoring of strategic sea lanes covering over 70% of India’s maritime trade.
Supports Defence Supply Chains: With RELOS, maintenance, repairs, and refuelling of critical platforms like Su-30MKI, T-90 tanks, MiG and Sukhoi fleets, and S-400 air defence systems can be coordinated more efficiently, reducing delays caused by logistics gaps.
Strengthens Strategic Trust: Logistic support under RELOS complements joint projects such as BrahMos cruise missile development and submarine cooperation, reinforcing a bilateral defence trade worth over USD 13 billion in the last decade.

RELOS vs India’s Other Logistics Agreements (LEMOA, COMCASA, BECA)

India has multiple logistics and defence cooperation agreements with different countries to enhance operational reach and interoperability. RELOS with Russia complements these pacts but offers unique strategic advantages.

LEMOA (Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement)

Allows India and the U.S. to use each other’s military bases for refuelling, replenishment, and repairs.
Primarily focuses on the Indo-Pacific and Indian Ocean regions.
Supports joint naval and air exercises, enhancing operational interoperability.

COMCASA (Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement)

Enables secure encrypted communications between Indian and U.S. military forces.
Supports integration of Indian platforms into advanced U.S. defence networks.
Facilitates real-time coordination during joint operations and exercises.

BECA (Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement)

Grants access to geospatial, satellite, and navigation data for improved targeting and situational awareness between Indian and U.S.
Enhances accuracy of precision-guided weapons and missile systems.
Strengthens surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities during long-range missions.

RELOS Agreement and India-Russia Relations FAQs

Q1: What is the RELOS Agreement?

Ans: The Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Support (RELOS) is a bilateral military pact that allows India and Russia to use each other’s bases, ports, and airfields for refuelling, repairs, berthing, and other logistical support.

Q2: Why is RELOS important for India?

Ans: It expands India’s operational reach to Russia’s Arctic, Far East, and Pacific bases, enhances defence interoperability, reduces deployment costs by 20–25%.

Q3: How does RELOS differ from LEMOA, COMCASA, and BECA?

Ans: Unlike the U.S.-aligned agreements, RELOS provides India access to Russian territories, Arctic routes, and long-range deployment support, balancing India’s logistics network between Western and Eurasian partners.

Q4: Will RELOS impact India’s other defence partnerships?

Ans: No. RELOS complements India’s multi-aligned strategy by diversifying logistics support, maintaining operational flexibility, and reinforcing strategic autonomy.

Q5: What are the key operational benefits of RELOS?

Ans: It enables faster joint exercises, coordinated maritime patrols, humanitarian missions, and maintenance of Russian-origin platforms that constitute 60–70% of India’s military inventory.

G20 Summit 2025, Theme, Venue, Countries List, Objectives, Key Points

January 2, 2026

The G20 Summit 2025, hosted in Johannesburg on 22–23 November, was the first time the leaders’ meeting took place on African soil, giving the Global South a more prominent platform. The South African presidency prioritised climate adaptation, debt relief, inclusive industrialisation, and upgrading global governance to better represent developing economies. The summit produced a lengthy Leaders’ Declaration focused on resilience, equity and sustainable development, but it also exposed diplomatic rifts that complicated unanimous endorsement by every guest.

G20 Summit 2025

The 2025 G20 Johannesburg Summit, held on 22-23 November 2025 at the Johannesburg Expo Centre, marked the 20th meeting of the G20 and the first-ever summit hosted on the African continent. South Africa used this opportunity to highlight Africa’s development priorities, global equity, and South-South cooperation. The summit gained attention due to the absence of top leaders from major economies, including China’s Xi Jinping and U.S. President Donald Trump. Despite this, leaders focused on global economic recovery, climate resilience, and digital cooperation.

G20 Summit 2025 Theme

South Africa has selected the G20 Summit 2025 Theme “Solidarity, Equality and Sustainability” for its G20 Presidency, reflecting the group’s original mission and values. The theme emphasises collective action, fairness in global development, and long-term environmental responsibility. It aims to strengthen unity among nations while promoting inclusive and sustainable growth worldwide.

G20 Summit 2025 Outcomes

The 2025 G20 Summit is expected to focus on delivering stronger commitments on global economic stability, climate financing, and digital cooperation under South Africa’s leadership.

Scale up climate adaptation support and technical assistance for vulnerable countries.
Strengthen debt sustainability frameworks and creditor coordination.
Boost food security efforts and support smallholders and supply chains.
Support digital public infrastructure and AI governance dialogues.
Advance industrialisation and value-chain development for critical minerals.

G20 Historical Background

The G20 was established in 1999 in the aftermath of the Asian Financial Crisis to bring together major advanced and emerging economies for global economic coordination. Initially a finance ministers’ forum, it evolved into a Leaders’ Summit in 2008 after the Global Financial Crisis.

Formed in 1999 by G7 finance ministers and central bank governors to prevent future financial crises.
Initially functioned as a finance ministers’ and central bank governors’ forum before expanding to leaders’ summits in 2008.
The shift to leaders’ meetings came during the Global Financial Crisis, positioning the G20 at the center of global economic recovery.
Represents 85% of global GDP, 75% of global trade, and around two-thirds of the world’s population, giving it unmatched influence.
Membership includes a mix of advanced and emerging economies, ensuring a broad, inclusive approach to global challenges.
Over the years, the G20 agenda expanded from macroeconomic coordination to climate change, health security, digital transformation, terrorism financing, and sustainable development.
Played a major role in creating global financial reforms, including Basel III, strengthening financial institutions, and enhancing global regulatory cooperation.
Supported major global commitments such as the Paris Agreement, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and debt relief initiatives for vulnerable nations.

G20 Member Countries List

The G20 Member Countries includes 19 countries: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Türkiye, the United Kingdom, and the United States, along with the European Union and, since 2023, the African Union as a permanent member.

G20 Member Countries List
Member / Bloc	Founding member (finance-level)	Year joined
Argentina	Yes	1999
Australia	Yes	1999
Brazil	Yes	1999
Canada	Yes	1999
China	Yes	1999
France	Yes	1999
Germany	Yes	1999
India	Yes	1999
Indonesia	Yes	1999
Italy	Yes	1999
Japan	Yes	1999
Republic of Korea	Yes	1999
Mexico	Yes	1999
Russia	Yes	1999
Saudi Arabia	Yes	1999
South Africa	Yes	1999
Türkiye	Yes	1999
United Kingdom	Yes	1999
United States	Yes	1999
European Union (institutional)	Yes (institutional member)	1999
African Union (AU)	No (added later)	2023

G20 Countries Objectives

The G20 Countries aims to promote stable, inclusive, and sustainable global economic growth by coordinating macroeconomic policies among major economies. It works to strengthen financial regulation, ensure resilient supply chains, and support developing countries through equitable reforms.

Global Economic Stability: Enhance coordination on fiscal, monetary, and structural policies to prevent crises.
Financial Sector Reforms: Strengthen the stability and regulation of global financial institutions and markets.
Sustainable Development & SDGs: Mobilize funds and policies for poverty reduction, climate resilience, and green growth.
International Taxation: Create fair taxation frameworks, including digital tax rules and BEPS (Base Erosion and Profit Shifting) reforms.
Trade & Investment: Promote open, transparent, and rules-based global trade systems under WTO principles.
Climate Action: Advance commitments to energy transition, climate finance, and disaster resilience.
Digital Transformation: Expand digital infrastructure, cybersecurity norms, and AI governance.
Global Health Security: Enhance pandemic preparedness, vaccine equity, and health system resilience.
Support for Global South: Improve debt sustainability, development financing, and capacity-building initiatives.
Food & Energy Security: Strengthen global cooperation to ensure affordable, accessible, and sustainable supplies.

G20 Countries Issues

Despite its global influence, the G20 Countires faces several challenges that hinder coherent and effective decision-making. Geopolitical tensions, competing economic interests, and disagreements on climate finance often slow down consensus-based outcomes. Developing nations demand greater equity and climate justice, while advanced economies differ on commitments related to emissions, trade, and taxation.

Geopolitical Conflicts: Russia-Ukraine war, US-China tensions, Middle East instability affecting cooperation.
Climate Finance Gap: Developed nations yet to fully deliver the promised $100 billion/year for climate adaptation and mitigation.
Debt Crisis in Poor Nations: Rising debt distress in Sub-Saharan Africa, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, etc., with limited G20 consensus on restructuring.
Global Trade Fragmentation: Protectionism, tariff wars, and supply chain disruptions limiting free trade.
Inequity Between Members: Advanced economies push innovation goals, while developing economies focus on development finance and energy security.
Energy Transition Divide: Conflicts over phasing out fossil fuels versus ensuring affordable energy access.
Digital Inequality: Unequal access to digital infrastructure limits growth in developing economies.
Slow Decision-Making: Consensus-based system makes rapid global crisis responses difficult.Global Tax Reform Delays: Implementation challenges of OECD’s minimum corporate tax framework.
Multilateral System Weakening: Overlapping institutions and loss of trust in global governance frameworks.

G20 Countries Way Forward

The G20 must strengthen multilateralism, bridge geopolitical divides, and prioritize inclusive growth to ensure global stability. Future cooperation requires greater climate finance, debt relief mechanisms, and investment in digital transformation to support developing economies.

Revive Multilateralism: Promote consensus-building and strengthen global governance institutions.
Debt Relief Mechanisms: Implement faster and more transparent debt restructuring frameworks for vulnerable nations.
Boost Climate Finance: Ensure predictable funding for mitigation, adaptation, and energy transition.
Promote Digital Inclusivity: Support global digital infrastructure, cybersecurity cooperation, and AI governance.
Reform Global Institutions: Restructure IMF quotas, WTO rules, and UN frameworks for better Global South representation.
Strengthen Supply Chains: Diversify critical sectors like semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and green technologies.
Enhance Global Health Security: Expand vaccine manufacturing, disease surveillance, and health-emergency financing.
Support Sustainable Development: Prioritise SDGs, food security, gender equality, and green infrastructure investment.

G20 Summit 2025 FAQs

Q1: Where was the G20 Summit 2025 held?

Ans: It was held at the Johannesburg Expo Centre, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Q2: What was the theme of the G20 Summit 2025?

Ans: The theme was “Solidarity, Equality and Sustainability.”

Q3: Why is the 2025 summit historically significant?

Ans: It was the first G20 Summit hosted on the African continent.

Q4: Which major leaders did not attend the summit?

Ans: Chinese President Xi Jinping and US President Donald Trump were absent.

Q5: What were the key focus areas of the 2025 G20 Summit?

Ans: Climate finance, global economic stability, digital transformation, debt relief, and sustainable development.

European Countries Name, List, Capital, Area, Population

January 2, 2026

Europe consists of 50 countries, although only 44 of them have their capital cities located on the European continent. The largest country in Europe is Russia, followed by Ukraine and France in terms of land area. On the other end of the scale, the smallest country in Europe is Vatican City, covering an area of just 0.44 square kilometres (0.17 square miles).

European Countries

Europe is the second-smallest continent among the seven continents, covering approximately 10.18 million km² (3.93 million sq mi), which is about 2% of Earth's surface. The continent comprises 50 European Countries and, as of 2021, had a population of around 745 million people, making up nearly 10% of the global population. Europe has played a major role in shaping Western civilization, with its cultural and historical influence since many centuries.

European Countries Interesting Facts

Europe is the second smallest continent after Australia.
Vatican City, the world’s smallest country, is located in Europe.
The continent comprises 50 countries.
Russia has the largest population among European nations.
St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City is the world’s largest church.
Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in Europe.

List of European Countries

According to the United Nations, Europe consists of 44 recognized countries, while around 50 states are often considered part of the continent. Below is a List of European Countries along with their capitals.

List of European Countries
European Countries	Capital
Denmark	Copenhagen
Sweden	Stockholm
Finland	Helsinki
Norway	Oslo
Iceland	Reykjavik
Kosovo	Pristina
Slovenia	Ljubljana
Albania	Tirana
Croatia	Zagreb
North Macedonia	Skopje
Bulgaria	Sofia
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo
Montenegro	Podgorica
Serbia	Belgrade
Andorra	Andorra la Vella
Austria	Vienna
Germany	Berlin
Belgium	Brussels
France	Paris
Italy	Rome
Greece	Athens
Ireland	Dublin
Malta	Valletta
Liechtenstein	Vaduz
Luxembourg	Luxembourg
Portugal	Lisbon
Monaco	No official capital
Netherlands	Amsterdam
Switzerland	Bern
San Marino	San Marino
Spain	Madrid
United Kingdom	London
Turkey	Ankara
Azerbaijan	Baku
Belarus	Minsk
Serbia	Belgrade
Slovakia	Bratislava
Ukraine	Kiev
Poland	Warsaw
Republic of Moldova	Chișinău
Russia	Moscow
Czech Republic	Prague
Estonia	Tallinn
Georgia	Tbilisi
Hungary	Budapest
Latvia	Riga
Lithuania	Vilnius
Armenia	Yerevan

List of Top 10 European Countries by Area

Covering a total area of 10,186,000 km², it is one of the most densely populated regions and consists of around 50 countries, along with several dependent territories. Below is a List of Top 10 European Countries by Area.

List of Top 10 European Countries by Area
European Countries	Area Covered
Russia	17,098,246 km²
Ukraine	603,500 km²
France	543,940 km²
Spain	505,992 km²
Sweden	450,295 km²
Germany	357,114 km²
Finland	338,425 km²
Norway	323,802 km²
Poland	312,696 km²
Italy	301,339 km²

List of Top 10 European Countries by Population

Below mention is the List of Top 10 European Countries by Population as of 2023, along with their estimated populations:

List of Top 10 European Countries by Population
European Countries	Population
Russia	144,373,540
Germany	83,132,800
France	67,059,890
United Kingdom	66,834,400
Italy	60,297,400
Spain	47,076,780
Ukraine	44,385,150
Poland	37,970,870
Romania	19,356,540
The Netherlands	17,332,850

European Countries FAQs

Q1: What is the 44 country in Europe?

Ans: Holy See is the 44th country of Europe.

Q2: How many countries are in Europe?

Ans: The continent comprises 50 countries.

Q3: Are there 55 countries in Europe?

Ans: This list of European countries by population comprises the 51 countries and 5 territories.

Q4: Are the USA bigger than Europe?

Ans: Europe is only slightly larger than the United States.

Q5: Which country has 48 countries?

Ans: Asia is an incredibly diverse continent of 48 countries.

Monetary Policy in India, Types, Objectives, Significance

January 2, 2026

Monetary Policy in India frames an important outline of the Indian economy as it helps the RBI as well as the government in controlling the supply of money, inflation and the stability of the Indian economy. In this article, we are going to cover all about the Monetary Policy in India, its types, important monetary tools and related concepts.

Monetary Policy in India

Monetary Policy is a macroeconomic policy tool used by the Central Bank to manage the money supply in the Indian economy in order to achieve the macroeconomic goals of the country. The central bank uses various monetary instruments to manage the credit availability in the market to fulfil all the objectives of the economic policy.

The Reserve Bank of India Act 1934 makes it necessary for the Reserve Bank of India to create monetary policies of India. Before 2016, the governor of RBI was responsible for formulating Monetary Policy in India and after 2016, the Finance Act of India 2016 was enacted that led to the creation of the Monetary Policy Committee. This committee is responsible for formulating the monetary policy of India.

Monetary Policy Objectives

The Monetary Policy of India has the following objectives:

Maintaining price balance
Provide employment opportunities
Managing the exchange rates
Accelerating the growth of economy

Monetary Policy Types

There are two types of Monetary Policy- Expansionary Monetary Policy and Contractionary Monetary Policy

Expansionary Monetary Policy

Also known as Accommodative Monetary Policy, its primary objective is to increase the money supply in the economy to stimulate growth. The key measures include:

Decreasing interest rates – Makes borrowing cheaper for consumers and businesses, encouraging spending and investment.
Lowering reserve requirements for banks – Allows commercial banks to lend more, increasing liquidity in the market.
Purchasing government securities – The RBI injects money into the economy by buying securities, thereby increasing available funds.

This policy is aimed at boosting economic activity, encouraging consumer spending, and reducing unemployment. However, if overused, it can lead to inflationary pressures or even hyperinflation.

Contractionary Monetary Policy

This policy is designed to reduce the money supply in the economy, primarily to control inflation. The key measures include:

Raising interest rates – Makes borrowing costlier, discouraging excessive spending and investment.
Increasing reserve requirements for banks – Limits the amount banks can lend, tightening liquidity in the market.
Selling government bonds – Withdraws money from the economy as buyers pay the RBI for these securities.

The primary goal is to control rising prices and maintain economic stability.

Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

Features of Indian Monetary Policy Committee include:

The setting of MPC was recommended by the Urjit Patel Committee.
Section 45ZB of amended RBI Act 1934, provides for the establishment of 6-member monetary policy committee.
MPC has to meet at least 4 times a year.
The committee consists of 6 members.
The MPC members can hold the office for a term of 4 years and are not eligible for re-appointment.
The RBI Governor has a casting vote in the case of a tie.

Monetary Policy Tools in India

Various instruments used by the RBI to control the money supply can be categorized into two categories:

Quantitative Tools – Quantitative tools of monetary policy are aimed at controlling the cost and quantity of credit.
Qualitative Tools – Qualitative tools of monetary policy are aimed at controlling the use and direction of credit.
- The qualitative measures do not regulate the total amount of credit created by commercial banks. Rather, they make a distinction between good credit and bad credit and regulate only such credit which creates economic instability. Therefore, qualitative measures are known as the selective measures of credit control.

Monetary Policy Quantitative Tools

Major instruments coming in this category are explained below:

Bank Rate (Discount Rate)

Bank Rate is the rate at which the RBI buys or rediscounts Bills of Exchange or Commercial Papers from Scheduled Commercial Banks.
Higher Bank Rate means banks avoid borrowing money from RBI and the money supply decreases.
Lower Bank Rate means banks borrow more money and the money supply increases.

Reserve Requirements

A regulation that specifies the minimum reserves banks must maintain.
Two components:

a) Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)

Percentage of a bank’s total Demand and Time Liabilities (DTL) deposited with RBI in cash.
No interest is paid on CRR deposits.
When CRR increases, there is less money available for lending and money supply decreases.
When the CRR decreases, money money is available for lending and the money supply in the economy increases.

b) Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)

Percentage of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) maintained by banks in cash, gold, SLR securities, or a combination.
It is not mandatory to deposit SLR to the RBI.
Range prescribed by RBI: 0%–40%.
When SLR increases, banks have less lending capacity and money supply decreases.
When SLR decreases, banks have more lending capacity and the money supply increases.

3. Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF)

Helps banks manage daily liquidity mismatches via:

a) Repo Rate – Interest rate at which RBI lends short-term funds to SCBs against approved securities.
b) Reverse Repo Rate – Interest rate at which RBI borrows from SCBs (banks park excess funds with RBI).

4. Marginal Standing Facility (MSF)

Introduced in 2011 by the Narasimhan Committee recommendation.
Allows SCBs to borrow overnight loans (up to 1% of NDTL) from RBI at Repo Rate + 0.25%.
Marginal Standing Facility is used when funds via LAF are exhausted.
Minimum: ₹1 crore, in multiples thereof.

5. Open Market Operations (OMOs)

Buying/selling of government securities by RBI.
Buy securities in order toInject liquidity into the economy.
Sell securities in order to withdraw liquidity from the economy.

6. Market Stabilization Scheme (MSS)

RBI sells Market Stabilization Bonds (MSBs) to absorb excess liquidity.
Mainly used for sterilization of surplus funds in the system.

7. Term Repos

Introduced in Oct 2013 for tenors of 7, 14, or 28 days.
Provides liquidity for longer than overnight.
Helps develop the inter-bank money market and improve monetary policy transmission.

Monetary Policy Qualitative Tools

Major instruments coming in this category are explained below

Margin Requirements

Margin Requirements is the difference between the value of securities offered as collateral and the actual value of the loan granted.
Introduced to control credit flow to specific sectors.
High margin leads to less loan sanctioned and reduced credit to that sector.

2. Consumer Credit Regulation

Consumer credit regulation means loans given by banks in installments for purchasing consumer durables.
RBI’s Control Measures:
- Increase down payment required.
- Reduce the number of repayment installments.
Used when excess demand for consumer goods pushes prices upward.

3. Moral Suasion

Moral Suasion means persuasion and requests by RBI to banks to follow monetary policy guidelines.
Relies on cooperation rather than compulsion to maintain desired money supply levels.

4. Direct Action

Direct Action means penal or restrictive measures against non-cooperative banks.
Examples include:
- Refusal to rediscount bills.
- Charging penal interest rates.

5. Rationing of Credit (Credit Ceiling)

Rationing of credit means RBI sets a maximum limit on loans that Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs) can grant.
This tightens lending and controls credit expansion.

6. Priority Sector Lending

RBI mandates banks to allocate a specific portion of lending to sectors like:
- Agriculture & allied activities
- Micro & small enterprises
- Housing for low-income groups
Ensures credit availability to socially important but underfunded sectors.

Monetary Policy Significance

Introduction of Monetary Policy on India has the following significance:

Helps maintain price stability and economic growth of the country.
Helps in managing inflation.
Helps determine variables like consumption, savings, investment and capital formation.
Control over the money supply market helps in balancing the currency exchange rates.

Monetary Policy in India FAQs

Q1: What is the Monetary Policy of India?

Ans: It is the process by which the Reserve Bank of India manages money supply and interest rates to achieve economic objectives like growth, inflation control, and financial stability.

Q2: What is Fiscal Policy?

Ans: It refers to the government's use of taxation, spending, and borrowing to influence the economy.

Q3: What is the meaning of Bank Rate?

Ans: It is the rate at which the RBI is willing to buy or rediscount bills of exchange from commercial banks.

Q4: What do you mean by Moral Suasion?

Ans: It is the RBI’s method of persuading banks to follow its monetary policy guidelines without using legal force.

Q5: What is Expansionary Monetary Policy?

Ans: It is a policy aimed at increasing money supply and stimulating economic growth, often by lowering interest rates and reserve requirements.

Top 10 Most Populated Country in the World, Rank Wise List

January 2, 2026

As of 2025, the global population is estimated at approximately 8.16 billion. Over half of humanity resides in just ten countries. The Top 10 Most Populated Country in the World include India, China, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan, Nigeria, Brazil, Bangladesh, Russia, and Ethiopia. Together, they account for nearly 46% of the world’s population. Understanding demographic trends related to global governance, developmental economics, migration, environment, and geopolitical strategy.

Top 10 Most Populated Country in the World

As per the latest data from the World Population Review, India holds the top position in the term of population size, with over 1.46 billion people. China is at the second position with 1.42 billion. The projections suggest that India will not only maintain its lead but is also expected to witness continued population growth, reaching an estimated peak of 1.65 billion by around 2060.

While the global population continues to rise, the annual growth rate is gradually slowing. In 2025, the global population growth rate stands at approximately 0.85%, down from 0.97% in 2020 and 1.25% in 2015. Currently, the world population is about 8.2 billion, increasing by roughly 70 million people each year. If trends continue, the global population is projected to reach 9 billion by the year 2037.

Top 10 Most Populated Country in the World
Rank	Country	Population (2025)	Yearly Change	Net Change	World Share
1	India	1,463,865,525	0.89%	12,929,734	17.78%
2	China	1,416,096,094	-0.23%	-3,225,184	17.20%
3	United States	347,275,807	0.54%	1,849,236	4.22%
4	Indonesia	285,721,236	0.79%	2,233,305	3.47%
5	Pakistan	255,219,554	1.57%	3,950,390	3.10%
6	Nigeria	237,527,782	2.08%	4,848,304	2.89%
7	Brazil	212,812,405	0.38%	813,832	2.59%
8	Bangladesh	175,686,899	1.22%	2,124,535	2.13%
9	Russia	143,997,393	-0.57%	-823,030	1.75%
10	Ethiopia	135,472,051	2.58%	3,412,284	1.65%

India

Population (2025): ~1.464 billion; share ~17.8%.
Growth Rate: ~0.89% annually, adding ~13 million people .
Median Age: ~28.8 years; ~37% urban.
Positioned to become the world’s most populous nation by 2030, according to UN projections.
Expected to peak at ~1.68 billion by 2050 and around 1.65 billion by 2060 .
The demographic dividend is strong, yet urbanisation, food security, and ageing pose multifaceted challenges ahead.

China

Population (2025): ~1.416 billion; ~17.2% global share.
Growth Rate: Slight decline of -0.23%, losing ~3 million people .
Median Age: ~40.1 years; ~67.5% urban.
Faces demographic ageing and low fertility, with the UN projecting a peak by 2035, followed by a sustained decline.
Key global issues include ageing population, workforce constraints, and regional economic impact due to population decline.

United States

Population (2025): ~347.3 million; ~4.22% of world total.
Growth Rate: ~0.54%, fueled by migration and natural growth.
Median Age: ~38.5 years; ~82.8% urban.
Recognised as a migration-driven society with diverse demographics; projected to remain steadily populous (~380 million by 2050).
Demographic stability will support continuous economic strength, but ageing and healthcare strain remain major concerns.

Indonesia

Population (2025): ~285.7 million; ~3.5% share.
Growth Rate: ~0.79% annually .
Median Age: ~30.4 years; ~59.6% urban .
Fertility rate around 2.1; population projected at ~320 million by 2050 .
As the world’s largest archipelagic country, Indonesia’s challenges include urban planning, climate resilience, and youth employment.

Pakistan

Population (2025): ~255.2 million; ~3.10% share.
Growth Rate: ~1.57%; ~3.95 million annual increase.
Median Age: ~20.6 years; ~34.4% urban .
Fertility rate ~3.5; projected population ~372 million by 2050 .
Pakistan sees both potential demographic dividend and challenges including education and healthcare delivery.

Nigeria

Population (2025): ~237.5 million; ~2.89% share .
Growth Rate: ~2.08%; ~4.85 million rise annually .
Median Age: ~18.1 years; ~54.9% urban.
Fertility rate ~4.3; forecasted ~359 million by 2050, overtaking Indonesia by growth terms.
Nigeria leads Africa in demographic growth, facing infrastructure, unemployment, and educational expansion challenges.

Brazil

Population (2025): ~212.8 million; ~2.59% share.
Growth Rate: ~0.38% annually .
Median Age: ~34.8 years; ~91.4% urban.
Population projected ~217 million by 2050 .
While relatively stable, Brazil grapples with urban inequality, environmental sustainability in the Amazon region, and demographic ageing.

Bangladesh

Population (2025): ~175.7 million; ~2.13% share.
Growth Rate: ~1.22% annually .
Median Age: ~26 years; ~42.6% urban .
Fertility ~2.11; population to reach ~214 million by 2050 .
Governance, cyclone resilience, urbanisation, rural poverty, and Rohingya refugee issues are critical policy areas.

Russia

Population (2025): ~144.0 million; ~1.75% share .
Growth Rate: -0.57%, shrinking by ~823,000 people .
Median Age: ~40.3 years; ~75% urban .
Projected at ~136 million by 2050 .
Confronts serious demographic decline, ageing, health challenges, and low fertility with migration offsetting some decline.

Ethiopia

Population (2025): ~135.5 million; ~1.65% share .
Growth Rate: ~2.58% annually .
Median Age: ~19.1 years; ~22.5% urban .
Fertility ~3.81; estimated ~225 million by 2050 .
Rapid demographic expansion brings challenges in food security, infrastructure, and governance, but also a potential for future workforce gains.

Most Populous Countries in 2050

By 2050, the global population landscape is expected to shift significantly. Projections indicate that India and China will continue to lead as the most populous countries, together comprising more than 30% of the world’s total population.

Much of the population growth is anticipated to occur in developing nations across Asia and Africa, driven by higher fertility rates and younger demographics. Meanwhile, notable changes in the rankings of the top 20 most populous countries are expected, reflecting broader demographic trends such as urbanization, aging populations, and migration patterns.

Most Populous Countries in 2050 (Projections)
Rank	Country	Population (2050)	World Share	2050 Rank
1	India	1,679,589,259	17.38%	(1)
2	China	1,260,289,093	13.04%	(2)
3	United States	380,846,910	3.94%	(3)
4	Pakistan	371,863,793	3.85%	(5)
5	Nigeria	359,185,556	3.72%	(6)
6	Indonesia	320,712,949	3.32%	(4)
7	Ethiopia	225,021,875	2.33%	(10)
8	DR Congo	218,246,072	2.26%	(15)
9	Brazil	217,489,299	2.25%	(7)
10	Bangladesh	214,709,097	2.22%	(8)
11	Egypt	161,630,192	1.67%	(13)
12	Mexico	148,946,274	1.54%	(11)
13	Russia	136,132,775	1.41%	(9)
14	Philippines	134,373,439	1.39%	(14)
15	Tanzania	129,621,102	1.34%	(21)
16	Vietnam	110,008,908	1.14%	(16)
17	Japan	105,123,167	1.09%	(12)
18	Iran	101,861,993	1.05%	(17)
19	Turkey	91,258,061	0.94%	(18)
20	Uganda	85,431,202	0.88%	(31)

Top 10 Most Populated Country in the World FAQs

Q1: Which country has the largest population in 2025?

Ans: India: ~1.464 billion, leading the world in population share (~17.8%).

Q2: Is China’s population still growing?

Ans: No, China’s population is declining slightly, with a negative growth rate (~-0.23%) and projected future decrease after peaking around 2035.

Q3: Which African country is most populous?

Ans: Nigeria, with nearly 237.5 million people, is the most populous in Africa and sixth globally.

Q4: How does the US population growth compare?

Ans: The US grows at a modest 0.54% annually, primarily driven by immigration; projected to reach ~381 million by 2050.

Q5: Which countries are rising in rankings by 2050?

Ans: Pakistan (4th), Nigeria (5th), Ethiopia (7th), and DR Congo (8th) are expected to climb, driven by high fertility and youthful populations.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025, Eligibility, Features, Objectives

January 2, 2026

The National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 is India’s flagship digital scholarship platform, streamlining financial aid for students from school to doctoral levels. It simplifies application, verification, and fund transfer, promoting transparency and inclusion through a unified system. It uses Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), the portal ensures that scholarship funds are transferred directly into the bank accounts seeded with Aadhaar, reducing intermediaries and potential leakage.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025

The National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 is an integrated online portal operated by the Government of India that brings together more than 140 scholarship schemes under one roof. Designed for students from Class 1 to Ph.D., NSP 2025 aims to provide a one-stop, transparent, and efficient way to apply for government scholarships.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 Objectives

The National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 has several well-defined objectives:

Centralization: To unify multiple central, state, UGC, and AICTE scholarship schemes in a single online platform, avoiding fragmentation.
Efficiency: To make the application-to-disbursal process smoother, faster, and less dependent on paperwork.
Transparency: To maintain a clear audit trail by integrating with systems like PFMS (Public Financial Management System) and DBT.
Accountability: To track applications at multiple verification stages (institute, district, state) and reduce fraud.
Inclusivity: To ensure students from marginalized backgrounds (SC/ ST/ OBC/ Minorities/ PwD) have easier access to scholarships.
Real-time Monitoring: To provide live dashboards and status updates for both students and administrators.
Simplified User Experience: To provide a single application form, auto-matching of eligible scholarship schemes, and status tracking.
Prevent Duplication: To avoid the same student applying for or receiving multiple scholarships for the same period.
Secure Fund Transfer: To leverage Aadhaar-seeded bank accounts for DBT, minimizing risk of misdirection.
Policy Support: To provide data-driven insights for policy makers based on application trends and disbursal statistics.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 Purpose

The purpose of National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 can be understood through its social, economic, and governance motivations:

Promoting Social Equity: By enabling scholarships for historically marginalized communities (SC/ ST/ OBC, minorities, PwD), NSP 2025 helps reduce financial barriers to education.
Reducing Dropout Rates: Financial assistance encourages students from low-income families to complete school, college, and higher studies.
Ease of Access: The portal replaces complex, paper-based scholarship systems with a single, user-friendly digital interface.
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): By channeling funds directly into students’ bank accounts, NSP 2025 minimizes delays and corruption.
Accountable Governance: With two-level verification (Institute Nodal Officer and District Nodal Officer), NSP reinforces accountability in scholarship awarding.
Data-Driven Planning: Aggregated data on scholarship demand and distribution can guide government policy and budget allocation.
Administrative Efficiency: NSP reduces the administrative burden on ministries, states, and educational institutions by consolidating processes.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 Eligibility

Eligibility for scholarships on National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 depends on the individual scheme, but there are common criteria across many programs:

Educational Level: Students from Class 1 to Ph.D. are eligible, depending on scheme.
Income Ceiling:
- For many schemes, family income must be below a threshold (e.g., ≤ ₹ 2.5 lakh per annum for some pre-matric and disability scholarships).
- For the National Means-cum-Merit Scholarship (NMMSS), parental income must not exceed ₹ 3.50 lakh per annum according to the Ministry of Education.
Academic Performance:
- Minimum marks requirement (for instance, 55% or equivalent in certain schemes like NMMSS).
- For selection test schemes, students may need to pass eligibility exams.
Category: Eligibility may be reserved for specific social categories (SC, ST, OBC, Minorities, PwD) depending on the scholarship.
Aadhaar / Bank Account: Students generally need an Aadhaar-linked bank account for DBT.
Institution: Enrollment in recognized school, college, or university may be required per the scheme guidelines.
Renewal Criteria: For renewal, students often need to meet academic progress criteria and have received the scholarship in the prior year.
Nationality: Indian citizenship is typically required for most NSP-administered scholarships.
Other Documents: Income certificate, caste/domicile certificate, and student’s previous mark sheets are commonly required.

Types of Scholarships under NSP 2025

The National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 consolidates a wide range of scholarships, categorized roughly into the following types:

Central Government Scholarships:
- Schemes offered by ministries like Minority Affairs, Higher Education, Tribal Affairs, Home Affairs, etc.
- Examples: Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Minority Scholarships, Merit-cum-Means Scholarship (professional/technical), Central Sector Scholarship Scheme (CSS) for college students.
State Government Scholarships:
- State-level scholarship schemes for students belonging to their respective states or UTs.
UGC / AICTE Schemes:
- Scholarships for higher education and technical studies.
- Examples: AICTE Pragati Scholarship for girl students, AICTE Saksham Scholarship for students with disabilities.
Pre-Matric Scholarships:
- Financial aid for school-level students (classes 1–10) under various socio-economic and special categories.
Post-Matric Scholarships:
- For students in class 11, 12, college, and higher education under reserved or economically backward categories.
Merit-cum-Means Scholarships:
- Based on both merit and family income, commonly for professional and technical courses.
Special Scholarships:
- For persons with disabilities (PwD), tribal students (ST), minority students, etc.
National Means-cum-Merit Scholarship (NMMSS):
- For students in class 8 (or other class, depending on the scheme) from low-income families to continue education through class 12

Steps to Apply for National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025

Applying for scholarships on NSP 2025 involves several systematic steps:

Visit NSP Portal: Go to the official website: scholarships.gov.in.
New Registration / OTR:
- Click “New Registration” and fill in personal details, Aadhaar number, mobile number, bank account details.
- A One-Time Registration (OTR) ID is generated after face-authentication, which is valid for all future applications.
Receive Credentials: Upon registration, you receive a Temporary ID and password via SMS, which becomes a Permanent Registration ID after final submission.
Login: Use your registration credentials to log in. The portal might ask you to change the default password.
Fill Application Form:
- Enter academic details, contact information, and choose the scholarship scheme(s) you want to apply for.
- The system automatically filters eligible schemes based on your data.
Upload Documents:
- Required documents: income certificate, caste certificate (if applicable), mark sheets, Aadhaar, bank passbook.
- Some schemes (e.g., NEC) may ask for additional documentation like PRC (Permanent Residential Certificate) for NE states.
Review & Final Submission:
- Check all the entries carefully before final submission, because once “Final Submit” is clicked, no edits are allowed.
Institute Verification:
- After submission, your application is forwarded to the Institute Nodal Officer (INO) for first-level verification.
- Then, it goes to District Nodal Officer (DNO) or State Nodal Officer (SNO) for second-level verification.
Ministry Approval: Once verified by institute and district/state, the application is reviewed by the concerned ministry or department.
Fund Disbursal: Approved scholarships are disbursed via DBT directly into the student’s bank account, tracked via PFMS.
Status Tracking:
- Students can log in any time to check their application status (“Under Review,” “Verified,” etc.).
- Payment status can also be tracked via PFMS using NSP ID.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 Features

The National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 incorporates several important provisions to make the system robust, transparent, and inclusive:

DBT and PFMS Integration: Scholarship amounts are disbursed via Direct Benefit Transfer, tracked through the Public Financial Management System, ensuring funds reach beneficiaries.
Two-Level Verification: Institute-level verification (INO) followed by District or State-level verification (DNO/SNO) ensures checks and balances.
Eligibility Matching: The portal suggests relevant scholarship schemes based on students’ profile (category, income, course, institution).
One-Time Registration (OTR): Students register once (with face authentication), and the same ID can apply for multiple scholarships over the years.
Real-Time Status Tracking: Applicants can monitor the progress of their application and payment status in real time.
Secure and Transparent Process: Use of Aadhaar-linked bank accounts, verified institutes, and electronic documentation minimizes chances of fraud.
Inclusive Reach: Schemes cover various social categories (SC, ST, OBC, Minorities, PwD) and all educational levels.
Policy Feedback: The portal’s backend provides data analytics for policymakers on scheme uptake, demographic outreach, and fund utilization.
Extensions & Flexibility: For academic year 2025-26, certain deadlines were extended (e.g., institute verification) to ensure more students can benefit.
Helpdesk Support: NSP offers a helpdesk (e.g., contact number 0120-6619540) to resolve applicant queries.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 Challenges

Ensuring the National Scholarship Portal remains effective involves tackling a number of challenges and proposing strategic solutions.

Challenges:

The NSP 2025 faces several operational and systemic hurdles:

Digital Divide: Many students in rural or remote areas may lack reliable internet or digital literacy.
Delayed Verification: Institute-level and district-level verification can be slow, delaying fund disbursal.
Income Certificate Authenticity: Verifying income certificates is complex, leading to misuse or exclusion of deserving students.
Aadhaar and Bank Linking Issues: Not all students have Aadhaar-seeded bank accounts, or there may be mismatches, creating disbursal failures.
Over-Dependence on Self-Reported Data: Students’ data entry errors (marks, income) may lead to misallocation or rejection.
Capacity Constraints in Nodal Offices: District or state nodal officers may be overburdened with large application volumes.
Fraudulent Applications: Risk of fake institutes or misrepresentation by students.
Lack of Awareness: Many eligible students may be unaware of NSP or specific scholarship schemes.
Technical Glitches: Portal downtime, bugs, or slowness during peak application periods.
Delayed Payments: Even after approval, disbursal through DBT via PFMS might be delayed due to bureaucratic or technical issues.

Way Forward:

To strengthen NSP 2025, the following strategic measures can be considered:

Digital Outreach Programs: Conduct camps in rural areas, schools, and colleges to educate students about NSP and assist with registration.
Capacity Building: Train institute nodal officers (INOs) and district nodal officers (DNOs) to manage verification efficiently and quickly.
Robust Income Verification: Leverage data integration (e.g., income tax or social welfare databases) to validate income certificates.
Aadhaar-Bank Integration Campaign: Facilitate linking of Aadhaar with bank accounts via banking partners to ensure smooth DBT.
Form Validation: Add error-checking and auto-validation features in the application form to reduce data entry mistakes.
Incentivize Verification: Provide performance-based incentives to nodal officers for timely verification.
Anti-Fraud Measures: Use data analytics to flag suspicious applications and conduct spot checks on institutes.
Awareness Drives: Use social media, school outreach, and radio/print media to raise awareness about NSP schemes.
Technical Upgrades: Scale up the portal infrastructure to handle high traffic, and offer mobile app support for better accessibility.
Faster Disbursal Cycle: Streamline the DBT-PFMS pipeline and set strict internal SLAs (Service-Level Agreements) for payment after approval.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 UPSC

The National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 represents a major step forward in India’s efforts to democratize educational access. By consolidating diverse scholarship schemes into a single, transparent, and efficient digital platform, NSP 2025 empowers students, particularly from marginalized backgrounds, to pursue their academic goals with financial support. Its design, built on DBT, two-level verification, and centralized data tracking, not only improves trust but also reduces systemic leakages. However, to fully realize its potential, the portal must address issues like delayed verification, digital divide, and technical challenges. With strategic reforms, NSP 2025 can become a truly inclusive and efficient tool in India’s educational and social justice architecture.

National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is the National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025?

Ans: It is a unified online platform for applying to over 140 government scholarship schemes, covering students from Class 1 to Ph.D.

Q2: How do I apply on the National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025?

Ans: Register on scholarships.gov.in, complete one-time registration (OTR), fill in application form, upload documents, and submit for verification.

Q3: What is the eligibility for National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025?

Ans: Eligibility depends on the scheme, but common criteria include income ceiling (e.g., ≤ ₹ 2.5-3.5 lakh), minimum academic marks, and category (SC/ ST/ OBC/ Minority/ PwD).

Q4: What is the official website of the National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025?

Ans: The official website of the National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025 is www.scholarships.gov.in.

Q5: How are payments done via National Scholarship Portal (NSP) 2025?

Ans: Approved scholarships are disbursed via Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) into the student’s Aadhaar-seeded bank account, tracked on PFMS.

Special Intensive Revision (SIR) by Election Commission, Significance, Challenges

January 2, 2026

The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls is a strategic exercise by the Election Commission of India (ECI) aimed at thoroughly updating, verifying and correcting the voter lists across India. While routine roll updates happen annually, SIR is a far more comprehensive, time-bound house-to-house verification drive, often preceding major elections. Its goal is to ensure that the electoral roll is accurate, inclusive and free from errors such as duplicates, deceased voters, or ineligible entries.

Special Intensive Revision (SIR)

SIR refers to a large-scale, intensive revision of electoral rolls by the Election Commission of India under its constitutional and statutory powers. Usually triggered in anticipation of high-stakes elections or when the rolls have remained largely unchanged for years, the SIR involves steps such as fresh enumeration forms, house-to-house verification by Booth Level Officers (BLOs), document verification of voters, deletion of ineligible entries, and inclusion of those omitted. The SIR 2025 in Bihar, where more than 8 crore voters were to be re-verified, is the latest example. Key facts:

The legal basis lies in Article 324 of the Constitution (superintendence, direction and control of elections) and Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which allows the Commission to carry out “special revision of the electoral roll.”
The objective is to include every eligible citizen (18+ years) and to remove duplicates, deceased persons, ineligible entries and correct errors like wrong names or addresses.
It is not simply a summary revision but combines features of a full enumeration (intensive revision) and summary updates, hence the nomenclature “Special Intensive”.

Special Intensive Revision Significance

The SIR exercise offers multiple benefits for democracy and electoral integrity:

Reduces ghost voters and multiple registrations: By removing duplicate entries, the fairness of elections improves.
Reflects demographic changes: Large-scale migration, new elector entrants, and urbanization distort old rolls; SIR addresses this.
Improves inclusion of marginalised groups: Young voters, internal migrants, disabled voters get properly registered.
Strengthens transparency and trust: When voters feel the list is updated and inclusive, public confidence in the system increases.
Facilitates efficient polling logistics: Clean rolls help better planning: fewer spoiled ballots, accurate polling station allocation (as seen in Jaipur creation of new booths).

Special Intensive Revision Objectives

The major objectives of conducting a Special Intensive Revision are:

Accuracy: To update and correct the electoral roll so that duplicate names, deceased voters, and ineligible persons are removed.
Inclusion: To ensure that all eligible citizens, including first-time voters, migrants, and those omitted earlier, are included in the voter list.
Legitimacy: To strengthen public trust in elections by cleansing rolls and thereby reinforcing the “one person, one vote” principle.
Demographic adjustment: With increasing migration (rural→urban), changing residencies, newly eligible voters (18+), SIR helps the roll reflect ground realities.
Pre-election readiness: Especially before major Assembly or Lok Sabha elections, a clean roll reduces litigations and helps smooth polling operations.

Special Intensive Revision Legal Framework

The legal and constitutional basis for SIR is critical for understanding its authority and challenges:

Article 324 (1): Grants the ECI superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament and State Legislatures.
Article 326: Guarantees adult suffrage to all citizens aged 18+ for elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
Representation of the People Act, 1950, Section 16 and 19: Sets out criteria for voter eligibility (citizen, 18+, ordinary resident). Section 21(3) empowers the ECI to order special roll revision.
Registration of Electors Rules, 1960: Specifies procedures for enrolment, revision, etc. Some legal commentators note that the term “Special Intensive Revision” itself is not explicitly present in the Rulebook, raising questions of nomenclature and procedural clarity.

Special Intensive Revision Process

The SIR process involves several distinct phases and features which differentiate it from routine roll updates:

Notification & Planning: The ECI issues notification specifying qualifying date (e.g., July 1, 2025 in Bihar).
House-to-House Enumeration: BLOs visit every house in assigned polling booth area and distribute pre-filled “Enumeration Forms” to existing electors and new eligible persons.
Submission of Documents: For voters enrolled after a certain past date (e.g., Jan 2003 in Bihar SIR) proof of date/place of birth and parentage is required. This is stricter than earlier frameworks.
Verification & Deletions/ Additions: EROs scrutinise the submissions, identify deaths, duplicates, migration, ineligible voters and remove them; simultaneously new inclusions are processed. For example in Jaipur, 741 new polling booths were to be created under SIR to accommodate changes.
Draft Publication & Objections: A draft roll is published, objections entertained, grievance redressal mechanism applied. The Supreme Court directed ECI to publish details of deleted names in the Bihar SIR litigation.
Final Roll & Freeze: The final roll is constituted and frozen for ensuing election. Additions/deletions after that are restricted to special cases.

Special Intensive Revision Features

The key features of the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) has been listed below:

Focus on every household rather than selective updates.
Time-bound completion preceding major elections.
Special emphasis on migrants, youth, and excluded electorates.
Integration of digital tools, SMS alerts, online enumeration portals.
Stronger document verification for entries added post last intensive revision.

Bihar SIR 2025

The SIR exercise launched in Bihar in mid-2025 offers concrete insights and lessons. This case underlines both the scale and complexity of SIR. It also highlights the balancing act between thoroughness of revision and inclusivity of electoral participation.

The ECI notified SIR with the qualifying date 1 July 2025, marking all citizens turning 18 by 1 October 2025 as eligible for inclusion.
More than 8 crore voters were subject to enumeration; BLOs and 4 lakh volunteers were mobilised.
The process required voters registered after Jan 2003 to provide proof of their name, birth date and parent’s details. This was stricter than past editions of intensive revision.
The Supreme Court directed the ECI to publish details of deletions and make it widely known via websites and media.
Civil society organisations like Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) flagged deviations from 2003 norms and alleged risk of large-scale exclusion.
As part of booth rationalisation, districts such as Jaipur created hundreds of new polling stations under SIR to avoid over-crowding.

Special Intensive Revision Challenges

While SIR is conceptually sound, its implementation has raised serious concerns:

Risk of disenfranchisement: The demand for additional documents (especially for post-2003 entries) may exclude legitimate voters lacking birth or parentage proof. Critics argue that this risks excluding the poor, migrants and marginalised groups.
Timing before elections: Conducting a full-scale revision just before a major election may create confusion, logistic issues, and allegations of bias. For example, state parties asked for clarity that SIR is not a citizenship verification exercise.
Terminology & procedural clarity: The term “Special Intensive Revision” is not explicitly mentioned in existing rules, leading to questions about legal basis and consistency.
Resource and staffing constraints: House-to-house enumeration at scale demands huge human and technological resources, field officials have flagged shortages.
Digital divide and accessibility: Rural, remote, migrant or low-literate citizens may be disadvantaged in online enumeration or document submission.
Political objections and litigations: Some opposition parties allege SIR may be used to manipulate voter lists for favourable outcomes. For example, the Supreme Court is hearing a PIL (Association for Democratic Reforms vs ECI) challenging the 2025 Bihar SIR.

Way Forward:

Given the importance and complexity of SIR, a set of reforms can help strengthen its outcomes:

Define clear legal guidelines: While Section 21(3) of RP Act provides power, transparent guidelines on document requirements, timeline and inclusion criteria can reduce disputes and litigations.
Ensure minimal documentation barrier: Maintain presumption of validity for earlier registered voters; avoid blanket demands of new proof unless probable cause exists.
Use technology to streamline the process: Mobile apps for enumeration, GIS mapping of premises, online grievance portals for exclusion/delayed enrolment can enhance efficiency and reduce errors.
Inclusion focus: Special camps for migrants, disabled, first-time voters; mass awareness campaigns in multiple languages; mobile verification vehicles in remote areas.
Stakeholder consultation: Political parties, civil society organisations, tribal and migrant groups must be consulted to detect potential exclusion and build confidence in the exercise.
Real-time monitoring & public disclosure: Publishing lists of deleted/included names, reasons for deletion, leveraging transparency to reduce fear of disenfranchisement.
Post-roll audit & feedback mechanism: Conduct sample audits after the roll is finalised to verify inclusion of marginalised groups, and correct omissions before polling.
Synchronise with delimitation and polling station rationalisation: Changes in constituency boundaries, migration flows, and new polling station creation (as seen in Jaipur) must be integrated into SIR design.

SIR Election Commission

The Election Commission of India (ECI) plays a central role in planning and executing the Special Intensive Revision (SIR). It issues formal notifications specifying the schedule, qualifying date, and procedures for enumeration. The ECI also supervises the house-to-house verification, document scrutiny, and final roll publication. Through its constitutional authority under Article 324, the Commission ensures that every eligible citizen is included and every error or duplicate is eliminated from the voter roll.

Chief Electoral Officer

The Chief Electoral Officer (CEO) of each state or union territory is responsible for implementing SIR on the ground. Acting under the guidance of the Election Commission, the CEO coordinates with District Election Officers, Electoral Registration Officers, and Booth Level Officers. The CEO ensures timely data collection, field verification, training of staff, public awareness drives, and transparent grievance redressal during the revision. Their reports form the basis for ECI’s final electoral roll approval.

Special Intensive Revision UPSC

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has launched the next phase of the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls across 12 states and Union Territories, including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, and Puducherry, ahead of upcoming Assembly elections. The process begins on November 4, 2025, covering over 51 crore voters, with the final roll to be released on February 7, 2026. Voters must prove eligibility using one of 13 documents, including the Aadhaar card, a provision introduced after procedural reforms during the Bihar SIR. States like Tamil Nadu and Kerala have sought clarifications, citing concerns over large-scale voter verification. Meanwhile, Assam has been excluded due to the ongoing NRC exercise, making this one of India’s largest voter verification drives since 2002.

Special Intensive Revision (SIR) FAQs

Q1: What is Special Intensive Revision (SIR)?

Ans: SIR is a large-scale voter roll verification process conducted by the Election Commission to update and correct the electoral list.

Q2: Why is Special Intensive Revision important before elections?

Ans: It ensures fair and accurate elections by removing duplicate or ineligible entries and adding newly eligible voters to the list.

Q3: Who conducts Special Intensive Revision in each state?

Ans: The Chief Electoral Officer and local election officers conduct SIR under the supervision of the Election Commission of India.

Q4: What documents are required for SIR verification?

Ans: Voters may need to provide proof of age, address, and parentage, especially for registrations after 2003.

Q5: What are the major challenges in Special Intensive Revision?

Ans: Challenges include risk of voter exclusion, documentation barriers, limited staff, and digital accessibility issues in remote areas.

List of National Symbols of India with Names, Significance

January 2, 2026

National Symbols of India are an essential part of any nation's identity, reflecting its cultural values and historical significance. For Indians, these 17 national symbols are not only a source of pride but also a representation of India's diverse heritage. These symbols are integral to the country's identity and are significant in the context of national importance, making it essential for every citizen to be familiar with them. In competitive exams such as UPSC, questions related to these 17 National Symbols of India are frequently asked. This article will include each of these symbols and explore their cultural and national relevance.

National Symbols of India

National Symbols of India serve as an important representation of our country’s values, history, and identity. India, with its rich cultural heritage and diverse traditions, has a set of national symbols that evoke pride, patriotism, and a deep sense of unity among its citizens. These symbols go beyond representations; they embody the collective spirit and heritage of the nation.

List of National Symbols of India

Check out the List of National Symbols of India below, which includes key symbols like the National Flag, Emblem, Anthem, along with the Bengal Tiger, Lotus, and the Ganges River. These symbols embody India's cultural heritage, evoking patriotism, pride, and unity, while reflecting the country's rich diversity and identity.

List of National Symbols of India
1	National Flag	Tiranga
2	National Emblem	National Emblem of India
3	National Currency	Indian Rupees
4	National Calendar	Saka Calendar
5	Oath of Allegiance	National Pledge
6	National River	Ganga
7	National Heritage Animal	Indian Elephant
8	National Animal	Royal Bengal Tiger
9	National Bird	Indian Peacock
10	National Tree	Indian Banyan
11	National Song	Vande Mataram
12	National Anthem	Jana Gana Mana
13	National Reptile	King Cobra
14	National Aquatic Animal	Ganges River Dolphin
15	National Vegetable	Pumpkin
16	National Fruit	Mango
17	National Flower	Lotus

National Symbols of India with Names List

Check below the Name List of National Symbols of India with a brief description.

Indian National Flag

The National Flag of India, known as the Tiranga, was designed by Pingali Venkayya and was officially adopted on 22nd July 1947. Its three colors, saffron, white, and green which symbolize the sacrifice of freedom fighters, peace, and prosperity respectively. The flag is a symbol of India's unity, diversity, and pride.

National Flower of India

The National Flower of India is the Lotus, symbolizing purity, beauty, and spiritual enlightenment. It holds great cultural and religious significance in Indian traditions, often associated with gods and goddesses like Lakshmi and Saraswati. The lotus represents the idea of rising above challenges, just as it blooms beautifully even in muddy waters.

National Emblem

India's National Emblem, derived from the Ashoka Chakra at Sarnath, reflects the nation's history and cultural significance. The emblem carries the motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’, which means “Truth Alone Triumphs”, symbolizing India's commitment to justice and righteousness.

National Currency

The currency of India is the Indian Rupee (INR), which is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India. Designed by Udayakumar Dharmalingam, the rupee symbol reflects India’s economic strength and heritage.

National Calendar

The Saka Calendar serves as India’s national calendar. With deep historical roots, it represents the golden period of Indian civilization and has been in use for official purposes since 1957.

Oath of Allegiance

The National Pledge of India is a declaration of allegiance to the nation, emphasizing unity, peace, and national integrity. This pledge is recited across schools and institutions to promote patriotism and a sense of belonging.

National Fruit of India

The mango holds the title of the National Fruit of India. Loved across the nation, it is a symbol of summer and prosperity. Known for its sweetness, the mango is a cultural icon in India.

National Animal of India

The Royal Bengal Tiger is India’s National Animal. Recognized for its strength and grace, the tiger is also a symbol of the nation’s commitment to conservation, as it faces the threat of extinction.

National Bird of India

The peacock is India’s National Bird, chosen for its beauty and significance in Indian culture. The bird was adopted in 1963, representing vibrancy, national pride, and cultural heritage.

National Anthem

India’s National Anthem, ‘Jana Gana Mana’, was composed by Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali and later translated into Hindi. It was officially adopted as the anthem in 1950, and its stirring lyrics reflect India’s diversity and unity.

National Song of India

‘Vande Mataram’, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, is India’s National Song. Adopted in 1950, it celebrates the country’s freedom struggle and pays homage to India as a motherland.

National Tree of India

The banyan tree is India’s National Tree. Known for its vast canopy, the banyan is a symbol of immortality and spiritual significance in Hinduism, representing resilience and longevity.

National Vegetable of India

Pumpkin is the National Vegetable of India, chosen for its widespread cultivation and the vital role it plays in Indian diets. This versatile vegetable is grown across the country with minimal resources.

National Heritage Animal

The Indian Elephant is declared the National Heritage Animal of India. Revered in Indian culture, the elephant symbolizes strength and wisdom. Efforts are underway to protect this majestic animal as its population dwindles.

National Aquatic Animal of India

The Ganges River Dolphin is India’s National Aquatic Animal. This species, found in the Ganges River, is endangered, and its declaration as a national symbol aims to raise awareness for its conservation.

National River of India

In 2008, the Ganges was declared India’s National River, underscoring its deep cultural and spiritual significance. The Ganga Action Plan was initiated to protect and preserve this sacred river.

Significance of National Symbols of India

National symbols are essential to a country’s identity, values, and history, and they foster unity and pride. In India, symbols like the national flag, emblem, flower, bird, animal, and tree represent the country’s rich cultural heritage. These symbols not only evoke patriotism but also serve practical purposes—such as the national flag identifying Indian ships and aircraft, and the emblem appearing on official government documents.

The lotus, India’s national flower, symbolizes purity and spirituality, while the Bengal tiger, the national animal, represents strength and bravery. The peacock, recognized as the national bird, reflects grace and beauty, and the banyan tree, India’s national tree, signifies immortality.

Together, these symbols help unite the Indian people, promote cultural pride, and reinforce the country’s values both within India and internationally. They are more than just emblems—they inspire respect and celebrate the country’s unique identity.

National Symbols of India 2025 FAQs

Q1: What are the 17 National Symbols of India?

Ans: There are 17 national symbols of India namely Tiranga, Jana Gana Mana, Saka Calendar, Vande Mataram, National Emblem of India, Mango, Ganga, Royal Bengal Tiger, Indian Banyan, Ganges River Dolphin, Indian Peacock, Indian Rupee, King Cobra, Indian Elephant, Lotus, Pumpkin and National Pledge.

Q2: What is the name of the National Symbol?

Ans: India's National Symbols, such as the lotus (spirituality and purity), the tiger (strength and courage), the peacock (grace and beauty), the banyan tree (immortality), and the mango (tropical climate), were chosen to reflect the nation's rich heritage, cultural values, and natural beauty.

Q3: What do the National Symbols of India represent?

Ans: The national animal, Tiger symbolizes power; the national flower, Lotus symbolizes purity; the national tree, Banyan symbolizes immortality, the national bird, the Peacock symbolizes elegance and the national fruit, Mango symbolizes the tropical climate of India.

Q4: What are the names of 5 of the National Symbols?

Ans: The five symbols include King Protea, Real Yellowwoods, Springbok, Galjoen Fish, and Blue Crane. In addition, is the meaning of each symbol.

Q5: Which is the National Tree?

Ans: Ficus bengalensis, an Indian fig tree, spreads its branches out like young trees across a wide region. The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Because of this characteristic and its longevity, this tree is considered immortal and is an integral part of the myths and legends of India.

Prime Ministers of India, List from 1947-2025, Tenure

January 2, 2026

The Prime Minister of India is the head of the government and plays a crucial role in shaping the nation’s policies, governance, and international relations. They lead the Council of Ministers, make key decisions, and ensure the smooth functioning of the administration. Narendra Modi is the current Prime Minister of India, serving since 2014. He took the oath for his third term on June 9, 2024, making him the second longest-serving Prime Minister after Jawaharlal Nehru. This article provides a List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2025 highlighting their contributions and leadership.

Prime Ministers of India

India has seen 15 Prime Ministers since independence, each shaping the nation’s progress. Narendra Modi, currently serving his third term in 2024, began his leadership in 2014 and has introduced transformative reforms like GST, Make in India, and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. His tenure also witnessed major decisions, including the revocation of Article 370, digital advancements, and a push for self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat).

List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2025

Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, took office on 15th August 1947. Currently, Narendra Modi serves as India’s 15th Prime Minister. Below is a detailed List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2025 along with their tenure and key contributions.

List of Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2025
No.	Name	Start of Term	End of Term	Duration in years and days	Party
1	Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)	15 August 1947	27 May 1964	16 years, 286 days	Indian National Congress
2	Gulzarilal Nanda (1898–1998)	27 May 1964	9 June 1964	13 days	–
3	Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904–1966)	9 June 1964	11 January 1966	1 year, 216 days	–
4	Indira Gandhi (1917–1984)	24 January 1966	24 March 1977	11 years, 59 days	Indian National Congress (R)
5	Morarji Desai (1896–1995)	24 March 1977	28 July 1979	2 years, 126 days	Janata Party
6	Charan Singh (1902–1987)	28 July 1979	14 January 1980	170 days	Janata Party (Secular)
7	Indira Gandhi (1917–1984)	14 January 1980	31 October 1984	4 years, 291 days	Indian National Congress (I)
8	Rajiv Gandhi (1944–1991)	31 October 1984	2 December 1989	5 years, 32 days	Indian National Congress
9	Vishwanath Pratap Singh (1931–2008)	2 December 1989	10 November 1990	343 days	Janata Dal
10	Chandra Shekhar (1927–2007)	10 November 1990	21 June 1991	223 days	Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya)
11	P. V. Narasimha Rao (1921–2004)	21 June 1991	16 May 1996	4 years, 330 days	Indian National Congress (I)
12	Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1924–2018)	16 May 1996	1 June 1996	16 days	Bharatiya Janata Party
13	H. D. Deve Gowda (born 1933)	1 June 1996	21 April 1997	324 days	Janata Dal
14	Inder Kumar Gujral (1919–2012)	21 April 1997	19 March 1998	332 days	–
15	Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1924–2018)	19 March 1998	22 May 2004	6 years, 64 days	Bharatiya Janata Party (NDA)
16	Manmohan Singh (1932-2024)	22 May 2004	26 May 2014	10 years, 4 days	Indian National Congress (UPA)
17	Narendra Modi (born 1950)	26 May 2014	May 30, 2019	10 years, 192 days	Bharatiya Janata Party (NDA)
		May 30, 2019	June 9, 2024
		June 9, 2024	Incumbent

Prime Ministers of India from 1947-2025

From Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision for a modern India to Narendra Modi’s digital and economic transformation, each leader has played a significant role in nation-building. Check out the contribution of each leader in shaping the independent India:

Narendra Modi (2014 - Present)

Narendra Modi became India’s 14th Prime Minister in 2014 and has served three consecutive terms. His tenure has been marked by bold economic and policy reforms such as GST (Goods and Services Tax), Digital India, Make in India, and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. He also played a crucial role in revoking Article 370 in Jammu & Kashmir, the implementation of the CAA.

Dr. Manmohan Singh (2004-2014)

Dr. Manmohan Singh served as India’s 13th Prime Minister and was a respected economist. He is known for introducing economic liberalization in 1991 as Finance Minister. As Prime Minister, he launched schemes like MNREGA, Right to Information (RTI), and the Indo-US Nuclear Deal. His tenure saw significant economic growth, but it was also affected by corruption scandals such as 2G, Commonwealth Games, and Coalgate.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1996, 1998-99, 1999-2004)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the 10th Prime Minister of India and served three terms. He is remembered for Pokhran-II nuclear tests (1998), the Kargil War (1999), and the Golden Quadrilateral highway project. His tenure strengthened India's defense and infrastructure. In 2014, he was honored with the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.

Inder Kumar Gujral (1997-1998)

Inder Kumar Gujral, the 12th Prime Minister of India, is best known for his Gujral Doctrine, which promoted good relations with India's neighbors. His tenure was short-lived, but his diplomatic initiatives aimed at improving relations with Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh had a long-term impact.

H.D. Deve Gowda (1996-1997)

H.D. Deve Gowda served as India’s 11th Prime Minister and was a leader from Karnataka. He focused on agriculture and irrigation projects, benefiting farmers across the country. His tenure was part of a coalition government formed by the United Front.

P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991-1996)

P.V. Narasimha Rao was the 10th Prime Minister of India and is regarded as the architect of India’s economic liberalization. His government introduced Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG) reforms, which transformed India into a free-market economy. His leadership helped India recover from an economic crisis and improved foreign relations.

Chandra Shekhar (1990-1991)

Chandra Shekhar served as the 8th Prime Minister of India for a brief period. His government struggled with a weak coalition, leading to political instability. His tenure was marked by the 1991 economic crisis and the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi.

V.P. Singh (1989-1990)

V.P. Singh was the 7th Prime Minister of India and is most remembered for implementing the Mandal Commission Report, which introduced reservations for OBCs in government jobs and educational institutions. His tenure also saw political turbulence due to caste-based reservations and protests.

Rajiv Gandhi (1984-1989)

Rajiv Gandhi, the 6th Prime Minister of India, was the youngest to hold office at 40 years old. His tenure focused on modernizing India’s technology and telecom sector. He introduced computerization, reduced the voting age to 18, and initiated the Panchayati Raj system. However, his term was marred by the Bofors scandal, Shah Bano case, and Bhopal Gas Tragedy. He was assassinated by an LTTE suicide bomber in 1991.

Chaudhary Charan Singh (1979-1980)

Chaudhary Charan Singh served as the 5th Prime Minister of India. Coming from a farmer’s background, he championed agricultural and land reforms. His tenure was short-lived due to lack of parliamentary support.

Morarji Desai (1977-1979)

Morarji Desai, the 4th Prime Minister of India, was the first non-Congress Prime Minister. He led the Janata Party government after Indira Gandhi’s Emergency. He worked on dismantling the Emergency laws and improving India’s foreign relations, including with Pakistan and China.

Indira Gandhi (1966-1977, 1980-1984)

Indira Gandhi was India’s 3rd and first woman Prime Minister. She is best known for leading India during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War and implementing the Green Revolution to achieve self-sufficiency in food production. However, her decision to impose Emergency (1975-1977) remains controversial. She was assassinated in 1984 following Operation Blue Star.

Gulzarilal Nanda (1964, 1966 - Interim PM)

Gulzarilal Nanda served as interim Prime Minister twice (1964, 1966) after the deaths of Jawaharlal Nehru and Lal Bahadur Shastri. His tenure lasted only 13 days each time, but he played a role in ensuring political stability.

Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966)

Lal Bahadur Shastri was the 2nd Prime Minister of India. He is famous for the slogan "Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan", which honored soldiers and farmers. He led India during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War. His tenure ended abruptly due to his mysterious death in Tashkent after signing a peace agreement.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964)

Jawaharlal Nehru was India’s first and longest-serving Prime Minister. A key figure in the Indian independence movement, he played a major role in shaping modern India. His contributions include establishing IITs, AIIMS, the Planning Commission, and a non-aligned foreign policy. He was popularly called "Chacha Nehru" for his love for children.

Current Prime Minister of India

The current Prime Minister of India is Shri Narendra Modi, serving his third consecutive term after winning the 2024 general elections. He first took office on May 26, 2014, and has continued to lead the nation with a focus on development, digital transformation, and global diplomacy. His leadership marks one of the longest continuous tenures in independent India’s history.

First Prime Minister of India

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India, serving from 1947 to 1964. He played a pivotal role in shaping modern India through his vision of democracy, secularism, and industrial development. Under his leadership, India laid the foundation for progress in science, education, and international diplomacy.

Second Prime Minister of India

Shri Gulzarilal Nanda served as the Second Prime Minister of India, holding office for two brief terms. He played a key role in the establishment and organization of the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC). In recognition of his remarkable contributions to the nation, he was honoured with the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 1997.

Prime Ministers of India Important Facts

Jawaharlal Nehru is recognized as the architect of modern India and holds the longest tenure as Prime Minister, serving 16 years and 286 days.
Indira Gandhi was India’s first and only female Prime Minister, holding office for 15 years and 350 days across two terms.
Rajiv Gandhi became India’s youngest Prime Minister at age 40, assuming office on October 31, 1984.
Morarji Desai was India’s first non-Congress Prime Minister, serving from March 24, 1977, to July 28, 1979.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee had the shortest tenure of 16 days during his first term in 1996.
Manmohan Singh was India’s first Sikh Prime Minister, serving from May 22, 2004, to May 26, 2014.
P. V. Narasimha Rao was the first Prime Minister from South India, serving from June 21, 1991, to May 16, 1996.
Gulzarilal Nanda served as acting Prime Minister twice, each time for just 13 days.
Narendra Modi has been in office since May 26, 2014, and is currently serving his third consecutive term after being re-elected in June 2024.

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Prime Ministers of India FAQs

Q1: Who is PM 2025 in India?

Ans: Narendra Modi, currently serving his third term in 2025.

Q2: Who was the first CM of India?

Ans: The first chief minister in India was Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant.

Q3: Who is the longest serving PM?

Ans: The longest-serving prime minister was Jawaharlal Nehru, also the first prime minister, whose tenure lasted 16 years and 286 days.

Q4: Who is the first lady Prime Minister of India?

Ans: Indira Gandhi was the first woman Prime Minister of India and served the nation for two terms.

Q5: Who is the 12th Prime Minister of India?

Ans: Shri Inder Kumar Gujral was sworn in as the 12th Prime Minister of India on 21st April, 1997.

List of Wars Between India and Pakistan, Year, Cause, Outcome

January 2, 2026

The partition of British India in 1947 gave birth to two nations, India and Pakistan. The division, grounded in religious and political differences, led to widespread violence, displacement, and a bitter legacy. Since independence, India and Pakistan have fought four major wars, engaged in numerous military standoffs, and have experienced countless border conflicts and terrorist attacks. The article below includes the List of Wars Between India and Pakistan from the First Kashmir War of 1947 to the recent Operation Sindoor of 2025 including key facts, triggers, outcomes, and their broader implications.

List of Wars Between India and Pakistan

Since 1947, India and Pakistan have experienced several military confrontations, most of them rooted in the long-standing Kashmir dispute and cross-border tensions. These clashes have ranged from full-scale wars to limited strikes and standoffs, each with its own background, trigger, and outcome. The table below offers a List of Wars Between India and Pakistan over the years.

List of Wars Between India and Pakistan
Conflict / War	Year	Cause / Trigger	Outcome
First Kashmir War	1947-1948	Accession of J&K, tribal invasion	LoC established, Kashmir dispute unresolved
Second Indo-Pak War	1965	Pakistan’s Operation Gibraltar	Tashkent Agreement, status quo restored
Indo-Pak War / Bangladesh	1971	Bengali independence movement	Creation of Bangladesh
Kargil War	1999	Pakistani intrusion in Kargil	Indian victory, global condemnation of Pak
Siachen Conflict	1984-2003	Control of Siachen Glacier	India holds key positions
Military Standoff	2001-2002	Indian Parliament attack	De-escalated via diplomacy
Surgical Strikes	2016	Uri attack	Terror camps destroyed
Balakot Airstrike	2019	Pulwama attack	First IAF strike on Pak territory since 1971
Operation Sindoor	2025	Pahalgam terror attack	Massive punitive retaliation, ceasefire

Major Wars Between India and Pakistan

First Indo-Pak War (1947–1948): First Kashmir War

Duration: October 22, 1947 – January 1, 1949
Cause: Accession of Jammu & Kashmir
Outcome: Ceasefire brokered by UN, establishment of the Line of Control (LoC)

Background:
Following independence, princely states were given three choices: accede to India, join Pakistan, or remain independent. Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, initially chose to remain independent. However, when Pakistani tribal militias invaded in October 1947, he sought help from India and signed the Instrument of Accession, making Jammu & Kashmir a part of India.

Course of War:
The Indian Army was airlifted into Srinagar and successfully pushed back the infiltrators. Key battles were fought in Uri, Baramulla, and Jammu. However, Pakistan retained control over a portion of the territory now known as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).

Result:
A UN-mediated ceasefire came into effect on January 1, 1949. It led to the establishment of the LoC, dividing Jammu and Kashmir between the two nations. The Kashmir issue, however, remained unresolved and a perpetual flashpoint.

Second Indo-Pak War (1965)

Duration: August-September 1965
Cause: Dispute over Kashmir, Pakistani Operation Gibraltar
Outcome: Tashkent Agreement (January 1966) - Status quo ante bellum

Background:
Pakistan initiated Operation Gibraltar, sending soldiers disguised as locals into Jammu and Kashmir to incite rebellion. The plan backfired as locals did not support the intruders, and the Indian Army responded with full-scale retaliation.

Course of War:
The conflict spread across the International Border. Major battles were fought in Lahore, Sialkot, and the Rann of Kutch. The Indian Army made significant gains, and both sides suffered heavy casualties.

Result:
After intense fighting lasting 17 days, a UN-mandated ceasefire was declared. The Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the USSR, restored pre-war positions. However, the war did not resolve the Kashmir dispute, and both nations claimed victory.

Indo-Pak War of 1971: Bangladesh Liberation War

Duration: December 3-16, 1971
Cause: Political crisis in East Pakistan; support for Bengali independence movement
Outcome: Creation of Bangladesh, Decisive Indian victory

Background:
East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) had been agitating for autonomy. Following the denial of electoral victory to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League and subsequent military crackdown by West Pakistan, a refugee crisis emerged with over 10 million people fleeing to India.

Course of War:
India supported the Mukhti Bahini (freedom fighters) and launched military operations on both the eastern and western fronts. The Battle of Longewala in Rajasthan and naval blockade of Karachi were strategic successes.

Result:
On December 16, 1971, Pakistan’s Eastern Command surrendered in Dhaka with over 90,000 troops taken as prisoners of war. The war led to the birth of Bangladesh. The Shimla Agreement (1972) was signed, where India returned captured territory in the west in exchange for peace commitments from Pakistan.

Kargil War (1999)

Duration: May-July 1999
Cause: Pakistani infiltration into Kargil sector
Outcome: India regained all lost territory, diplomatic victory

Background:
Pakistani troops and militants infiltrated into Indian positions along the LoC in the Kargil region. Their aim was to cut off National Highway 1A, thereby disrupting Indian logistics in Siachen and Kashmir.

Course of War:
India launched Operation Vijay, combining infantry assaults, artillery bombardments, and air strikes. Major battles took place at Tololing, Tiger Hill, and Batalik.

Result:
Indian forces successfully recaptured all the occupied positions. International pressure, especially from the United States, forced Pakistan to withdraw. The war exposed Pakistan Army's duplicity, as then-Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was kept unaware of the operation by the military leadership.

Other Major Conflicts and Military Engagements

India and Pakistan have experienced a series of high-stakes military confrontations since their independence in 1947, with several conflicts emerging even in the post-Kargil era. While full-scale wars have been largely avoided since 1999, tensions have remained high due to terrorism, border conflicts, and strategic rivalries. The table below summarizes key India-Pakistan military engagements and operations from 1984 onwards, highlighting their causes, actions taken by India, and their outcomes.

Other Major Conflicts and Military Engagements
Event	Period/Date	Trigger/Cause	Action Taken	Outcome
Siachen Conflict	1984-2003	Strategic control over Siachen Glacier	India launched Operation Meghdoot	India gained and maintained control over key heights on the glacier
2001-2002 Military Standoff	Dec 2001 - Oct 2002	Indian Parliament attack (Dec 13, 2001)	India initiated Operation Parakram (massive troop mobilization)	Full-scale war was averted; high tension persisted for months
Surgical Strikes	Sept 29, 2016	Uri attack (19 Indian soldiers killed by Pakistani terrorists)	Cross-LoC surgical strikes on terror launch pads	Marked a proactive shift in India’s counter-terror strategy; received wide domestic support
Balakot Airstrikes	Feb 26, 2019	Pulwama attack (40 CRPF personnel martyred)	IAF conducted airstrikes on terror camps in Balakot, Pakistan	Escalated into air combat; Wing Commander Abhinandan captured and returned by Pakistan

Operation Sindoor (2025)

Operation Sindoor 2025 was launched in direct response to the tragic Pahalgam terror attack on April 22, 2025, which claimed the lives of 26 innocent civilians. India initiated a swift and coordinated military offensive on May 7, 2025. The operation spanned approximately four days and concluded on May 10, 2025. The primary objectives of this mission were to dismantle terror infrastructure across the border, and deliver a strong message of deterrence to hostile elements.

Operation Sindoor (2025)
Phase	Details
Phase 1: Precision Strikes	Targets: Terrorist camps of LeT, JeM, Hizbul in PoJK and across Pakistan Weapons Used: SCALP missiles, BrahMos, HAMMER bombs, loitering munitions Notable Platforms: Rafale, Su-30 MKI, drones
Phase 2: Pakistani Retaliation	Pakistan launched drones and missiles at Indian military bases India’s air defense systems intercepted many threats India responded with deep strikes targeting airbases and radars inside Pakistan
Phase 3: Escalation & Ceasefire	India struck major Pakistani airbases like Sargodha, Rahim Yar Khan, Bholari Destruction of 6+ fighter jets, 2 surveillance aircraft, 10+ drones, and missile systems Pakistan requested a ceasefire within 88 hours

List of Wars Between India and Pakistan FAQs

Q1: How many wars have India and Pakistan fought since independence?

Ans: India and Pakistan have fought four major wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999 along with several military standoffs and counter-terror operations.

Q2: What was the main reason for the First Indo-Pak War in 1947–48?

Ans: The first war was triggered by Pakistan-backed tribal invasion in Jammu and Kashmir after the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession to join India.

Q3: What was the outcome of the 1971 Indo-Pak War?

Ans: The 1971 war led to the creation of Bangladesh, with India securing a decisive victory and capturing over 90,000 Pakistani soldiers.

Q4: What was the significance of the Kargil War in 1999?

Ans: The Kargil War was fought in high-altitude terrain where India successfully pushed back infiltrators and reclaimed lost territory. It was seen as a diplomatic and military win for India.

Q5: What is the Line of Control (LoC)?

Ans: The LoC is the de facto border between India and Pakistan in the region of Jammu and Kashmir, established after the 1948 ceasefire.

Election Commission of India (ECI), Structure, Framework, Composition

January 2, 2026

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an autonomous constitutional authority responsible for administering elections to the Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President of India. Established on 25 January 1950, the Commission ensures that elections are conducted freely, fairly, and transparently across the country. Its work upholds the democratic principle of universal adult suffrage guaranteed by the Constitution under Article 326. The ECI’s independence and credibility are vital to maintaining India’s democratic integrity.

Election Commission of India

The Election Commission of India derives its powers and responsibilities from Article 324 of the Indian Constitution. It is a constitutional body, independent of government influence, tasked with supervising the entire electoral process. Initially a single-member body, it became a multi-member Commission in 1993, consisting of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners. The ECI manages over 97 crore registered voters (as per 2024 data) and conducts elections in more than 10 lakh polling stations nationwide.

Election Commission of India Structure

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body established under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution. It is a multi-member commission responsible for supervising elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President. Originally, it had only one Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), but since October 1993, it became a three-member body. The Commission operates as a collegiate body, ensuring collective decision-making. It has a permanent secretariat at Nirvachan Sadan, New Delhi, and functions independently of government control. Its structure ensures autonomy, impartiality, and accountability in the electoral process as mandated by the Constitution.

Election Commission of India Composition

The ECI comprises the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners (ECs), as provided under Article 324(2) of the Constitution. The President of India determines the number of Commissioners from time to time. All three members enjoy equal powers, salaries, and status, and decisions are taken collectively through majority vote. The Chief Election Commissioner acts as the head of the institution, ensuring smooth coordination. The administrative staff is drawn from central and state government services. This composition aims to maintain checks and balances within the Commission, upholding transparency and non-partisanship in the conduct of elections.

As of 2025 the members of Election Commission of India are:

Chief Election Commissioner (CEC): Shri Gyanesh Kumar
Election Commissioners: Dr. Sukhbir Singh Sandhu and Dr. Vivek Joshi

Chief Election Commissioner (CEC)

The Chief Election Commissioner is the head of the Election Commission of India and ensures the independence and integrity of the electoral process.

The CEC is appointed by the President of India under Article 324(2) of the Constitution.
The CEC’s role is crucial in enforcing the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), supervising voter rolls, and ensuring impartial conduct of elections.
The Supreme Court in T.N. Seshan vs Union of India (1995) upheld that all Election Commissioners are equal in power and status, ensuring collective functioning.
The CEC is considered the guardian of India’s electoral democracy, accountable only to Parliament and the Constitution.

Election Commissioners Appointment

The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are appointed by the President of India under Article 324(2). Though the Constitution does not specify a detailed procedure, the appointment is made on the advice of the Council of Ministers. However, several legal experts and the Supreme Court (in March 2023) have recommended a collegium system involving the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, and Chief Justice of India to ensure transparency until Parliament enacts law. Their appointment order is issued by the President, and their terms, conditions, and service benefits are defined under the Election Commission (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1992.

Election Commissioners Tenure

Under the Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991, each Election Commissioner, including the CEC, holds office for six years or until attaining the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. This fixed tenure provides functional independence and stability. Their salaries and allowances are equivalent to those of Judges of the Supreme Court, ensuring parity with other high constitutional offices. Article 324(5) protects their tenure by stating that their service cannot be varied to their disadvantage after appointment. Such constitutional safeguards ensure autonomy and prevent arbitrary interference by the executive branch.

Election Commissioners Resignation and Removal

Election Commissioners may resign from office by submitting a written resignation to the President of India. However, the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) enjoys stronger constitutional protection. Under Article 324(5), the CEC can be removed only in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court, that is, by a special majority of both Houses of Parliament on proven misbehavior or incapacity. Other Election Commissioners can be removed only on the recommendation of the CEC. This system ensures the Commission’s independence, preventing misuse of executive power and preserving the institution’s credibility and neutrality in elections.

Election Commission of India Powers

The Commission enjoys wide-ranging powers to ensure the integrity, neutrality, and transparency of the electoral process across India.Key Powers:

Administrative Powers: Control over election schedules, polling arrangements, and the deployment of polling staff.
Advisory Powers: Advises the President and Governors on matters related to disqualification of members.
Quasi-Judicial Powers: Decides disputes regarding political party recognition and symbols under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968.
Regulatory Powers: Enforces the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) and monitors election expenditure.
Disciplinary Powers: Can direct transfers or suspension of officials for election-related misconduct.

Election Commission of India Functions

The ECI performs multiple functions to ensure free, fair, and periodic elections in accordance with democratic principles. Major Functions:

Conduct of Elections: Supervises, directs, and controls elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and high offices.
Delimitation: The Election Commission of India (ECI) does not directly have delimitation powers; instead, it oversees the process, which is conducted by a separate, temporary Delimitation Commission established by the Central Government.
Electoral Rolls: Prepares, revises, and updates voter lists through continuous revision and SIR (Special Intensive Revision).
Registration of Political Parties: Recognizes parties and allots election symbols.
Voter Education: Promotes awareness under the Systematic Voters’ Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP) program.
Monitoring Expenditure: Ensures transparency through election expenditure audits and monitoring teams.

Election Commission of India Constitutional Provisions

The Election Commission of India is established under Article 324 of the Constitution to ensure free and fair elections in India. Key Constitutional Provisions:

Article 324(1): Grants the ECI the power to conduct elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President.
Article 324(2): Empowers the President to appoint the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners.
Article 324(5): Provides protection to the tenure and service conditions of the CEC, ensuring independence.
These provisions ensure the ECI acts as an autonomous constitutional authority, not subordinate to any executive or legislature.

Election Commission of India Legal Safeguards

The legal framework guarantees the Commission’s independence and shields it from executive or political influence during elections. Major Legal Provisions:

Article 324(5): Protects the CEC’s tenure and prevents arbitrary removal.
Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991: Defines tenure, salaries, and conditions of service.
Representation of the People Acts (1950 & 1951): Provide detailed election procedures, voter eligibility, and dispute resolution.
Indian Penal Code & Conduct of Election Rules, 1961: Penalize malpractices like bribery, booth capturing, and false nominations.
These legal safeguards collectively ensure institutional autonomy and operational transparency.

Election Commission of India Government Policies

To strengthen electoral integrity, several policy measures and reforms have been introduced by the government in consultation with the ECI. Key Policies and Their Impact:

Electoral Bond Scheme (2018): Introduced to improve transparency in political funding, though under judicial scrutiny.
One Nation, One Election (Proposal): Aims to synchronize national and state elections, reducing expenditure and administrative burden.
Voter ID-Aadhaar Linking Drive (Proposal): Ensures cleaner voter rolls by removing duplicate entries.
Remote Voting Prototype (Proposal): Designed to allow migrant workers to vote from other locations.
Awareness Campaigns (SVEEP): Promotes voter education and participation, increasing turnout rates to over 67% in 2019 Lok Sabha polls.

Election Commission of India Independence

The independence of the Election Commission is fundamental to Indian democracy. The Constitution grants it autonomy, but its accountability mechanisms ensure transparency.

Accountability Measures:

Judicial review of Commission decisions.
Parliamentary oversight through questions and debates.
Media transparency and publication of detailed election reports.

Measures Ensuring Independence:

Fixed Tenure: CEC and ECs hold office for six years or till the age of 65.
Security of Tenure: CEC can be removed only by parliamentary impeachment similar to a Supreme Court judge.
Equal Status: All commissioners enjoy equal decision-making power.
Financial Autonomy: ECI’s budget is charged on the Consolidated Fund of India, ensuring executive non-interference.
Neutrality in Appointments: Recent Supreme Court directives advocate a collegium-based selection process for transparency.

Election Commission of India Case Laws

Several judicial decisions have strengthened the constitutional position and functioning of the ECI:

S. Subramaniam Balaji v. State of Tamil Nadu (2013): Directed the ECI to enforce the Model Code of Conduct more stringently.
Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms (2002): Mandated disclosure of candidates’ criminal, educational, and financial backgrounds.
PUCL v. Union of India (2003): Recognized the Right to Vote as part of the freedom of expression under Article 19(1)(a).
A.C. Jose v. Sivan Pillai (1984): Affirmed that the ECI has plenary powers under Article 324 to ensure free elections.
ADR vs. Election Commission (2024): The Supreme Court emphasized transparency in voter list revisions under SIR, ensuring uniform procedures across states.

Election Commission of India Challenges

Despite its achievements, the ECI faces several operational and institutional challenges:

Political Pressure and Allegations of Bias: Increasing accusations of partisanship affect its credibility.
Voter Exclusion: Issues in electoral roll verification, especially during Special Intensive Revisions (SIR), lead to disenfranchisement.
Election Expenditure: Unchecked campaign spending and unaccounted political donations undermine transparency.
Fake News and Electoral Manipulation: Social media misinformation impacts voter behavior.
Digital Divide: Limited accessibility of digital services in rural areas hinders full participation.

Way Forward:

Establish a collegium system for appointment of Election Commissioners.
Provide statutory backing for the Model Code of Conduct.
Expand voter education programs in marginalized communities.
Enhance cyber resilience through AI-based monitoring.
Strengthen coordination with social media platforms to curb misinformation.

Election Commission of India Technology Integration

The ECI has significantly integrated technology into election management, ensuring faster, more secure, and transparent processes. Key Digital Initiatives:

EVMs and VVPATs: Ensure tamper-proof voting and verifiable paper trails.
cVIGIL App: Allows citizens to report Model Code violations in real time.
ERONet and NVSP Portal: Facilitate online voter registration and roll management.
Suvidha and Samadhan Portals: Streamline candidate permissions and grievance redressal.
Garuda App: Enables Booth Level Officers (BLOs) to conduct door-to-door verification digitally.

Election Commission of India Significance

The Election Commission acts as the foundation of India’s democracy, ensuring the people’s mandate is exercised freely, fairly, and periodically.

Democratic Legitimacy: Upholds citizens’ right to vote under Article 326, maintaining public confidence in electoral outcomes.
Institutional Stability: Ensures smooth transitions of power without conflict, protecting the essence of parliamentary democracy.
Inclusivity: Implements initiatives like SVEEP and Accessible Elections Project to include marginalized groups, PwDs, and senior citizens.
Technological Reforms: Adoption of EVMs, VVPAT, and digital voter roll systems enhances transparency and reduces human error.
Global Recognition: India’s ECI is often cited as a model for electoral management by international organizations like the UNDP and International IDEA.

Election Commission of India UPSC

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has announced Phase 2 of its nationwide “Special Intensive Revision” (SIR) of electoral rolls, covering 12 states and Union Territories from November 4, 2025.

The exercise will affect around 51 crore electors, aiming for a final roll publication on February 7, 2026.
States involved include major poll-bound regions such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal and Puducherry.
The ECI clarified that Aadhaar card and 13 other documents may be used for identity proof, though concerns over potential disenfranchisement have been raised by opposition parties.
The revision follows the earlier SIR pilot in Bihar, where the ECI reported zero appeals or complaints relating to deletions.
Some states have questioned the timeline and scope of the exercise, arguing that it should not proceed in a short span of 2-3 months given migration and administrative challenges.

Election Commission of India FAQs

Q1: What is the Election Commission of India?

Ans: It is a constitutional body established under Article 324 to supervise elections in India.

Q2: Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioner?

Ans: The President of India appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners.

Q3: What is the tenure of Election Commissioners?

Ans: They hold office for six years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.

Q4: What are the major powers of the Election Commission of India?

Ans: The ECI conducts elections, enforces the Model Code, and regulates political parties and expenditure.

Q5: How does the Election Commission of India ensure free and fair elections?

Ans: Through technology use, strict monitoring, legal powers, and transparent processes under constitutional safeguards.

Important Constitutional Amendments in India, Types, Procedures

January 2, 2026

The Constitution of India, adopted on 26th January 1950, is a dynamic document that has continuously evolved to meet the changing needs of society, politics, and governance. To adapt to shifting social, political, and economic conditions, Constitutional Amendments have been introduced periodically. These amendments reflect the growth of Indian democracy, highlight policy priorities, and mark shifts in power structures. Some amendments have made minor procedural changes, while others like the 42nd and 44th Amendments have fundamentally reshaped the Constitution's spirit and framework.

Constitutional Amendments in India

The Constitutional Amendments in India are formal changes to the text of the Constitution. These changes may modify, add, or remove provisions to adapt to new circumstances. Article 368 of the Indian Constitution grants Parliament the power to amend the Constitution while safeguarding the basic structure.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar once said, “The Constitution is a dynamic document. It must be capable of growth and change.”

Constitutional Amendments in India Types

According to Article 368, there are three types of constitutional amendments which are discussed in the table below:

Constitutional Amendments in India Types
Type of Amendment	Majority Required	Examples
By Simple Majority of Parliament	More than 50% of members present and voting (Not under Article 368)	Admission or establishment of new states (Article 2) Alteration of state boundaries or names
By Special Majority of Parliament	Majority of total membership + 2/3 of members present and voting in each House	Amendment to Fundamental Rights Directive Principles Election of President
By Special Majority + State Ratification	Special majority + Approval by half of the state legislatures	Changes in federal structure Representation of states in Parliament Distribution of powers

Important Constitutional Amendments in India

The Constitution of India, as a living document, has evolved over the decades through a series of significant amendments. These constitutional amendments reflect the dynamic needs of governance, societal transformation, and legal reform in a developing democracy. The following table includes the Important Constitutional Amendments in India:

Important Amendments in the Indian Constitution
Constitution Amendment	Changes Introduced
1st Amendment Act, 1951	Provided for the saving of laws, providing for the acquisition of estates, etc. Addition of the Ninth Schedule to protect the land reform and other laws included in it from judicial review. Empowerment of the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and economically backward classes. Added three more grounds of restrictions on freedom of speech and expression, public order, friendly relations with foreign states, and incitement to an offence. Also, it made the restrictions “reasonable” and thus justiciable in nature. The act also provided that state trading and nationalisation of any trade or business by the state is not invalid on the grounds such as violation of the right to trade or business. Insertion of 31A and 31 B.
2nd Amendment Act, 1952	Readjustment of the scale of representation in the Lok Sabha by providing that one member could represent even more than 7,50,000 persons.
7th Amendment Act, 1956	Abolition of the existing classification of states into four categories, i.e., Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D state, and reorganised them into 14 states and 6 union territories. Extension of the jurisdiction of high courts to union territories and establishment of a common high court for two or more states. Provided for the appointment of additional and acting judges of the high court. Amendment of Second Schedule. Modifications to the lists relating to the acquisition and requisition of property in the seventh schedule of the Constitution.
10th Amendment Act, 1961	Incorporation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in the Indian Union in order to enable the President to make regulations for the peace, progress, and good government of the territory.
15th Amendment Act, 1963	The High Courts were enabled to issue writs to any person or authority, even outside its territorial jurisdiction, if the cause of action arose within its territorial limits. Increase in the retirement age of high court judges from 60 to 62 years. Amendment in articles 297, 311, and 316. Provision for appointment of retired judges of the high courts as acting judges of the same court. Provided compensatory allowance to judges who are transferred from one high court to another. Enabling the retired judge of a high court to act as an ad-hoc judge of the Supreme Court.
24th Amendment Act, 1971	Affirmation of the power of Parliament to amend any part of the Constitution, including fundamental rights. It was made compulsory for the president to give his assent to a Constitutional Amendment Bill. The act seeks to amend article 13 of the Constitution to make it inapplicable to any amendment of the Constitution under article 368.
25th Amendment Act, 1971	Introduction of new Article 31C. The amendment act aims to overcome the obstacles that stand in the way of putting the Directive Principles of State Policy into action. The act limited the fundamental right to property.
26th Amendment Act, 1971	Omission of Articles 291 and 362 and insertion of new article 363A that states recognition granted to Rulers of Indian States to cease and privy purses to be abolished.
34th Amendment Act, 1974	This amendment act proposed to amend the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution to include the revised ceiling laws. The act also included twenty more land tenure and land reform acts of various states in the Ninth Schedule.
38th Amendment Act, 1975	The 38th amendment act of the Constitution seeks to amend articles 123, 213, 239B, 352, 356, 359, and 360 of the Constitution. The emergency was declared as non-justiciable by the president of India. The promulgation of ordinances by the president, governors, and administrators of union territories was made non-justiciable. Empowerment of the president to declare different proclamations of national emergency on different grounds simultaneously.
42nd Amendment Act, 1976 (Mini Constitution)	Three new words were added in the 42nd Amendment Act, i.e., socialist, secular, and integrity, which were added in the Preamble. Fundamental Duties were added by the citizens (new Part IV A). President shall act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers in the discharge of his functions under Article 74. Provided provision for administrative tribunals and tribunals for other matters (Added Part XIV A). Maintenance of seats in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies on the basis of the 1971 census till 2001. Constitutional amendments were made beyond judicial scrutiny. The tenure of Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies was raised from 5 to 6 years. As long as certain Fundamental Rights are not violated, laws enacted to implement Directive Principles cannot be deemed invalid by the courts. Added three new Directive Principles of state policy, viz., equal justice and free legal aid, participation of workers in the management of industries, and protection of the environment, forests, and wildlife. Facilitating the proclamation of national emergency in a part of the territory of India. Extension of the one-time duration of the President’s rule in a state from 6 months to one year. Five subjects, including education, forests, wild animal and bird protection, weights and measures and administration of justice, Constitution, and organisation of all courts aside from the Supreme Court and the high courts, were moved from the state list to the concurrent list. Establishment of All-India Judicial Service.
44th Amendment Act, 1978	In the 44th Amendment Act, some of the powers of the Supreme Court and high courts were restored. Replacement of the term “internal disturbance” with “armed rebellion” in respect of national emergency. Made the President declare a national emergency only on the written recommendation of the cabinet. Deletion of the right to property from the list of Fundamental Rights, making it a legal right. Provided that the fundamental rights guaranteed by Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended during a national emergency.
51st Amendment Act, 1984	Provision of the reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha for Scheduled Tribes in Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Mizoram, as well as in the Legislative Assemblies of Meghalaya and Nagaland.
52nd Amendment Act, 1985	This amendment act is also known as Anti Defection Law. The act provided for the disqualification of members of Parliament and state legislatures on the grounds of defection Addition of a new Tenth Schedule containing the details in this regard.
61st Amendment Act, 1989	Reduced the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.
65th Amendment Act, 1990	Provision for the establishment of a National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the place of a Special Officer or SCs and STs.
69th Amendment Act, 1991	Made Delhi the ‘National Capital Territory of Delhi’ along with the provision of a 70-member assembly and a 7-member Council of Ministers for Delhi.
73rd Amendment Act, 1992	Panchayati Raj Institutions were included under the Eleventh Schedule that enumerated the powers and functions of Panchayati Raj Institutions. Provisions for a three-tier model of Panchayati Raj, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population, and one-third reservation of seats for women were granted.
74th Amendment Act, 1992	This act granted Constitutional status and protection to the urban local bodies. For this purpose, the Amendment has added a new Part IX-A entitled “the municipalities.” A new Twelfth Schedule was added containing 18 functional items of the municipalities.
76th Amendment Act, 1994	The act included the Tamil Nadu Reservation Act of 1994, which provides for 69 percent reservation of seats in educational institutions and posts in state services in the Ninth Schedule in order to protect it from judicial review. In 1992, the Supreme Court ruled that the total reservation should not exceed 50 percent.
77th Amendment Act, 1995	The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes have been enjoying the reservation in the promotion since 1955. This act provided for reservation in promotions in government jobs for SCs and STs. Nullification of the Supreme Court ruling with regard to reservation in promotions.
80th Amendment Act, 2000	An alternative scheme of devolution of revenue for sharing taxes between the Union and the State was enacted.
85th Amendment Act, 2001	Provided provision for “consequential seniority” in the case of promotion by virtue of the rule of reservation for the government servants belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
86th Amendment Act, 2002	Elementary education was made a fundamental right. The newly-added Article 21-A declares that “the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may determine.” Changed the subject matter of Article 45 in Directive Principles. Addition of a new fundamental duty under Article 51-A, which reads – It shall be the duty of every citizen of India who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or ward between the age of six and fourteen years.
91st Amendment Act, 2003	Limited the size of the Council of Ministers at the Center and in the States to debar defectors from holding public offices and to strengthen the anti-defection law.
93rd Amendment Act, 2005	Reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes in private unaided educational institutions except for the minority educational institutions
97th Amendment Act, 2012	This act gave Constitutional status and protection to co-operative societies.
99th Amendment Act, 2014	Replacement of the collegium system of appointing judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts with a new body called the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). However, in 2015, the Supreme Court declared this amendment act unconstitutional and void. Consequently, the earlier collegium system became operational.
100th Amendment Act, 2015	This act amended the Constitution of India to give effect to the acquiring of territories by India and the transfer of certain territories to Bangladesh in pursuance of the agreement and its protocol entered into between the Governments of India and Bangladesh.
101st Amendment Act, 2016	It introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. This amendment was passed by the Parliament and the states, and came into effect on July 1, 2017.
102nd Amendment Act, 2018	Provided Constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes. This act relieved the National Commission for Scheduled Castes from its functions with regard to the backward classes. It also empowered the President to specify the socially and educationally backward classes in relation to a state or union territory.
103rd Amendment Act, 2019	Empowered the state to make any special provision for the advancement of any economically weaker sections (EWS) of citizens. An EWS Certificate is needed in order to avail benefits of the EWS category. The state was permitted to set aside up to 10% of seats for certain sections when it came to admission to educational institutions, including private educational institutions that were either assisted or unassisted by the state, with the exception of minority educational institutions. This additional reservation of up to 10% would be made in addition to the ones already made.
104th Amendment Act, 2020	Extension of deadline for the cessation of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies from 70 to 80 years. Removal of the reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies.
105th Amendment Act, 2020	It restored the power of state governments and union territories to identify and recognize Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs). The amendment came into effect on August 15, 2021.
106th Amendment Act, 2020	Also known as the Women's Reservation Act. It reserves one-third of seats in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies for women. The amendment was passed in September 2023 and received the President's assent on September 28, 2023.

Scope of Amenability of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution is designed with enough flexibility to adapt to changing needs while ensuring the preservation of its foundational principles. The scope of Parliament's power to amend the Constitution is broad, yet it is subject to important limitations to safeguard the democratic ethos and integrity of the Constitution.

One of the most significant limitations arises from the doctrine of the “Basic Structure,” which was propounded by the Supreme Court in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati case (1973). According to this doctrine, Parliament cannot amend those elements of the Constitution that form its basic structure.

Key Features of the Basic Structure Include:

Sovereignty of the people
Rule of law
Separation of powers
Judicial review
Federalism
Republican form of government
Secularism
Equality
Liberty
Justice

Additional Restrictions on Parliamentary Amendments:

Parliament cannot pass an amendment that seeks to extend or curtail its own term of office.
The Constitution cannot be amended to abolish key democratic institutions such as the office of the President or the Supreme Court.
Amendments that affect federal provisions such as the representation of states in Parliament or the powers of the states, require ratification by at least half of the state legislatures.

Procedure for Making Constitutional Amendments in India

The Procedure for Making Constitutional Amendments in India is provided under Article 368. It ensures that amendments reflect a balance between flexibility and rigidity, preserving the core framework of the Constitution while allowing necessary changes.

The amendment process involves the following steps:

Initiation of the Bill: An amendment bill can be introduced in either House of Parliament Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. It can be proposed by a minister or any private member. However, it cannot be introduced in any of the state legislatures.
Parliamentary Approval: The bill must be passed in each House of Parliament by a special majority. This means:
- A majority of the total membership of the House, and
- A majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting.
State Ratification (if required): In the case of amendments affecting federal provisions such as the distribution of powers between the Centre and the states, or representation of states in Parliament, the bill must be ratified by at least half of the state legislatures through a simple majority.
Presidential Assent: Once passed by Parliament and ratified by states (if required), the bill is sent to the President. The President is constitutionally obligated to give assent and cannot withhold or return the bill.

Enactment: Upon receiving the President’s assent, the bill becomes a Constitutional Amendment Act. It is then formally incorporated into the Constitution.

Constitutional Amendments in India FAQs

Q1: How many constitutional amendments have been made in India till 2025?

Ans: A total of 106 amendments have been enacted as of 2025.

Q2: What is the most significant constitutional amendment?

Ans: The 42nd Amendment Act (1976) is considered the most comprehensive, often called the Mini Constitution.

Q3: Which amendment introduced Fundamental Duties?

Ans: The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 51A, introducing Fundamental Duties.

Q4: Which amendment granted constitutional status to Panchayati Raj?

Ans: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992.

Q5: What is the 103rd Amendment Act?

Ans: It provides 10% reservation to Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in educational institutions and government jobs.

Indian National Movement (1857-1947), Phases, Leaders, Timeline

January 2, 2026

The Indian National Movement was a long struggle by Indians to gain independence from British colonial rule. Beginning in the late 19th century and culminating in 1947, it involved political, social, and economic efforts to challenge foreign dominance. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and others played crucial roles. The movement combined constitutional reforms, mass mobilization, revolutionary activities, and civil disobedience, shaping modern India

Indian National Movement

The movement evolved in phases, reflecting the changing strategies of Indians against British rule. Early leaders emphasized moderate political reforms, while later generations adopted more radical approaches. Mass movements, including the Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, and Quit India Movement, mobilized millions. It also integrated social reform, women’s participation, and youth activism, marking a nationwide awakening. Regional movements in Bengal, Punjab, Maharashtra, and the South complemented the national struggle for freedom.

Revolt of 1857

The 1857 Revolt, also called the First War of Indian Independence, marked the beginning of modern nationalist sentiment. Triggered by sepoy grievances, economic exploitation, and religious fears, it began in Meerut and spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi. Key leaders included Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Sahib, and Bahadur Shah Zafar. Though suppressed, it inspired future organized nationalist movements.

Indian National Movement Phases

The Historians have distributed the timeline of Indian National Movement into three major Phases:

Moderate Phase (1885 - 1905)
Extremist Phase (1905 - 1919)
Gandhian Era (1919 - 1947)

Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

Focused on petitions, reforms, and dialogue with the British. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji emphasized economic critique (Drain Theory).

Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, W.C. Bonnerjee. Advocated constitutional reforms, petitions, and economic critique.
Objective: Gain political rights through constitutional methods through “Dominion Status”, including participation in legislative councils, economic justice, and social reform.

Major Events & Movements:

Events of Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
Event / Movement	Year
Formation of INC	1885
Regional Associations	1885-1900
Early Protests against Bengal Partition	1905

Important Locations: Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Allahabad- hubs of political activity and education.
Outcome: Laid the foundation for organized nationalism, political awareness, and petitioning the British for reform.
Other Contemporary British Events:

Indian Councils Act (1892) increased council participation but limited powers.
Censorship laws to curb nationalist press.

Regional Uprisings: Peasant agitations in Bengal and Madras, Santhal and Munda tribal revolts.

Extremist Phase (1905-1919)

Advocated direct action, boycott, and assertive nationalism.

Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal. Advocated direct action, boycotts, and assertive nationalism.
Objective: Achieve “Swaraj” (self-rule) and assert Indian authority against British policies.

Major Movements & Events:

Events of Extremist Phase (1905-1919)
Movement / Event	Year	Objective	Outcome
Swadeshi Movement	1905	Boycott British goods	Strengthened nationalist sentiment
Partition of Bengal Protests	1905	Political and economic resistance	Mass mobilization

Important Locations: Bengal (Calcutta), Maharashtra (Bombay), Punjab, United Provinces- major centres of agitation.
Regional Uprisings: Localized protests against taxes and British policies in Bengal, Punjab, and Maharashtra.

Gandhian Era/ Mass Movements Phase (1919-1947)

Non-violent protests, civil disobedience, and Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi mobilized millions.

Leaders: Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Aruna Asaf Ali.
Objective: Achieve Sampoorna Swaraj (complete independence) through non-violent resistance and mass mobilization.

Major Movements & Events:

Events of Gandhian Era/ Mass Movements Phase (1919-1947)
Movement	Year	Leaders	Method	Outcome
Non-Cooperation	1920-22	Gandhi	Boycott institutions, resignations	Suspended after Chauri Chaura
Civil Disobedience	1930-34	Gandhi	Salt March, non-payment of taxes	International attention
Quit India	1942	Gandhi, Nehru	Mass protests, strikes	Suppressed but united India

Important Locations: Champaran, Kheda, Dandi, Bombay, Delhi- centres of mass Satyagraha.
Regional Uprisings: Champaran Satyagraha (1917), Kheda Satyagraha (1918), tribal and peasant revolts integrated into national struggle.
Other Contemporary British Events: Rowlatt Act (1919), Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919), Simon Commission (1927).

Factors Responsible for National Uprising

The Indian National Movements were the results of the various events that occurred against Policies and Actions of the British. Few of the major causes are:

Factors Responsible for National Uprising
Factor	Details
Political	Exclusion from governance, British monopoly
Economic	Heavy taxation, drain of wealth, deindustrialization
Social	Famines, caste discrimination, low education
Events	Partition of Bengal (1905), World Wars I & II
Repressive Policies	Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Simon Commission

Indian National Movement (1857-1947) Timeline

The chronological order of the key events and list of major Indian National Movements is tabulated below:

Timeline of Indian National Movement (1857-1947)
Year	Event / Movement	Leader(s) / Organisation	Location / Centre	Outcome / Significance
1857	Revolt of 1857	Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Sahib, Bahadur Shah Zafar	Meerut, Delhi, Jhansi, Kanpur	First War of Indian Independence; inspired nationalist sentiment
1885	Formation of INC	Allan Octavian Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, W.C. Bonnerjee	Bombay	Platform for political dialogue and reforms
1885-1905	Moderate Phase activities	Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta	Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Allahabad	Constitutional petitions, economic critique (Drain Theory), foundation for nationalism
1905	Partition of Bengal	Lord Curzon, local leaders	Bengal	Triggered Swadeshi Movement; early mass protests
1905-1919	Extremist Phase	Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai	Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab	Assertive nationalism, boycott of British goods, regional mobilization
1917	Champaran Satyagraha	Mahatma Gandhi	Champaran, Bihar	First major non-violent protest addressing rural grievances
1918	Kheda Satyagraha	Mahatma Gandhi	Kheda, Gujarat	Non-payment of revenue; success in obtaining concessions from British
1919	Jallianwala Bagh Massacre	British colonial authority	Amritsar, Punjab	Sparked nationwide outrage; led to Non-Cooperation Movement
1920-22	Non-Cooperation Movement	Gandhi, C.R. Das	Nationwide	Boycott of British institutions; suspended after Chauri Chaura incident
1930	Salt March / Civil Disobedience	Mahatma Gandhi	Dandi, Gujarat	Protest against salt tax; widespread civil disobedience
1935	Government of India Act	British Parliament	India-wide	Provincial autonomy; partial self-rule; step toward independence
1942	Quit India Movement	Gandhi, Nehru	Nationwide	Mass uprising demanding immediate independence; suppressed but politically significant
1942	Formation of Indian National Army (INA)	Subhas Chandra Bose	Singapore (initially), Burma	Armed resistance against British; mobilized Indian soldiers and expatriates
1943	Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind)	Subhas Chandra Bose	Singapore	Parallel government in exile; diplomatic recognition sought; symbol of sovereign India
1944	INA campaigns: Imphal & Kohima	Subhas Chandra Bose	Assam-Nagaland border	Pushed into India but eventually retreated; inspired nationalist sentiment
1944	Arakan Campaign	INA + Japanese forces	Burma	Coordinated offensive; strengthened INA’s strategic role
1947	Indian Independence	Indian National Congress	India-wide	End of British rule; establishment of a sovereign nation

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

In 1918, Gandhi led Kheda Satyagraha in Gujarat, supporting farmers facing crop failure and high taxes through non-violent protest.

Salt March/ Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)

Gandhi’s 1930 Salt March protested the salt tax, inspiring mass civil disobedience, boycotts, and nationwide anti-British mobilization.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

Launched in 1920-22, Gandhi promoted boycotts of British institutions, resignations, and social unity, paused after Chauri Chaura violence.

Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)

In 1928, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led Bardoli Satyagraha, achieving concessions from the British against oppressive land taxes through non-violent methods.

Indigo Rebellion / Nil Bidroha (1859)

In 1859-60, Bengal peasants revolted against forced indigo cultivation, gaining temporary concessions and inspiring later nationalist and agrarian movements.

Quit India Movement (1942)

Launched in 1942 by Gandhi, the Quit India Movement demanded immediate British withdrawal, mass protests, strikes, and national unity.

Home Rule Movement (1916)

Led by Tilak and Annie Besant (1916), it aimed for self-governance within the British Empire, mobilizing people politically and socially.

Newspaper and Press Rebellion

The press played a vital role in mobilizing public opinion, spreading nationalist ideas, and documenting British injustices. Newspapers and journals became platforms for protest, awareness, and political critique. Press activism was often suppressed by the British, with censorship laws, fines, and imprisonment of editors, but it continued to strengthen nationalist consciousness across India

Newspaper and Press Rebellion
Newspaper / Journal	Year	Leader / Editor	Significance
Kesari	1881	Bal Gangadhar Tilak	Advocated extremism and Swadeshi; inspired mass mobilization
The Hindu	1878	G. Subramania Iyer	Constitutional criticism and political awareness
Indian National Herald	1938	Jawaharlal Nehru	Promoted Gandhian policies and Quit India Movement
Bengalee	1879	Surendranath Banerjee	Supported early nationalist policies; anti-partition stance
Amrita Bazar Patrika	1868	Sisir Kumar Ghosh	Highlighted colonial exploitation; mass influence

Contribution of Women to the Indian National Movement

Women played a critical role in India’s struggle for freedom, participating in protests, leadership, and social reform campaigns. Key contributions include:

Contribution of Women to the National Movement
Leader	Region	Contribution
Sarojini Naidu	Andhra / Maharashtra	Led Civil Disobedience and Quit India campaigns; first woman president of INC
Kasturba Gandhi	Gujarat	Participated in non-violent protests and Satyagraha
Aruna Asaf Ali	Delhi	Hoisted Indian flag during Quit India Movement; underground activist
Annie Besant	All India	Home Rule League; political awareness and reform
Begum Rokeya	Bengal	Promoted women’s education; participated in social reform

Tribal Uprisings

Tribal communities in India resisted British colonial policies that exploited their lands, resources, and autonomy. Tribal uprisings often preceded mainstream nationalist movements and highlighted local grievances against land revenue systems, forest laws, and forced labor.

Tribal Uprisings
Tribal Uprising	Year	Leader(s)	Region	Significance
Santhal Rebellion	1855-56	Sidhu & Kanhu Murmu	Bihar / West Bengal	Revolt against zamindari exploitation and revenue demands
Munda Rebellion	1899-1900	Birsa Munda	Jharkhand	Resistance to British land revenue policies; assertion of tribal rights
Kol Rebellion	1831-32	Tribal Chiefs	Chotanagpur	Early tribal revolt against British revenue and administrative interference
Paika Rebellion	1817	Bakshi Jagabandhu	Odisha	Armed resistance against British land policies; precursor to nationalist movement
Bhils & Gonds Revolts	18th-19th Century	Local Chiefs	Central India / Madhya Pradesh	Sustained resistance against revenue collection and forest exploitation

Peasant Movements

Indian peasants led agrarian movements against excessive taxation, forced cultivation, and oppressive policies. They were crucial in linking local grievances to national awareness.

Peasant Movements
Movement	Year	Region	Leader(s)	Cause	Outcome
Indigo Rebellion / Nil Bidroha	1859-60	Bengal	Local peasants	Forced indigo cultivation for European planters	Temporary concessions; British attempted reforms; inspired political activism
Deccan Riots	1875	Maharashtra	Peasants	High debt, oppressive moneylenders	Limited relief via colonial reforms
Kheda Satyagraha	1918	Gujarat	Mahatma Gandhi	Failure of crops; high taxes	Successful non-payment of revenue; model for non-violent protest
Bardoli Satyagraha	1928	Gujarat	Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel	Increased land revenue	Government concession; strengthened civil disobedience strategies
Telangana Peasant Revolt	1946-51	Hyderabad State	Communist leaders	Zamindari exploitation, forced labour	Integrated into larger post-independence land reforms
Punjab Peasant Agitation	Early 20th century	Punjab	Local leaders	High taxes, colonial revenue policies	Contributed to anti-British sentiment

Formation of Indian National Army (INA)

Leader: Subhas Chandra Bose, 1942.
Objective: Overthrow British rule militarily and inspire Indian soldiers and expatriates to join the freedom struggle.

Structure of Azad Hind Government (Provisional Government of Free India, 1943):

Structure of Azad Hind Government 1943
Department	Head	Responsibility
Defence	Subhas Chandra Bose	Led INA operations
Foreign Affairs	Abid Hasan	Diplomacy, international recognition
Interior	Syed Mahmud	Administration of territories
Finance	Lakshmi Swaminathan	Funding INA and government operations

Impact: Boosted morale, inspired Indian soldiers, pressured British administration, and influenced post-war independence.

Causes of Indian National Movements

Various factors responsible for the National Uprising and Indian National Movements involve roles of various section of society along with major activities and policies laid by the British Rulers as discussed below:

Role of British Reforms and Acts

The British passed various reforms to manage Indian dissent. These reforms often fueled further nationalist demand for complete independence, as incremental concessions were deemed insufficient.

Role of British Reforms and Acts in Indian National Movements
Act/ Reform	Year	Significance
Indian Councils Act	1892	Expanded legislative participation; limited powers
Morley-Minto Reforms	1909	Introduced separate electorates for Muslims
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms	1919	Dyarchy in provinces; partial self-government
Government of India Act	1935	Provincial autonomy; federal structure

Political Organizations in the Indian National Movement

Besides the Indian National Congress, regional and communal organizations influenced the movement:

All India Muslim League (1906): Initially sought Muslim interests, later called for Pakistan.
Hindu Mahasabha (1915): Promoted Hindu nationalist agenda.
Ghadar Party (1913): Revolutionary activities abroad, especially in the US and Canada.
Socialist and Labour groups: Focused on workers’ rights and peasant welfare.

Role of Media and Literature

Newspapers, journals, and literature played a vital role in spreading nationalist ideas:

The Indian Spectator, The Hindu, Kesari promoted political awareness.
Writings of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, and revolutionary poetry inspired youth and common people.
Print media helped unite diverse linguistic and cultural groups under common goals.

Role of Youth in the Movement

Youth played a critical role, often participating in revolutionary activities and protests:

Members of HSRA and Jugantar took part in armed resistance.
Student movements in colleges across India engaged in boycotts and civil disobedience.
Young leaders, including Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad, became icons of courage and patriotism.

Socio-Religious Movements

Social reform movements complemented political struggle:

Brahmo Samaj (Raja Ram Mohan Roy)- eradication of Sati, widow remarriage.
Arya Samaj (Dayananda Saraswati)- revivalist movement, education, anti-caste practices.
Aligarh Movement (Sir Syed Ahmed Khan)- Muslim education, modern institutions.
Prarthana Samaj- reform in Maharashtra.

Secret Societies and Underground Activities

Secret revolutionary organizations worked alongside moderate and extremist movements:

Anushilan Samiti- Bengal, revolutionary planning, training.
Jugantar Party- Bengal, political assassinations.
Ghadar Party- North America, Indian expatriates, armed struggle during WWI.
Abhinav Bharat Society- Maharashtra, revolutionary activities.

Split in INC and Revolutionary Rivalry

The INC split into Moderates and Extremists (1905-1919) due to differences in approach:

Split of Indian National Congress
Faction	Leaders	Method	Objective
Moderates	Gokhale, Naoroji	Dialogue, petitions	Constitutional reforms
Extremists	Tilak, Lajpat Rai	Boycotts, protests	Assertive Swaraj

Revolutionary leaders like Bhagat Singh, Surya Sen, Chandrasekhar Azad carried out targeted attacks on British officials, inspiring youth and public support.

Role of Working Class

Urban industrial workers participated in strikes and labor protests:

Bombay Textile Strike (1920s-1930s)
Bengal jute mill strikes
Formation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC, 1920)
Highlighted link between industrial grievances and nationalist struggle

Role of Capitalists

Indian business community supported nationalism through:

Funding Swadeshi movement
Establishing indigenous industries to reduce dependence on British goods
Leaders: G.D. Birla, Jamnalal Bajaj, Ghanshyam Das Birla

Communalism and Its Impact

Communal divisions emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Muslim League (1906) advocated separate representation.
Hindu Mahasabha formed in 1915.
Impact: Led to political negotiations, partition debates, and influenced nationalist strategies

Princely States and Their Struggle

During the Indian National Movement, princely states often participated in protests, strikes, and local uprisings to demand reforms and align with the broader struggle for independence.

Struggle of Princely States
Princely State	Leader / Key Figure	Contribution / Significance
Mysore	Maharaja Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV	Supported reforms; some administrative autonomy; allowed nationalist activities in education and society
Travancore	Local leaders, Diwan Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer	Mobilization in civil protests; participated in Quit India Movement indirectly
Hyderabad	People & local activists	Regional uprisings; demanded democratic reforms; resisted Nizam’s autocratic policies
Rajasthan (Mewar, Jaipur, Jodhpur)	Princes & commoners	Organized regional protests; collaborated with INC and peasant movements
Gwalior	People & local leaders	Participated in Quit India protests; provided shelter to nationalist leaders

Indian National Movement Outcomes

The result of the Indian National Movement was eventually Freedom in 1947. Although various aspects of impacts created through these movements are discussed below:

Political: End of British rule, foundation of democracy.
Social: Women and marginalized groups participated in politics.
Economic: Awareness of exploitation; promotion of indigenous industries.
Cultural: Revival of Indian identity and national unity.

International: Inspired anti-colonial movements worldwide.

Indian National Movement FAQs

Q1: When did the Indian National Movement start?

Ans: The Indian National Movement began with the Revolt of 1857, marking India’s first large-scale struggle against British rule.

Q2: Who were the key leaders of the Indian National Movement?

Ans: Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Sarojini Naidu played crucial roles.

Q3: What were the main phases of the Indian National Movement?

Ans: The movement had three phases: Moderate (1885-1905), Extremist (1905-1919), and Gandhian Era (1919-1947).

Q4: How did women contribute to the Indian National Movement?

Ans: Women leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Annie Besant actively participated in protests, Satyagraha, and leadership roles.

Q5: What was the role of the Indian National Army (INA)?

Ans: Formed by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1942, the INA inspired armed resistance against British rule and boosted nationalist morale.

NATO Countries List 2025, Members, Objectives, Capital City

January 2, 2026

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a political and military alliance uniting countries from North America and Europe to ensure collective security and stability. Established in 1949, NATO has continuously evolved to address global challenges. As of 2025, the NATO Countries List 2025 remains dynamic, with ongoing expansions and strategic adaptations. This article presents NATO Countries List 2025, details for the member nations.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance dedicated to promoting peace and security among its member states. It operates under the principle of collective defense, as discussed in Article 5 of the NATO Treaty, which states that an attack on one member is considered an attack on all.

NATO Full Form

The full form of NATO is North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It is a military alliance established on April 4, 1949, with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty (also known as the Washington Treaty). NATO’s main purpose is to ensure the collective defense and security of its member countries, meaning an attack against one member is considered an attack against all. The organization’s headquarters is located in Brussels, Belgium.

NATO Countries Objectives

The major objective of NATO Countries is to provide safety to the members against external threats.
NATO Countries focus on crisis Management using diplomatic and military strategies.
The member strengthens partnerships with non-member countries for global stability.
Ensures military readiness through modernization and strategic planning.

NATO Members 2025

As of 2025, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has expanded to 32 member countries, growing from the original 12 founding nations that signed the North Atlantic Treaty on April 4, 1949. The founding members of NATO are Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

NATO Countries List 2025

NATO Countries List 2025 comprises 32 member countries, expanding from its original 12 founding nations. Below is a table listing the 32 NATO Countries along with their capitals:

NATO Countries List 2025
Country	Year Joined NATO
Belgium	1949 (Founding Member)
Canada	1949 (Founding Member)
Denmark	1949 (Founding Member)
France	1949 (Founding Member)
Iceland	1949 (Founding Member)
Italy	1949 (Founding Member)
Luxembourg	1949 (Founding Member)
Netherlands	1949 (Founding Member)
Norway	1949 (Founding Member)
Portugal	1949 (Founding Member)
United Kingdom	1949 (Founding Member)
United States	1949 (Founding Member)
Greece	1952
Turkey	1952
Germany (West Germany at accession)	1955
Spain	1982
Czechia (Czech Republic)	1999
Hungary	1999
Poland	1999
Bulgaria	2004
Estonia	2004
Latvia	2004
Lithuania	2004
Romania	2004
Slovakia	2004
Slovenia	2004
Albania	2009
Croatia	2009
Montenegro	2017
North Macedonia	2020
Finland	2023
Sweden	2024

NATO Countries Population

NATO Countries have diverse regions and demographics, strengthening the alliance’s cooperative efforts under the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. With a shared commitment to mutual defense and security, NATO Members work together to tackle global challenges, promote stability, and enhance international collaboration. The vast population showcases the diverse cultures, backgrounds, and contributions of its member nations, strengthening the role of NATO as a unified and interconnected security community.

NATO Countries Bordering Russia

The border between NATO Countries and Russia spans approximately 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers). The Norway-Russia border is the longest, exceeding 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers), while the Azerbaijan-Russia border is the shortest, at just over 20 miles (30 kilometers). As of February 2025, 6 NATO countries share a border with Russia.

Norway
Finland
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland

NATO Countries Bordering Ukraine

NATO Countries bordering Ukraine play a crucial role in the ongoing conflict, providing help in defense efforts and supporting diplomatic solutions. These nations help counter Russian aggression while working toward peace.

Poland
Romania
Slovakia

NATO Founder Countries

The North Atlantic Treaty, NATO's founding agreement, was signed in Washington, D.C., on April 4, 1949. These nations formed NATO to promote collective defense and security in response to post-World War II geopolitical challenges. The alliance initially comprised 12 founding members:

Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Finland Joined NATO

Finland Joined NATO as 31st member marks a significant shift in the security landscape of northeastern Europe. With an 832-mile border with Russia, Finland’s membership not only strengthens its own security but also extends NATO’s direct frontier with Russia, altering regional dynamics.

This expansion challenges Russia’s influence, potentially escalating tensions between Moscow and the West. Finland’s inclusion supports NATO’s strategic presence in the Baltic Sea region, reshaping the balance of power. Beyond Europe, it also impacts Arctic geopolitics, as Finland's military capabilities strengthen Western influence in the Nordic region. Given India’s observer role in the Arctic Council, this development could have implications for global governance in the polar north.

Sweden Joined NATO

Sweden officially joined NATO on March 7, 2024, becoming the 32nd member of the alliance. This marked a historic shift in Sweden’s long-standing policy of military neutrality, which it had maintained for over 200 years. The decision to join NATO was largely influenced by the changing security landscape in Europe following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Sweden’s membership aims to strengthen regional security in Northern Europe and enhance cooperation with other NATO countries, especially neighboring Finland, which joined the alliance in 2023.

NATO Expansion

In response to NATO, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955, a military alliance with seven other Eastern European communist states. After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, several former Warsaw Pact members, including Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, and Latvia, later joined NATO. The alliance has continued to expand, with North Macedonia joining in 2020, Finland in 2023, and Sweden in 2025, bringing the total number of NATO member states to 32.

NATO Countries Partnerships

NATO Countries work closely with 40 non-member countries on political and security-related issues, promoting cooperation through joint operations and missions. These partner nations engage in dialogue and practical collaboration with the alliance but do not have decision-making authority like full NATO members. The members also maintain partnerships with various international organizations to enhance global security and stability.

NATO Membership Requirements

As discussed in Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty, a country seeking NATO Membership must meet the following criteria:

The nation be democratic nation which promotes tolerance and diversity.
It should be moving toward a market-based economy.
Armed forces must operate under the authority of a civilian government.
The country must maintain good relations with neighbors and respect national borders.
It should work toward integrating its forces with NATO’s defense systems.

Is India Part of NATO?

No, India is not a NATO Member; it maintains a close partnership with the alliance. India has contributed to NATO-led missions, including the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. In recent years, there have been growing assumptions about India potentially joining NATO, but the Indian government has not expressed any intent to seek membership but remains open to strengthening cooperation.

In 2021, India and NATO signed a “Framework for Enhanced Cooperation”, which was a collaboration on various security issues. While the future of India’s NATO relationship remains uncertain, both sides are expected to continue working together on global security challenges.

NATO Countries UPSC

NATO Countries collectively have a population of over 960 million, making it the largest military alliance in terms of population.
With a combined GDP exceeding $38 trillion, NATO is also the most economically powerful military coalition globally.
The alliance promotes a military force of over 3 million troops, strengthening its position as the strongest military alliance in the world.
The United States is NATO’s largest and most influential member, possessing the biggest defense budget and the most advanced military technology, solidifying its leadership within the alliance.

NATO Countries List 2025 FAQs

Q1: How many countries are in the NATO Treaty?

Ans: 32 countries are in the NATO Treaty.

Q2: What is the full meaning of NATO?

Ans: North Atlantic Treaty Organization is the full form of NATO.

Q3: What countries are in NATO in 2024?

Ans: Sweden joined NATO in 2024.

Q4: Is India a member of NATO?

Ans: India is not a member of NATO.

Q5: How many countries are in BRICS?

Ans: BRICS is an intergovernmental organization consisting of ten countries.

7 Wonders of the World 2025, Names, Location, Old & New List

January 2, 2026

7 Wonders of the World: Across the globe, there are countless architecture that leave us in amaze, some crafted by human hands and others formed by nature itself. From grand churches and temples to monumental tombs, mosques, and entire cities, these creations have endured for centuries, constantly reminding us of human artistry. While the world is filled with incredible landmarks, there are seven in particular that are celebrated for their exceptional design and craftsmanship. These 7 Wonders of the World include the Great Wall of China, Petra, the Colosseum, Chichen Itza, Machu Picchu, the Taj Mahal, and Christ the Redeemer-each a testament to the brilliant minds and skills of their creators.

7 Wonders of the World

In 2000, the Swiss Foundation started a campaign to select the 7 Wonders of the World from the existing collection of 200 monuments. Out of the 200 monuments and landmarks under consideration, seven were chosen to be recognized as the New 7 Wonders of the World. These include the Giza Pyramid, the Great Wall of China, Petra, the Colosseum, Chichen Itza, Machu Picchu, the Taj Mahal, and Christ the Redeemer. Although the Great Pyramid of Giza is an iconic monument, it was not included in the official list of the Seven Wonders of the World, being recognized more as a historic landmark. Below, we provide a table showcasing the New Seven Wonders of the World.

7 Wonders of the World
So.	Name	Location	Year
1	The Great Wall of China	China	700 BC
2	The Petra	ma’an, Jordan	312 BC
3	The Colosseum	Rome, Italy	AD 80
4	The Chichen Itza	Yucatan, Mexico	AD 600
5	The Machu Picchu	Cusco Region, Peru	AD 1450
6	The Taj Mahal	Agra, India	AD 1643
7	Christ the Redeemer	Rio de Janeiro	AD 1931

List of 7 Wonders of the World

Below we have shared some facts related to each of the 7 Wonders of the World For a better understanding and to stay updated with the unknown facts.

The Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China stands as one of the most massive construction projects in history. It is often referred to as a "wall" due to its dual structure, consisting of parallel walls spanning vast distances. This extensive network of fortifications was designed to safeguard the Chinese empires and their borders. Throughout history, various sections of the wall were built, starting as early as the 7th century BC, but the most iconic parts were constructed during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The entire system, including its branches, stretches over 21,196 kilometres. In 1987, it earned a UNESCO World Heritage status, drawing tourists from across the globe.

Petra, Jordan

Located in a secluded valley in between sandstone mountains, Petra is a historical and archaeological wonder in southern Jordan. Originally known as Raqmu, Petra became the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom, an Arab tribe that made remarkable advancements in trade, architecture, and water management. The city flourished as a trade hub, particularly for spices. The rock-cut structures, which change hues under different sunlight, earned it the nickname "Rose City." Petra's complex water system and stunning architecture continue to captivate tourists.

The Colosseum, Italy

Located in Rome, the Colosseum (also called the Flavian Amphitheater) is an architectural marvel from the first century AD. Commissioned by Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and completed by his son Titus in AD 80, this oval-shaped arena was designed for large-scale public spectacles. Made primarily from concrete and sand, the Colosseum features a series of intricate vaults and remains the largest amphitheater ever built. Today, it stands as an enduring symbol of Imperial Rome, attracting millions of visitors annually.

Chichen Itza, Mexico

Chichen Itza, located in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula, was once a thriving city of the Maya civilization. At its peak in the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the city served as a center for trade and culture. The city’s most famous structure, the El Castillo pyramid, is a testament to the Mayans' astronomical knowledge, with 365 steps representing the days of the year. Chichen Itza, a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1988, attracts tourists from around the world to explore its ancient temples and ball courts.

Machu Picchu, Peru

Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel built 7,970 feet above sea level in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Believed to have been built for the Inca emperor Pachacuti, the site was abandoned by the 16th century but remained hidden from the outside world until American explorer Hiram Bingham rediscovered it in 1911. Known for its sophisticated dry-stone construction, agricultural terraces, and sacred temples, Machu Picchu remains one of the most well-preserved pre-Columbian sites in the world. It became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983 and continues to draw explorers and history enthusiasts.

The Taj Mahal, India

The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, India, is an architectural masterpiece and symbol of eternal love. Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, the Taj Mahal is renowned for its stunning white marble dome and intricate design. The Taj Mahal took 22 years to complete and employed 20,000 workers, also features a vast garden and reflecting pool. It houses the tombs of both Mumtaz and Shah Jahan. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983, the Taj Mahal remains one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world, attracting millions each year.

Christ the Redeemer, Brazil

Christ the Redeemer, a monument statue of Jesus Christ, stands at the top of Mount Corcovado in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This Art Deco statue, designed by Brazilian engineer Heitor da Silva Costa and sculpted by French artist Paul Landowski, was completed in 1931. The 30-meter (98-foot) tall statue, with outstretched arms measuring 28 meters (92 feet), is made of reinforced concrete and covered in mosaic tiles. It overlooks the city of Rio and is the largest Art Deco sculpture in the world. In 2007, Christ the Redeemer was named one of the New 7 Wonders of the World.

Original 7 Wonders of the World

Of the Original 7 Wonders of the World, only the Great Pyramid of Giza remains intact today. The others were lost to history, destroyed over time by natural disasters such as earthquakes and fires. Among them, the famed Hanging Gardens of Babylon are believed to have been built near the Euphrates River, in present-day Iraq, by King Nebuchadnezzar II around 600 B.C. Ancient Greek poets described the gardens as a marvel, reportedly rising to a height of 75 feet atop a large, square, brick structure. The complete list of the Original 7 Wonders of the World includes:

Great Pyramid of Giza - Egypt
Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq)
Statue of Zeus at Olympia - Greece
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus - Turkey
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus - Turkey
Colossus of Rhodes - Greece
Lighthouse of Alexandria - Egypt

7 Wonders of the World Selection Process

The concept of the 7 Wonders of the World dates back to the 5th century BCE, when Greek historian Herodotus first made a list of the most remarkable man-made structures he encountered during his travels. These wonders reflected the inspiring achievements of ancient civilizations in architecture and engineering.

In contrast, a modern list, known as the New 7 Wonders of the World was finalized in 2007 through a global public voting campaign initiated by the New7Wonders Foundation. Millions of people from around the world participated, selecting monuments they believed best represented human creativity and heritage.

While there were no rigid criteria for selection, the chosen wonders typically stood out for their historical significance, architectural brilliance, cultural impact, and visual amazement.

7 Wonders of the World FAQs

Q1: Which are the official 7 Wonders of the World?

Ans: The 7 wonders of the world are The Great wall of China, Petra, Colosseum, Chichen Itza, Machu Picchu, Taj Mahal, Christ the Redeemer.

Q2: What is the Speciality of 7 wonders of the world?

Ans: All these Sculptures represent the man made architectural works of the modern era representing the diversity and history of each landmark where these seven wonders exist.

Q3: When was Taj Mahal constructed?

Ans: Taj Mahal was constructed in AD 1643.

Q4: Where is The Great Wall of China situated?

Ans: The Great Wall of China is situated in China.

Q5: Is the Giza pyramid counted among 7 wonders of the world?

Ans: No, the Giza pyramid is just considered as an honorary.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

January 2, 2026

The principles of "Procedure Established by Law" and "Due Process of Law" are pivotal in shaping the constitutional and legal frameworks of democratic nations. While both terms deal with protecting the life and liberty of individuals, their scope, interpretation, and application vary significantly.

Procedure Established by Law

The phrase "Procedure Established by Law" is discussed in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees protection of life and personal liberty. According to this principle:

"No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law."

This means that if a law is duly enacted by the legislature and proper procedure is followed, the state can deprive a person of life or liberty. It does not require that the law itself be just, fair, or reasonable.

Key Features

Emphasis on legislative procedure.
Focuses on enacted law, not its fairness.
More narrow and formalistic in approach.

Due Process of Law

Due Process of Law, a broader concept primarily used in the United States Constitution, ensures not only that a law is followed but also that it is just, fair, and reasonable. It contains two components:

Procedural Due Process - Whether fair procedures were followed.
Substantive Due Process - Whether the law itself is fair and just.

In India, though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has gradually incorporated Due Process principles through judicial interpretations of Article 21.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

The Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law reflects the evolution of constitutional protection in India. What began as a strict adherence to legislative procedure has transformed into a more people-centric approach, ensuring that laws do not merely exist, but that they also uphold the values of justice, fairness, and liberty. The table below includes the Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law:

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law
Aspect	Procedure Established by Law	Due Process of Law
Origin	Derived from British legal system	Originates from the U.S. Constitution
Mention in Indian Constitution	Explicitly mentioned in Article 21	Not mentioned directly; interpreted by judiciary
Focus	Checks if the procedure is legally enacted	Checks if the law is fair, just, and not arbitrary
Scope	Narrower; focuses on legal procedure	Broader; includes substantive fairness
Judicial Review	Limited; courts can’t question the morality of law	Extensive; courts can strike down unfair laws
Protection of Rights	Weaker protection against unjust laws	Stronger protection of individual rights and liberty
Current Application in India	Interpreted broadly post-Maneka Gandhi case (1978)	Partially adopted in Indian jurisprudence via Article 21

Important Supreme Court Judgments

A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950):

Held that any law made by the legislature is valid if the procedure is followed.
Applied narrow interpretation of Article 21—Procedure Established by Law only.

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)

Landmark case where the Supreme Court ruled that the procedure must be fair, just, and reasonable, not arbitrary.
Expanded Article 21 to include Due Process elements.
Connected Article 21 with Articles 14 and 19, making fundamental rights more integrated and powerful.

Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)

Recognized Right to Privacy as a part of Article 21.
Reinforced the need for laws to meet the test of reasonableness and fairness.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law Key Points

India originally adopted only the “Procedure Established by Law”, unlike the U.S., which follows “Due Process of Law”.
Through judicial activism and progressive interpretations, Indian courts have incorporated the essence of due process.
Today, Article 21 is not limited to procedural legality; it also ensures fairness and non-arbitrariness of laws.
This evolution has strengthened the protection of civil liberties in India.

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Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law FAQs

Q1: Which article of the Indian Constitution mentions Procedure Established by Law?

Ans: Article 21 states that no person shall be deprived of life or liberty except according to the procedure established by law.

Q2: Is Due Process of Law part of the Indian Constitution?

Ans: While not explicitly stated, the Supreme Court has read the principles of Due Process into Article 21 through judgments like Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India.

Q3: What is the main drawback of Procedure Established by Law?

Ans: It can allow unfair or unjust laws to be enforced as long as proper legislative procedure is followed.

Q4: Which case introduced Due Process-like interpretation in India?

Ans: The Maneka Gandhi case (1978) was a turning point, interpreting Article 21 to require that the procedure must be just, fair, and reasonable.

Q5: How do these doctrines affect individual rights?

Ans: Due Process offers stronger protection as it questions both the law and its implementation, ensuring fairness in both substance and procedure.

Freedom Fighters of India (1857-1947), List, Contributions

January 2, 2026

The Freedom of India was the result of the sacrifices of great freedom fighters who played a major role in its independence. Prominent leaders like Bhagat Singh, Mahatma Gandhi, Subhash Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Lala Lajpat Rai, Lal Bahadur Shastri, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak united the nation. Alongside them, countless patriots also contributed to India’s struggle against British rule. All the important freedom fighters' names have been shared below in the article.

Freedom Fighters of India

India became an independent and a democratic state on 15th August 1947, marking the freedom struggle by the Freedom Fighters of India who led the great revolutions. The 78th Independence Day will be celebrated on 15th August 2024 across the nation.

Freedom Fighters of India fought various struggles, movements, battles, and uprisings, with many of them sacrificing their lives for the nation's sovereignty. Keep reading the article to know about the Freedom Fighters of India from 1857 to 1947 and their Contributions.

List of Freedom Fighters of India from 1857 to 1947

India’s struggle for independence was shaped by legendary leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Bhagat Singh, Subhas Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Chandra Shekhar Azad, among others. Each freedom fighter played an important role in the Freedom Fight of India. Check out the List of Freedom Fighters of India from 1857 to 1947 below in the table:

List of Freedom Fighters of India from 1857 to 1947
Freedom Fighters Name	Contributions and Roles
Bal Gangadhar Tilak	The Maker of Modern India, Swadeshi Movement
Dr.Rajendra Prasad	First President of the Republic of India
Lal Bahadur Shastri	White Revolution Green Revolution Second Prime Minister of India
Sardar Vallabhbhai Bhai Patel	Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India Movement Unification of India
Bhagat Singh	One of the Most Influential Revolutionary
Subhas Chandra Bose	World War II Indian National Congress
Mahatma Gandhi	Father of the Nation, Civil Rights Activists in South Africa, Satyagraha, Civil Disobedience Movement Quit India Movement
Jawaharlal Nehru	First Prime Minister of India
Gopal Krishna Gokhale	Political guru of Mahatma Gandhi
Chandra Shekhar Azad	Reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) under the new name of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association(HSRA)
Dadabhai Naoroji	Unofficial Ambassador of India
Tantia Tope	Indian Rebellion of 1857
Bipin Chandra Pal	Father of Revolutionary Thoughts Swadeshi Movement
Lala Lajpat Rai	Punjab Kesari Against Simon Commission
Ashfaqullah Khan	Member of Hindustan Republican Association
Nana Sahib	Indian Rebellion of 1857
Sukhdev	Chief of Punjab unit of HSRA(Hindustan Socialist Republican Association)
Kunwar Singh	Indian Rebellion of 1857
Mangal Pandey	Sepoy mutiny of the Revolt of 1857
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar	Leading figures of Hindu Mahasabha and formulators of Hindu Nationalist Philosophy
Rani Lakshmi Bai	Leading women in the rebellion of 1857
Begum Hazrat Mahal	First female freedom fighter
Kasturba Gandhi	Quit India movement
Kamla Nehru	Non-cooperation Movement, Protested against foreign liquors
Vijay Laxmi Pandit	First Indian women ambassador at UN.
Sarojini Naidu	First Indian woman who acted as governor (UP)
Aruna Asaf Ali	Inquilab (Monthly journal)
Madam Bhikaji Cama	First Indian to hoist the Indian Non-cooperation flag on foreign soil, Mother India’s first cultural representative of USA’
Kamla Chattopadhyay	The first woman to be elected to a legislative seat in India(madras province)
Sucheta Kriplani	First women Chief minister (UP)
Annie Besant	First woman president of INC, Home rule league.
Kittur Chennamma	First female ruler to rebel against the British
Savitribai Phule	First lady teacher in India
Usha Mehta	Organized Congress Radio popularly the Secret Congress Radio
Lakshmi Sahgal	India Democratic Women Association(IDWA)(1981 )
Dr. B.R Ambedkar	He is known as the father of the Constitution He was the First Law Minister of India
Rani Gaidinliu	She was Naga spiritual and political leader
Prafulla Chaki	Involved in the Muzaffarpur killing
Chittaranjan Das	Leader in the Non-cooperation Movement from Bengal and Founder of the Swaraj party
Bhavabhushan Mitra	Involved in Ghadar Mutiny
Alluri Sitarama Raju	Rampa Rebellion 1922-1924
Kanneganti Hanumanthu	Palnadu Rebellion
Parbati Giri	She is also known as mother Teresa of Western Orissa.
Tirupur Kumaran	He was the founder of the DesaBandhu Youth Association
Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi	He was the founder of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Senapati Bapat	He was the leader of the Mulshi Satyagraha
Basawon Singh (Sinha)	Lahore Conspiracy Case
Kartar Singh Sarabha	Lahore conspiracy
Bagha Jatin	The Howrah-Shibpur conspiracy case
Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee	Kakori Conspiracy
Roshan Singh	Kakori conspiracy
Pingali Venkayya	He was the designer of the flag on which our National Flag is based
Veerapandiya Kattabomman	He was an 18th-century Tamil chieftain. He refused to accept the sovereignty of the British East India Company and raised war against them. He was captured by the British and was hanged to death on 16 October 1799
Sachindra Bakshi	Kakori conspiracy
Rajendra Lahiri	Kakori conspiracy
Manmath Nath Gupta	Kakori conspiracy
Bahadur Shah Zafar	Indian Rebellion of 1857
Chetram Jatav	Indian Rebellion of 1857
Bakht Khan	Indian Rebellion of 1857

Famous Freedom fighters of India

Here’s a brief overview of some of the Famous Freedom fighters of India and their contributions to the struggle for independence:

Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi, born on 2nd October 1869 in Porbandar, Gujarat, is honored as the Father of the Nation. His birthday is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti in India and recognized globally as the International Day of Non-Violence by the UNO. He was the son of Karamchand Gandhi and Putlibai, was mentored by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. His notable publications include Indian Opinion, Harijan, and Young India. Known as ‘Bapu’ and ‘Gandhiji’, his principles of non-violence and truth shaped India's freedom struggle.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was known as Lokmanya Tilak, he was a teacher, nationalist, and activist, and part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio. As the first leader of the independence movement, he was titled “The Maker of Modern India” by Mahatma Gandhi. His famous slogan, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!", became a rallying cry for freedom.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad

India’s first President (1950-1962), Dr. Rajendra Prasad was a lawyer, politician, and activist. A close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, he was jailed during the Satyagraha (1931) and Quit India Movement (1942). He also served as India’s Food and Agriculture Minister. Revered as “Ajata Shatru” (one with no enemies), he played a key role in shaping the nation.

Lal Bahadur Shastri

India’s 2nd Prime Minister and 6th Home Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri is known for leading the White Revolution, increasing the milk production, and initiating the Green Revolution to enhance food security. He was known for his simplicity and dedication to the nation.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Bhai Patel

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875–1950), known as the "Iron Man of India", was India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister. A lawyer and statesman, he played a key role in integrating 562 princely states into India. His leadership in uniting the nation earned him the title "Unifier of India".

Bhagat Singh

Bhagat Singh (1907-1931) became a national icon through his bravery and sacrifice. He sentenced to death of Lala Lajpat Rai by mistakenly killing a British officer and later threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly as a protest. His hunger strike in jail and martyrdom at 23 made him a legendary figure in India's independence movement.

Subhas Chandra Bose

Famously called "Netaji", Subhas Chandra Bose (1897-1945) was a nationalist known for his militant approach toward independence. He founded Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army) and inspired millions with slogans like "Tum Mujhe Khoon Do, Main Tumhe Aazadi Dunga" and "Delhi Chalo". His socialist policies and strategic alliances aimed at ending British rule.

Jawaharlal Nehru

India’s first Prime Minister, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) played a key role in shaping modern India. Educated at Cambridge and London, he returned to India in 1912 and joined the freedom struggle. His love for children earned him the title "Chacha Nehru", and his birth anniversary (14th November) is celebrated as Children’s Day in India.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

A moderate nationalist and social reformer, Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) was instrumental in promoting education, economic reforms, and self-rule. He mentored Mahatma Gandhi, shaping his early political views. His dedication to social justice and gradualist approach made him a respected leader in India's fight for freedom.

Chandra Shekhar Azad

Chandra Shekhar Azad reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) after Ramprasad Bismil's death. At 15, he was arrested for joining Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement, famously declaring “Azad” (free) as his name.

Known as the "Grand Old Man of India," Dadabhai Naoroji was a founding member of the Indian National Congress (INC) and introduced the Drain of Wealth theory in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.

Tantia Tope

A commander in the 1857 Revolt, Tantia Tope fought the British alongside Rani Lakshmibai and Nana Saheb. Though lacking formal military training, he became one of India's most skilled rebel leaders.

Bipin Chandra Pal

A member of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio, Bipin Chandra Pal was known as the "Father of Revolutionary Thoughts" and advocated Swaraj (self-rule). His works include Indian Nationalism and The Soul of India.

Lala Lajpat Rai

Nicknamed “Punjab Kesari” (Lion of Punjab), Lala Lajpat Rai was a social reformer and nationalist. He led the Simon Commission protest and surrender to injuries from police brutality.

Ashfaqullah Khan

A revolutionary involved in the Kakori Train Robbery (1925), Ashfaqullah Khan was sentenced to death for challenging British rule alongside Ram Prasad Bismil.

Nana Saheb Peshwa II

A leader of the 1857 Revolt, Nana Saheb fought against British injustice after being denied the pension of his adoptive father, Peshwa Baji Rao II.

Sukhdev Thapar

Born on 15 May 1907 in Ludhiana, Punjab, Sukhdev Thapar was a senior member of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). He played a crucial role in India's freedom struggle alongside Bhagat Singh and Rajguru. At just 23 years old, he was hanged on 23 March 1931 by the British.

Kunwar Singh

Also known as Veer Kunwar Singh, he was a chief organizer of the 1857 Revolt in Bihar. He belonged to the Ujjainiya clan in Bhojpur, Bihar, and fought bravely against British forces despite being in his 80s.

Mangal Pandey

A soldier in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey played a pivotal role in sparking the 1857 Revolt. His attack on British officers is considered the first major incident of the Sepoy Mutiny. In 1984, the Indian government issued a postage stamp in his honor.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

A revolutionary, writer, and activist, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was a leading face of the Hindu Mahasabha. His book, The War of Independence, was banned by the British for promoting nationalist sentiments. Despite being an atheist, he advocated Hindu philosophy as a pragmatic nationalist.

Freedom Fighters of India FAQs

Q1: Who is the legend of the freedom fighter?

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi

Q2: Who is the freedom fighter queen?

Ans: Rani Lakshmibai, the Queen of Jhansi, stands as a prominent figure among female Indian freedom fighters.

Q3: Who is the brave woman in India?

Ans: Prominent brave women in India’s freedom struggle include Rani Lakshmibai, Rani Abbakka, Kittur Chennamma, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Sarojini Naidu.

Q4: Who is the best female fighter in India?

Ans: Rani Lakshmibai is often regarded as one of the bravest and most iconic women in India’s freedom struggle.