Articles on 2 January 2026

by Vajiram & Ravi - 2 January 2026

Vajiram & Ravi provides Daily articles for 2 January 2026, tailored for aspirants. We cover all relevant news and events crucial for the exam, ensuring you stay updated & well-prepared.

Red Tapism, Definition, History, Causes, Impact, Preventive Measures

January 2, 2026
Red Tapism

Red Tapism refers to the excessive adherence to formal rules, procedures, and bureaucratic requirements that delay decision making without adding real administrative value. It is commonly associated with public administration but is also observed in private organisations. Red Tapism increases compliance costs in terms of time, money, and human effort, reducing efficiency, accountability, and public trust in governance systems across countries.

Red Tapism 

Red Tapism is the manifestation of red tape in administrative functioning, where procedures become ends in themselves rather than means to effective governance. It represents unnecessary, duplicative, outdated, or poorly designed regulations that impose avoidable compliance burdens. Unlike essential safeguards, Red Tapism generates administrative costs beyond what is required to achieve policy objectives, thereby slowing service delivery and economic activity.

Red Tapism Historical Background

Red Tapism evolved alongside expanding bureaucratic states and complex governance systems, historically emerging from administrative control mechanisms rather than service oriented governance.

  • Early Administrative Origins: The term originated in the 16th century Spanish administration under Charles V, where red ribbons bound urgent state files, symbolising procedural formalism over outcomes.
  • British Institutionalisation: In Britain, red tape became synonymous with bureaucratic inertia during the 19th century, highlighted in literary critiques by Charles Dickens and Thomas Carlyle.
  • Colonial Administrative Legacy: Colonial administrations used rigid procedures to enforce control, prioritising rule compliance over responsiveness, shaping bureaucratic cultures in many post colonial states.
  • United States Expansion: Early 20th century America associated red tape with military procurement delays and veterans’ record management, reflecting procedural overload.
  • Post War Governance Growth: After World War II, expanding welfare states and regulatory regimes increased paperwork and layered approvals, deepening Red Tapism.
  • Modern Regulatory Proliferation: Late 20th century governance saw rapid regulatory growth, often without sunset clauses, converting useful rules into persistent administrative burdens.

Red Tapism Causes

Red Tapism arises from structural, institutional, behavioural, and technological factors that reinforce procedural rigidity.

  • Over Regulation: Excessive rules created without adequate problem analysis lead to compliance requirements that exceed policy necessity.
  • Rules Becoming Obsolete: Regulations designed for older technologies or conditions persist even after their relevance ends, increasing procedural redundancy.
  • Layered Decision Making: Multiple approval levels create delays as files move sequentially rather than concurrently.
  • Risk Averse Bureaucracy: Fear of accountability encourages officials to rely excessively on rules rather than professional judgment.
  • Lack of Accountability Mechanisms: Weak performance evaluation allows inefficient procedures to continue unchecked.
  • Colonial Administrative Structures: Legacy systems prioritise control, documentation, and hierarchy over service delivery.
  • Discretionary Power Concentration: Officials controlling approvals may maintain complexity to preserve authority.
  • Inconsistent Rule Interpretation: Ambiguity across departments results in repetitive documentation and procedural duplication.
  • Poor Digital Integration: Fragmented IT systems replicate paperwork instead of eliminating it.
  • Cultural Formalism: Organisational cultures equate compliance with effectiveness, discouraging innovation.

Read About: Judicial Reforms in India

Red Tapism Impact

Red Tapism produces measurable economic, administrative, social, and ethical consequences across governance systems.

  • Economic Growth Constraint: Studies across 68 countries show excessive bureaucracy discourages investment and slows technological diffusion.
  • Business Compliance Costs: In Canada, regulatory red tape cost businesses approximately USD 11 billion in 2020, representing nearly 28% of total regulatory burden.
  • Reduced Job Creation: Research links red tape with lower firm growth, reduced competitiveness, and weaker employment generation.
  • Public Sector Inefficiency: Surveys of public servants reveal that unnecessary documentation reduces operational effectiveness and internal service quality.
  • Employee Burnout: Studies in Korea, Belgium, Chile, and New Zealand link red tape to emotional exhaustion and declining job satisfaction.
  • Risk Averse Governance: Officials prioritise procedural safety over problem solving, delaying critical decisions.
  • Delayed Public Services: Welfare schemes and infrastructure projects experience prolonged implementation timelines due to layered approvals.
  • Erosion of Public Trust: Persistent delays weaken citizen confidence in institutions.
  • Increased Informality: Complex procedures push citizens and firms toward informal or illegal alternatives.
  • Policy Ineffectiveness: Administrative overload dilutes the intended impact of welfare and development programs.

Red Tapism Prevention Measures

Reducing Red Tapism requires structural reforms, political commitment, ethical governance, and digital transformation.

  • Regulatory Simplification: Periodic review and repeal of obsolete rules prevent accumulation of unnecessary procedures.
  • Sunset Clauses: Automatic expiration of regulations ensures continued relevance and accountability.
  • Digital Governance: Integrated online platforms reduce paperwork, duplication, and discretionary delays.
  • Single Window Systems: Unified clearance mechanisms minimise inter departmental procedural overlaps.
  • Decriminalisation of Minor Offences: Shifting technical violations from criminal prosecution to administrative adjudication reduces procedural congestion.
  • Faceless Administration: Electronic assessment and appeals limit discretion and procedural bias.
  • Performance Audits: Regular evaluation of administrative efficiency discourages procedural formalism.
  • Capacity Building: Training officials in ethical decision making and problem solving reduces rule bound inertia.
  • Citizen Feedback Mechanisms: Direct reporting of procedural bottlenecks helps prioritise reforms.
  • Strong Political Leadership: Evidence shows successful red tape reduction depends on sustained executive commitment.

Red Tapism International Aspects

Red Tapism is a global governance challenge addressed through varied reform strategies across countries.

  • European Union: The EU has pursued administrative burden reduction since the 1990s, focusing on regulatory simplification and harmonisation across the single market.
  • United Kingdom: Regulatory reform initiatives estimated potential GDP gains exceeding 1% through red tape reduction.
  • Canada: The federal one-for-one rule mandates removal of an existing regulation for every new administrative burden introduced.
  • British Columbia Model: A 37% regulatory reduction achieved between 2001 and 2004 through strong political leadership and ministerial accountability.
  • United States: Red tape reduction featured in the National Performance Review and later initiatives to limit regulatory expansion.
  • South Korea: Institutionalised regulatory impact assessments, sunset clauses, and digital complaint platforms reduced redundant procedures.
  • New Zealand: Creation of a Ministry for Regulation in 2023 institutionalised the principle that regulation should be a last resort.
  • Latin America: Countries like Mexico and Spain have faced persistent red tape challenges, affecting business formation and innovation.
  • Global Trade Impact: Misaligned regulations across jurisdictions increase transaction costs and restrict cross border commerce.
  • Governance Rankings: Ease of Doing Business indicators historically highlight red tape as a major development barrier.

Red Tapism FAQs

Q1: What is Red Tapism?

Ans: Red Tapism refers to excessive procedural formalities and rigid rules that delay decisions without improving administrative outcomes.

Q2: Why is Red Tapism considered harmful?

Ans: It increases costs, slows service delivery, discourages investment, and reduces public trust in governance institutions.

Q3: Is Red Tapism limited to government offices?

Ans: No, it also exists in large private organisations where excessive internal procedures hinder efficiency and innovation.

Q4: How does Red Tapism affect economic growth?

Ans: By increasing compliance burdens, it reduces business competitiveness, delays projects, and weakens job creation.

Q5: How can Red Tapism be reduced?

Ans: Through regulatory simplification, digital governance, sunset clauses, accountability reforms, and performance based administration.

Soil Erosion, Definition, Types, Causes, Factors, Impact

January 2, 2026
Soil Erosion

Soil Erosion is a natural geomorphological process involving the detachment and removal of soil and weathered rock materials by exogenetic forces such as water, wind, ice, gravity, plants, animals, and human activities. Under natural vegetation cover, soil erosion occurs slowly as part of denudation and remains largely balanced by soil formation. However, when this natural equilibrium is disturbed, erosion accelerates rapidly. 

Soil Erosion

Soil Erosion refers to the loosening, detachment, transport, and deposition of topsoil particles from land surfaces by physical agents, primarily water and wind. In its natural form, also called geological erosion, soil removal occurs slowly and uniformly over long periods. Accelerated soil erosion, also known as man induced erosion, results from human altered land use patterns and removes soil at rates ten to several thousand times faster than natural soil formation. 

According to L.D. Meyer and W.H. Wischmeier, soil particle detachability is the critical stage in erosion, controlled by grain size, cohesion, and flow velocity. Particles larger than 0.2 mm require higher water velocity for detachment. When erosion exceeds soil regeneration capacity, it transforms into severe soil degradation, undermining ecological balance and agricultural sustainability.

Soil Erosion Types

The types of Soil Erosion based on dominant physical agents along with their mechanisms and consequences are listed below:

  1. Water Erosion: Caused by rainfall and surface runoff, water erosion includes splash, sheet, rill, gully, streambank, landslide, and coastal erosion.
  2. Raindrop (Splash) Erosion: Raindrops of about 5 mm diameter strike soil at 32 km/hr, dislodging particles and destroying soil aggregates. It is a sub-type of water erosion.
  3. Sheet Erosion: Uniform removal of thin topsoil layers by overland flow, often unnoticed but responsible for major nutrient losses.
  4. Rill Erosion: Formation of shallow finger-like channels after sheet erosion, which gradually deepen and multiply annually.
  5. Gully Erosion: Deep channels exceeding 30 m in width and depth, severely restricting land use and farm operations.
  6. Streambank Erosion: Wearing away of riverbanks during floods, altering river courses and damaging infrastructure and farmland.
  7. Landslide Erosion: Sudden downslope movement of soil due to gravity, slope instability, or saturation, causing major land loss.
  8. Coastal Erosion: Wave action and sea ingress remove coastal soils, depositing sand inland and degrading agricultural land.
  9. Wind Erosion: Dominant in arid and semi arid regions, removing fine particles through suspension, saltation, and surface creep.
  10. Tillage Erosion: Soil displacement caused by repeated ploughing on slopes, often exceeding water erosion in cultivated lands.

Soil Erosion Factors

The natural and human induced drivers controlling Soil Erosion intensity and processes across landscapes in a concise, process oriented manner have been described below:

  • Rainfall Intensity: High intensity rainfall produces greater kinetic energy, increasing splash erosion, runoff velocity, and sediment transport, especially on bare or saturated soils.
  • Soil Texture and Structure: Sandy and silty soils detach easily, while clay and organic rich soils resist erosion due to better aggregation and particle cohesion.
  • Slope Gradient and Length: Longer and steeper slopes increase runoff speed, enhancing rill, gully, and mass movement erosion under heavy precipitation.
  • Vegetation Cover: Roots bind soil particles, canopy intercepts raindrops, and litter improves infiltration; vegetation removal dramatically increases erosion rates.
  • Climate Variability: Extreme rainfall events, droughts, and temperature fluctuations alter soil moisture and structure, intensifying erosion processes.
  • Deforestation: Removal of forest litter, humus, and root networks exposes mineral soil, increasing runoff and erosion by several orders of magnitude.
  • Agricultural Practices: Deep tillage, monocropping, slope cultivation, and bare fallow periods break soil structure and accelerate water and wind erosion.
  • Overgrazing: Livestock trampling compacts soil, reduces vegetation cover, and initiates surface runoff and gully formation.
  • Irrigation Mismanagement: Excess irrigation causes waterlogging, salinity, reduced infiltration, and increased surface runoff.
  • Construction and Urbanisation: Soil excavation, compaction, and impervious surfaces increase runoff volume and sediment transport into water bodies.

What is Land Degradation?

Land degradation refers to the decline in land’s productive capacity due to Soil Erosion, nutrient depletion, salinisation, waterlogging, and chemical contamination. Slight degradation reduces yields by 10%, moderate degradation by 10-50%, and severe degradation causes over 50% productivity loss. Globally, over 4.85 billion acres of land are degraded, with water and wind erosion responsible for 84% of this degradation.

Soil Erosion Impact

The on site and off site consequences of Soil Erosion across agriculture, ecology, hydrology, and human systems have been listed below:

  • Loss of Fertile Topsoil: Nutrient rich fine particles and organic matter are removed, exposing less fertile subsoil.
  • Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Crop yields decline due to nutrient loss, poor water retention, and seedling removal.
  • Water Resource Degradation: Sedimentation of rivers, reservoirs, and dams reduces storage capacity and water quality.
  • Aquatic Ecosystem Damage: Sediments smother fish spawning grounds and reduce biodiversity in freshwater and coastal systems.
  • Desertification Risk: Persistent erosion converts productive land into barren landscapes, especially in dry regions.
  • Infrastructure Damage: Roads, canals, and settlements suffer from sediment deposition and bank erosion.
  • Air Pollution: Wind blown dust carries pesticides and heavy metals, causing respiratory and climatic impacts.
  • Flood Intensification: Reduced infiltration increases runoff, enhancing flood frequency and severity.
  • Climate Feedbacks: Soil organic carbon loss weakens carbon sequestration, reinforcing climate change impacts.
  • Human and Animal Mortality: Landslides and erosion induced floods cause fatalities and displacement.

Soil Conservation

Major proven and emerging strategies to prevent Soil Erosion and restore soil health using scientific, policy driven, and ecological approaches are as follows:

  • Vegetative Cover: Afforestation, cover crops, and grasses reduce runoff velocity and soil detachment.
  • Terracing: Step like slope modification reduces runoff length and erosion on hilly terrain.
  • Contour Farming: Ploughing across slopes reduces water flow speed and soil loss.
  • Crop Rotation: Improves soil structure, nutrient balance, and organic carbon content.
  • No Till Farming: Minimises soil disturbance, preserving aggregates and reducing erosion.
  • Windbreaks: Shelterbelts reduce wind velocity and protect agricultural fields.
  • Biochar Application: Pyrolysed organic matter improves soil water retention and nutrient holding capacity.
  • Biofertilisers: Microbial inoculants enhance soil fertility while reducing chemical input dependence.
  • Precision Agriculture: Drone based nutrient mapping optimises fertiliser use and limits soil degradation.
  • Policy Interventions: Soil Health Card Scheme, NMSA, PKVY, and Neem coated urea promote sustainable soil management.

Soil Erosion Global Aspects

Globally, Soil Erosion has emerged as a major environmental challenge due to population pressure, land misuse, deforestation, intensive agriculture, infrastructure expansion, and climate change. Each year, approximately 75 billion tonnes of fertile soil are lost worldwide, far exceeding natural soil regeneration rates. This loss directly threatens food security, water quality, ecosystem stability, and long term land productivity.

Soil Erosion FAQs

Q1: What is Soil Erosion?

Ans: Soil Erosion is the removal of fertile topsoil by water, wind, or human activities, reducing land productivity and soil health.

Q2: What are the main causes of Soil Erosion?

Ans: Major causes include heavy rainfall, deforestation, overgrazing, improper farming practices, and construction activities.

Q3: Which type of Soil Erosion is most common?

Ans: Water erosion is the most widespread form, especially in regions with high rainfall and sloping agricultural land.

Q4: How does Soil Erosion affect Agriculture?

Ans: It reduces soil fertility, lowers crop yields, increases input costs, and can permanently degrade farmland.

Q5: How can Soil Erosion be controlled?

Ans: Soil erosion can be controlled through afforestation, contour farming, terracing, crop rotation, and sustainable land use practices.

East Flowing Rivers in India, List, Map, Features, Key Details

January 2, 2026
East Flowing Rivers in India

Rivers have played a decisive role in shaping human civilisation, agriculture, and settlement patterns since ancient times. In India, rivers form the backbone of irrigation, drinking water supply, transport, and energy generation. A large number of Indian rivers flow eastward from the Peninsular Plateau into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers carry heavy sediments, form extensive deltas, and support dense populations. East flowing rivers in India have historically sustained agriculture based economies, influenced cultural development, and enabled trade and connectivity along fertile coastal plains.

East Flowing Rivers in India

East Flowing Rivers in India originate mainly from the Western Ghats, Central Highlands, and Chotanagpur Plateau and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers are longer, have large drainage basins, numerous tributaries, and develop broad deltas near their mouths. Major east flowing rivers in India include the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Pennar, Subarnarekha, Brahmani, Ponnaiyar, Vaigai, etc. Their extensive river systems support irrigation intensive agriculture, hydropower projects, and urban settlements across eastern and southern India.

East Flowing Rivers in India Features

East Flowing Rivers in India display distinct physical and hydrological characteristics shaped by peninsular geology, monsoonal rainfall, and gentle coastal gradients.

  • Direction of Flow: East flowing rivers in India move from west to east due to the slope of the Peninsular Plateau toward the Bay of Bengal.
  • Delta Formation: These rivers deposit large quantities of alluvium, forming fertile deltas such as the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, and Mahanadi deltas.
  • Sediment Load: East flowing rivers in India carry heavier sediment loads compared to west flowing rivers due to longer courses and larger catchments.
  • Tributary Network: They possess extensive tributary systems that increase basin size and water availability across multiple states.
  • Agricultural Dependence: Their waters support intensive agriculture, sustaining food crops and livelihoods for a major share of India’s population.

East Flowing Rivers in India State Wise List

East Flowing Rivers in India pass through multiple states, supporting inter state irrigation, water sharing, and economic activities. Most east flowing rivers in India traverse two or more states, increasing the importance of basin level management.

  • Southern States: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka depend heavily on Cauvery, Krishna, Pennar, Ponnaiyar, and Vaigai rivers.
  • Eastern States: Odisha and West Bengal are sustained by Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarani, Subarnarekha, and Damodar systems.
  • Central and Eastern Highlands: Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh contribute headwaters to rivers like Subarnarekha and Brahmani.

Godavari River

The Godavari River is the longest East Flowing River in India and is often called the “Dakshin Ganga” due to its vast basin and economic importance.

  • Origin and Length: Godavari originates near Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra and flows eastward across peninsular India into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Drainage Basin: It drains a large basin covering multiple states, making it one of the most extensive River Systems in India.
  • Delta Formation: The Godavari forms a wide and fertile delta along the Andhra Pradesh coast.
  • Economic Role: The river supports irrigation, drinking water supply, and inland fisheries across its basin.

Krishna River

The Krishna River is a major East Flowing River in India supporting agriculture and hydropower in southern India.

  • Source Region: Krishna originates in the Western Ghats and flows eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Tributary System: It receives water from several tributaries, expanding its basin across Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Agricultural Importance: The Krishna delta is one of India’s most productive rice growing regions.
  • Water Projects: The river hosts multiple irrigation and storage projects supporting semi arid regions.

Cauvery River

The Cauvery River is a lifeline for southern India, especially Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

  • Origin: Cauvery rises in the Western Ghats and flows southeastward into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Delta System: It forms a well developed delta supporting intensive agriculture.
  • Cultural Significance: The river has historical importance for ancient South Indian kingdoms.
  • Irrigation Role: Cauvery waters sustain major agricultural belts in southern India.

Mahanadi River

The Mahanadi River is a major east flowing river in eastern India.

  • Source Region: Mahanadi originates in central India and flows eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Delta Formation: It forms a broad delta in coastal Odisha.
  • Floodplain Agriculture: The fertile plains support extensive rice cultivation.
  • Economic Importance: The river is vital for irrigation, fisheries, and water supply.

Pennar River

The Pennar River, also called Uttara Pinakini, is a significant East Flowing River in India of the southern peninsula.

  • Origin: Pennar originates from the Chennakasava hill in the Nandidurg range of Karnataka.
  • Length: The river flows for about 597 kilometres before draining into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Basin Area: Pennar basin covers approximately 55,000 square kilometres across Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Topography: The basin is bounded by Erramala, Nallamala, Velikonda, Seshachalam, and Paliconda ranges.
  • Land Use: About 58.64% of the basin area is under agriculture.
  • Tributaries: Major tributaries include Jayamangali, Kunderu, Chiravati, and Papagni.
  • Projects: Somasila project, Mylavaram Dam, and Penna Ahobilam Balancing Reservoir support irrigation.

Subarnarekha River

The Subarnarekha River is an important east flowing river of eastern India.

  • Origin: It originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand.
  • Length: The river flows for about 395 kilometres before entering the Bay of Bengal.
  • Inter State Course: It forms part of the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha.
  • Tributaries: Dulang, Kanchi, Kharkai, Karkari, Raru, and Garru rivers join the Subarnarekha.
  • Physical Feature: Hundru Falls, with a height of about 98 metres, lies on its course.

Brahamani River

The Brahmani River is one of the longest east flowing rivers in Odisha.

  • Origin: It is formed by the confluence of Koel and Sankh rivers near Rourkela.
  • Length: The river flows for nearly 800 kilometres.
  • Basin Extent: The basin is bounded by Chhotanagpur Plateau, Mahanadi basin, and Bay of Bengal.
  • States Covered: The river flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
  • Delta Formation: Along with Baitarani, it forms a large delta near Dhamra.
  • Infrastructure: Rengali Dam is constructed across the Brahmani River.

Ponnaiyar River

The Ponnaiyar River, also known as Dakshina Pinakini or Thenpennai, is an important east flowing river of southern India.

  • Origin: It rises from the Nandi Hills in Karnataka.
  • Course: The river flows through Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Drainage: It empties into the Bay of Bengal.
  • Basin Boundaries: The basin is surrounded by Eastern Ghats hill ranges.
  • Dams: Krishnagiri and Sathanur dams are built across the river.
  • Economic Use: The river supports irrigation and agro based industries.

Vaigai River

The Vaigai River is a prominent east flowing river of Tamil Nadu.

  • Origin: It originates from Varusanadu Hills of the Western Ghats.
  • Course: The river flows northeast through the Kambam Valley.
  • Tributaries: Major tributaries include Suruliyaru, Manjalaru, Mullaiyaru, and Varahanadhi.
  • Drainage: It drains into the Palk Strait near Ramanathapuram.
  • Historical Significance: The Vaigai flowed through ancient Madurai and is mentioned in Sangam literature dated around 300 BCE.

East Flowing Rivers in India FAQs

Q1: Why do most rivers in Peninsular India flow eastward?

Ans: Most rivers flow eastward due to the gentle slope of the Peninsular Plateau toward the Bay of Bengal.

Q2: Which is the longest East Flowing Rivers in India?

Ans: The Godavari River is the longest east flowing river in India.

Q3: Why do East Flowing Rivers in India form large deltas?

Ans: They carry heavy sediments and slow down near the Bay of Bengal, leading to extensive delta formation.

Q4: Name two major agricultural deltas formed by East Flowing Rivers in India.

Ans: The Godavari Delta and the Cauvery Delta are major agricultural regions.

Q5: How are East Flowing Rivers in India economically important?

Ans: They support irrigation, hydropower, fisheries, drinking water supply, and dense population settlements in India.

Silent Valley Movement, History, Significance, Outcome

January 2, 2026
Silent Valley Movement

Silent Valley Movement was introduced in late 1970s and early 1980s which was an environmental campaign focusing on protecting the Silent Valley. It focused on protecting the  dense, untouched tropical rainforest in Kerala’s Palakkad district from being submerged due to a proposed hydroelectric project. Rich in biodiversity and home to rare species like the lion-tailed macaque, the forest was under threat from development that would have permanently damaged the ecosystem.

The movement began in 1973, when environmentalists, scientists, writers, and local communities came together to oppose the hydroelectric project. Their efforts eventually led to the cancellation of the dam and the declaration of Silent Valley as a national park in 1984. 

Silent Valley Movement About

The Silent Valley Movement was an environmental protest launched in 1973 against the proposed hydroelectric dam on the Kunthipuzha River, which flows through the Silent Valley in the Palakkad District of Kerala. The area is part of the Western Ghats, one of the world’s eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity. The plan was simple but destructive, to build a dam to generate hydroelectricity by submerging large sections of the forest. But environmentalists, scientists, students, poets, and locals knew the value of the Silent Valley.

Silent Valley Movement History

  1. The origins of the Silent Valley Movement lie in the 1970s, when the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric project to meet the state’s rising power demands. The plan involved damming the Kunthipuzha River, which would have submerged over 8 square kilometers of pristine rainforest.
  2. In 1973, the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), a science and environment advocacy group, raised the alarm. They published a report detailing the ecological destruction the project would cause.
  3. The momentum grew in 1976, when researchers led by M.K. Prasad documented the presence of the endangered Lion-tailed Macaque in the Silent Valley. The macaque became a symbol of the fragile ecosystem under threat.
  4. As national and international pressure increased, the Government of India eventually stepped in. In 1980, then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi intervened and ordered a termination of the project. After years of sustained advocacy, Silent Valley was officially declared a National Park in 1984 and inaugurated in 1985.

Silent Valley Movement Participants

The Silent Valley Movement brought together an exceptional coalition of activists, scientists, and organizations. Some of the key contributors were:

Silent Valley Movement Participants
S.No Name Role/Contribution

1

Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP)

Led grassroots public education, mobilization, and scientific awareness

2

Silent Valley Samrakshana Samithi (SVSS)

Coordinated local protests and unified activists, students, and villagers

3

Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI)

Conducted biodiversity studies and flagged ecological threats of the project

4

World Wildlife Fund (WWF)

Provided global attention, support, and international funding

5

Dr. Salim Ali

Eminent ornithologist; opposed the project and advocated for wildlife conservation

6

Dr. Madhav Gadgil

Ecologist who lent scientific credibility; later led Western Ghats Ecology Panel

7

Sugathakumari

Poet-activist; her poem Marathinu Stuthi became an emotional symbol of the protest

Silent Valley Movement Significance

  1. Silent Valley includes over 1000 species of flowering plants, 128 species of butterflies, and many endemic animals like the Lion-tailed macaque. The movement protected this ecosystem
  2. The Silent Valley Movement success led to the formation of India’s first National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) and later, the Environmental Protection Act, 1986.
  3. Silent Valley Movement was one of India’s first movements where common people, especially youth and intellectuals, understood the link between ecology and development.
  4. Movements like the Narmada Bachao Andolan, Appiko Movement, and Chipko Movement drew inspiration from Silent Valley’s peaceful yet impactful approach.
  5. It brought attention to the indigenous communities living in harmony with nature and helped prevent their displacement.

Silent Valley Movement Conservation

As a tropical evergreen rainforest Silent Valley, it is home to rare flora and fauna, including the endangered lion-tailed macaque. Recognising its ecological importance, the area was declared a National Park in 1984, ensuring that commercial activities and large-scale development projects are strictly prohibited.

  • Conservation of species like the Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, and Malabar civet.
  • Active prevention of illegal logging, fire outbreaks, and soil erosion.
  • Limited access for eco-tourists with strict guidelines to ensure minimal disruption.
  • Continued biodiversity documentation by the Kerala Forest Department and scientific institutes.
  • Designated as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, the park falls under the protected eco-sensitive zone.

Silent Valley Movement Result

  1. The Silent Valley Movement successfully stopped the construction of a hydroelectric dam that would have flooded the Silent Valley rainforest.
  2. Its success led to the declaration of Silent Valley as a National Park in 1984, granting it strong legal protection and making it a vital sanctuary for endangered species and rare plant life.
  3. The campaign played a key role in shaping India’s early environmental policies. It brought ecological concerns into national discourse and pushed policymakers to consider sustainability in development planning.
  4. The Silent Valley Movement drew attention both nationally and internationally. It became a model for environmental activism and inspired similar conservation efforts in other parts of the world.
  5. Beyond ecology, the campaign also safeguarded the rights of indigenous communities living in the region. It prevented their displacement and encouraged sustainable, community-led livelihoods.
  6. With its rich biodiversity, Silent Valley National Park has become a crucial hotspot for conservation efforts and ecological research in India.
  7. The movement sparked widespread public engagement with environmental issues, making more people aware of the value of protecting forests and natural habitats.
  8. It underscored the importance of balancing growth with ecological responsibility, laying the groundwork for India’s shift toward sustainable development.
  9. The Silent Valley Movement demanded greater transparency and accountability in decisions involving public resources and environmental impact.
  10. It empowered local communities and grassroots groups to stand up for their environment and actively participate in shaping decisions that affect their land and future.

Silent Valley Movement FAQs

Q1: What was the Silent Valley Movement?

Ans: It was an environmental movement launched in Kerala to prevent the construction of a hydroelectric dam in the Silent Valley rainforest.

Q2: Where is Silent Valley located?

Ans: It is in the Palakkad district of Kerala, in the Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats.

Q3: Who led the Silent Valley Movement?

Ans: It involved groups like KSSP, SVSS, scientists like Dr. Salim Ali, and activists like Sugathakumari.

Q4: Why was the Silent Valley important?

Ans: It harbors rich biodiversity, including endemic and endangered species, and is a tropical evergreen rainforest.

Q5: What was the government’s response to the movement?

Ans: In 1980, Indira Gandhi halted the project, and in 1984, the Silent Valley was declared a National Park.

Limited Liability Partnership (LLP), Meaning, Features, Significance

January 2, 2026
Limited Liability Partnership

What is a Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)?

A Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) is a modern form of business organization that combines the operational flexibility of a traditional partnership with the limited liability benefits of a company. It was introduced in India through the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008 to support professionals, MSMEs, and startups.

Limited Liability Partnership Features

  • Separate Legal Entity: An LLP has a legal identity distinct from its partners and can own property, enter contracts, and sue or be sued in its own name.
  • Limited Liability of Partners: Partners are liable only to the extent of their agreed capital contribution, protecting personal assets from business losses.
  • Perpetual Succession: The existence of an LLP is not affected by the death, retirement, or insolvency of any partner.
  • Flexible Internal Management: The rights and duties of partners are governed by an LLP Agreement, allowing operational flexibility.
  • No Minimum Capital Requirement: LLPs can be formed without any prescribed minimum capital investment.
  • Lower Compliance Burden: Compared to companies, LLPs have fewer filing, disclosure, and procedural requirements.
  • Limited Liability for Partner Misconduct: A partner is not responsible for the wrongful acts or negligence of other partners.
  • Ease of Formation and Closure: LLP registration and winding up procedures are simpler and cost-effective.
  • FDI Permissibility: LLPs are allowed to receive Foreign Direct Investment in permitted sectors under the automatic route.

Recent Amendments in LLP Act

  • Register of Partners (2023): LLPs must maintain a detailed register of partners at the registered office.
  • Beneficial Ownership Declaration: LLPs must obtain and maintain declarations of individuals holding beneficial interest.
  • The Limited Liability Partnership (Amendment) Rules, 2024 include the Centre for Processing Accelerated Corporate Exit (C-PACE) in LLP dissolution procedures.
  • Decriminalisation: Minor offences shifted from criminal to civil penalties for easier compliance.
  • Small LLPs Concept: Special compliance relaxations for micro and startup LLPs based on turnover/capital.
  • Updated MCA Filing: Annual filings (Form 8 & 11) and beneficial ownership disclosures now through MCA V3 portal.
  • The LLP (Amendment) Act, 2021 introduced the concept of “Small LLPs” to encourage startups and micro-businesses.

Role of LLP in Promoting Ease of Doing Business

  • Rapid Growth in LLPs: LLP registrations rose to nearly 59,000 in FY 2023–24, showing increased adoption by entrepreneurs and small businesses.
  • Formalisation of Economy: LLPs encourage informal businesses to enter the regulated sector due to simplified rules.
  • Lower Compliance Burden: Compared to companies, LLPs have fewer statutory requirements, reducing regulatory costs.
  • Flexible and Cost-Effective Setup: LLPs can be incorporated online with minimal capital and documentation, supporting startups.
  • Limited Liability Protection: Partners’ personal assets are protected, encouraging risk-taking and new ventures.
  • Sector Preference: Majority of LLPs (over 70%) are in the services sector, including professionals and knowledge-based businesses.
  • Support for MSMEs and Solo Entrepreneurs: LLPs provide legal security and simplified governance for small and solo enterprises.

Also Read: Reserve Bank of India

Limited Liability Partnership Significance

  • Promotes Entrepreneurship: Limited liability reduces personal risk, encouraging individuals to start and expand businesses.
  • Supports MSME Growth: LLPs provide a flexible and legally secure structure for small and medium enterprises.
  • Improves Ease of Doing Business: Fewer compliance requirements and simplified procedures lower the cost of doing business.
  • Encourages Formalization of Economy: Helps transition informal partnership firms into the organized sector.
  • Enhances Professional Services Sector: Ideal structure for law firms, CA firms, consultants, and knowledge-based services.
  • Strengthens Corporate Governance: Balances operational flexibility with legal accountability.
  • Boosts Investor Confidence: Separate legal entity and limited liability improve trust among investors and stakeholders.
  • Aligns with Global Business Practices: Brings Indian business structures in line with international standards.

Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) FAQs

Q1: What law governs LLPs in India?

Ans: LLPs are governed by the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008, along with related rules and amendments.

Q2: Is LLP better than a partnership firm?

Ans: Yes, LLPs offer limited liability, separate legal identity, and better credibility compared to traditional partnership firms.

Q3: Can an LLP raise FDI?

Ans: Yes, LLPs can receive 100% FDI under the automatic route in sectors where FDI is permitted without performance conditions.

Q4: Is audit mandatory for LLPs?

Ans: Audit is mandatory only if turnover exceeds ₹40 lakh or capital contribution exceeds ₹25 lakh.

Q5: Can an LLP be converted into a company?

Ans: Yes, an LLP can be converted into a private or public limited company by following prescribed legal procedures.

UPSC Daily Quiz 2 January 2026

January 2, 2026

[WpProQuiz 57]

UPSC Daily Quiz FAQs

Q1: What is the Daily UPSC Quiz?

Ans: The Daily UPSC Quiz is a set of practice questions based on current affairs, static subjects, and PYQs that help aspirants enhance retention and test conceptual clarity regularly.

Q2: How is the Daily Quiz useful for UPSC preparation?

Ans: Daily quizzes support learning, help in revision, improve time management, and boost accuracy for both UPSC Prelims and Mains through consistent practice.

Q3: Are the quiz questions based on the UPSC syllabus?

Ans: Yes, all questions are aligned with the UPSC Syllabus 2025, covering key areas like Polity, Economy, Environment, History, Geography, and Current Affairs.

Q4: Are solutions and explanations provided with the quiz?

Ans: Yes, each quiz includes detailed explanations and source references to enhance conceptual understanding and enable self-assessment.

Q5: Is the Daily UPSC Quiz suitable for both Prelims and Mains?

Ans: Primarily focused on Prelims (MCQ format), but it also indirectly helps in Mains by strengthening subject knowledge and factual clarity.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants, Definition, Classification

January 2, 2026
Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants are essential elements required in different quantities. Plant growth, development, and reproduction depend on a precise supply of these nutrients as chemical elements obtained from air, water, and soil. According to Justus von Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, plant growth is controlled not by total resources available, but by the scarcest essential nutrient. 

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants

The nutrients are basically classified as Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants. Macronutrients are needed in large amounts and include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Micronutrients are required in trace amounts and include iron, boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, and nickel. There are 17 essential elements required for plants to complete their life cycle. The deficiency or excess of even one element disrupts normal growth, yield, and survival.

Also Read: Plant Tissue

Macronutrients for Plants Classification

Macronutrients are essential elements required in large quantities, collectively contributing over 95% of plant dry biomass and supporting core metabolic and structural processes. The detailed classification of Macronutrients and their functions has been highlighted below:

1. Carbon (C)

Carbon forms the backbone of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and cellulose. Through photosynthesis, plants fix atmospheric carbon dioxide into sugars, storing chemical energy essential for growth, respiration, and structural development. Carbon deficiency rarely occurs naturally due to atmospheric abundance. However, restricted carbon dioxide availability limits photosynthesis, reducing biomass production, carbohydrate synthesis, and overall plant productivity. 

2. Hydrogen (H) 

Hydrogen is obtained mainly from water and plays a critical role in sugar formation, photosynthesis, respiration, and maintenance of proton gradients driving ATP synthesis in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Hydrogen deficiency arises under severe water stress, impairing photosynthesis and respiration. Toxicity is uncommon, as excess hydrogen ions are regulated through cellular buffering systems. 

3. Oxygen (O)

Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration and is a structural component of organic molecules. Plants absorb oxygen from air and soil water and release oxygen during photosynthesis. Oxygen deficiency occurs in waterlogged soils, limiting root respiration and nutrient uptake.

4. Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is a key component of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes, and chlorophyll. It constitutes 40-50% of plant protoplasm dry matter, driving vegetative growth and photosynthesis. Nitrogen deficiency causes stunted growth, chlorosis of older leaves, and anthocyanin accumulation. Excess nitrogen leads to excessive vegetative growth, delayed flowering, and nutrient imbalance. 

5. Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus is vital for ATP formation, nucleic acids, phospholipids, enzyme activation, energy transfer, and root development. It accumulates in seeds to support germination. Deficiency results in slow growth, dark green or purplish leaves, and poor root systems.

6. Potassium (K)

Potassium regulates enzyme activation, osmotic balance, stomatal movement, photosynthesis, carbohydrate transport, and stress tolerance. It enhances drought resistance, fruit quality, and cold tolerance. Potassium deficiency causes leaf margin necrosis, weak stems, lodging, and reduced stress resistance. Excess potassium interferes with magnesium and calcium uptake.

7. Calcium (Ca)

Calcium stabilizes cell walls through calcium pectate formation, supports root development, cell division, membrane integrity, enzyme activation, and intracellular signaling. Calcium deficiency causes poor root growth, leaf curling, blossom end rot, and tissue necrosis. Excess of calcium may reduce magnesium availability. 

8. Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is the central atom of chlorophyll and activates enzymes involved in respiration, photosynthesis, and nucleic acid synthesis. It facilitates phosphate transport within plants. Deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis in older leaves due to high mobility. Excess magnesium disrupts calcium uptake and soil structure.

9. Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is a constituent of amino acids like cysteine and methionine, vitamins, and iron-sulfur proteins. It supports chloroplast function, protein synthesis, and nitrogen metabolism. Sulfur deficiency appears in younger leaves as yellowing and stunted growth.

Also Read: Plant Kingdom

Micronutrients for Plants Classification

Micronutrients are required in trace amounts, typically measured in parts per million, yet they regulate critical enzymatic, physiological, and metabolic functions. The detailed classification and functions of the Micronutrients has been provided below:

1. Iron (Fe)

Iron acts as an enzyme cofactor in photosynthesis, respiration, and chlorophyll synthesis. It facilitates electron transport and redox reactions within plant cells. Deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis in young leaves. Toxicity may occur in acidic or waterlogged soils, damaging root systems. 

2. Boron (B)

Boron supports cell wall formation, sugar transport, pollen germination, flowering, fruiting, and membrane integrity, influencing reproductive success. Deficiency leads to death of growing points, poor fruit set, and malformed tissues. Toxicity occurs above 1 ppm in soil water. 

3. Chlorine (Cl)

Chlorine regulates osmotic balance, stomatal function, ionic equilibrium, and photosynthetic oxygen evolution, contributing to disease resistance. Deficiency is rare but affects wilting and root growth. Excess of chlorine causes leaf scorch in saline soils. 

4. Manganese (Mn)

Manganese activates enzymes involved in photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism, and chloroplast formation, supporting carbohydrate synthesis. Deficiency causes discolored spots and interveinal chlorosis. Excessivity results in brown spots and reduced root growth. 

5. Zinc (Zn)

Zinc regulates enzyme systems, DNA transcription, and auxin synthesis, controlling internode elongation and leaf expansion. Deficiency causes stunted growth and “little leaf” disorder. Excess zinc interferes with iron and manganese uptake. 

6. Copper (Cu)

Copper participates in photosynthesis, respiration, lignin synthesis, and enzyme activity, supporting grain formation and structural strength. Deficiency leads to chlorosis and weak stems. Toxicity damages root membranes and reduces microbial activity. 

7. Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum is essential for nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzymes, enabling nitrate reduction and biological nitrogen fixation. Deficiency impairs nitrogen metabolism and legume nodulation. 

8. Nickel (Ni)

Nickel activates urease, preventing urea accumulation and supporting nitrogen metabolism, especially in nitrogen fixing plants. Deficiency causes urea toxicity and necrosis. Excess nickel inhibits enzyme function and root growth.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants FAQs

Q1: What are Macronutrients for Plants?

Ans: Macronutrients are essential elements required in large amounts, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Q2: What are Micronutrients for Plants?

Ans: Micronutrients are elements needed in very small quantities, such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, boron, molybdenum, chlorine, and nickel.

Q3: Why are Micronutrients important despite being required in trace amounts?

Ans: Micronutrients activate enzymes, regulate metabolism, and support photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen utilization in plants.

Q4: What happens if there is a deficiency of Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Plants?

Ans: Nutrient deficiencies cause poor growth, chlorosis, low yield, weak roots, and reduced resistance to stress and diseases.

Q5: How do plants obtain Macronutrients and Micronutrients?

Ans: Plants absorb nutrients mainly from soil solution through roots, while carbon and oxygen are obtained from air and hydrogen from water.

Plant Tissue, Definition, Structure, Features, Classification, Functions

January 2, 2026
Plant Tissue

Plants are multicellular organisms that show a clear division of labour, where groups of similar cells work together to perform specific functions efficiently. Since plants are fixed in one place and cannot move, they require strong supportive structures to remain upright while carrying out processes like transport, storage, protection, and growth. These specialised cell groups are organised at specific locations in the plant body to maximise functional efficiency. This organised grouping of cells forms the basis of Plant Tissues, enabling survival, growth, and adaptation in diverse environments.

Plant Tissue

Plant Tissue refers to a group of structurally similar cells that work together to perform a particular function within the plant body. These cells originate from common meristematic regions and become specialised through differentiation. Unlike animals, plant growth is restricted to specific regions, making tissue organisation crucial for transport, support, protection, and food production. Examples of plant tissues include meristematic tissue, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem, and phloem.

Also Read: Plant Kingdom

Plant Tissue Features

Plant Tissue reflects sedentary adaptation, growth localisation, and functional efficiency across organs like roots, stems, and leaves, ensuring survival in terrestrial environments.

  • Cell Specialisation: Plant tissues consist of cells specialised for functions such as transport, storage, support, and protection, improving efficiency and reducing energy loss.
  • Localized Growth: Growth occurs only in specific regions due to the presence of meristematic tissues, unlike animals where growth is more uniform.
  • Supportive Dominance: A large proportion of plant tissues provide mechanical support, often composed of dead cells with thickened walls.
  • Division of Labour: Different tissues perform distinct roles like conduction, protection, and photosynthesis, preventing functional overlap.
  • Adaptation to Stationary Life: Tissue organisation supports upright growth, water transport against gravity, and reduced energy consumption.

Plant Tissue Structure

The structure of a Plant Tissue varies with function, cell type, and location, enabling efficient transport, support, protection, and metabolic activities.

  • Cell Wall Presence: Most plant tissues have cellulose rich cell walls, providing rigidity and resistance against mechanical stress.
  • Intercellular Spaces: Simple tissues like parenchyma possess large intercellular spaces facilitating gas exchange and storage.
  • Wall Thickening: Supportive tissues show uneven or lignin based wall thickening for flexibility or rigidity.
  • Living and Dead Cells: Some tissues remain living for metabolic activity, while others consist of dead cells for structural strength.
  • Vascular Organisation: Conducting tissues are arranged as vascular bundles, ensuring efficient internal transport.

Plant Tissue Classification

Plant Tissues are classified based on their ability to divide and the level of cellular specialisation. Majorly these are of two types:

  1. Meristematic Plant Tissue (Growing)
  2. Permanent Plant Tissue (Mature)
    1. Simple Permanent Plant Tissue
    2. Complex Permanent Plant Tissue

Meristematic Plant Tissue

Meristematic Plant Tissue consists of actively dividing cells responsible for continuous plant growth at specific regions. The figure of Meristematic Tissue has been given below for reference:

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Meristematic-Plant-Tissue.webp" size="full" align="none" width="auto" height="451px" alt="Meristematic Plant Tissue" title="Meristematic Plant Tissue"]

  • Apical Meristem: Located at root and shoot tips, it increases plant length by producing new cells for primary growth.
  • Lateral Meristem: Present as cambium, it increases stem and root thickness through secondary growth.
  • Intercalary Meristem: Found near nodes, it enables rapid elongation in plants like grasses.
  • Cell Characteristics: Cells are small, thin walled, dense in cytoplasm, have prominent nuclei, and lack vacuoles.

Permanent Plant Tissue

Permanent Plant Tissue arises when meristematic cells differentiate, lose the ability to divide, and acquire specific structures and functions. On the basis of functions, Permanent Tissues are classified as:

  1. Dermal Tissue: It forms the outer layer of the plant. Eg: Epidermis.
  2. Vascular Tissue: It performs the transportation of water and nutrients within the plant. Eg: Xylem and Phloem.
  3. Ground Tissue: It forms the basic structure of the plant. Eg: Parenchyma, Chlorenchyma, Aerenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.

On the basis of structure, the Permanent Plant Tissue can be classified as: Simple and Complex Tissues as given below:

1. Simple Permanent Plant Tissue

Simple Permanent Plant Tissues consist of one type of cell performing a single major function.

The figure of simple permanent tissue has been given here:

  Simple Permanent Plant Tissue

  • Parenchyma: Living, thin walled cells with large spaces, primarily involved in food storage and basic metabolism.
  • Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma containing chlorophyll, enabling photosynthesis in leaves and green stems.
  • Aerenchyma: Parenchyma with large air cavities that aid buoyancy in aquatic plants.
  • Collenchyma: Living cells with unevenly thickened corners, providing flexibility and mechanical support.
  • Sclerenchyma: Dead cells with lignified walls, imparting hardness and strength to seeds, stems, and husks.
  • Epidermis: Single layered protective tissue preventing water loss, mechanical injury, and pathogen entry.
  • Stomata: Epidermal pores regulated by guard cells for gas exchange and transpiration.
  • Root Hairs: Epidermal extensions increasing surface area for water and mineral absorption.
  • Cork Tissue: Dead, compact cells with suberin, forming an impermeable protective layer in older stems.

2. Complex Permanent Plant Tissue

Complex Permanent Plant Tissues consist of different cell types working together for a common function. The diagram representing the Complex Permanent Tissue has been given here:

[my_image src="https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Complex-Permanent-Plant-Tissue.webp" size="full" align="none" width="auto" height="549px" alt="Complex Permanent Plant Tissue" title="Complex Permanent Plant Tissue"]

  • Xylem: Conducts water and minerals upward using tracheids, vessels, parenchyma, and fibres.
  • Tracheids and Vessels: Thick walled tubular cells that enable vertical water transport.
  • Xylem Parenchyma: Stores food and assists lateral conduction.
  • Xylem Fibres: Provide mechanical strength to vascular bundles.
  • Phloem: Transports food from leaves to other plant parts.
  • Sieve Tubes: Tubular cells with perforated walls allowing nutrient flow.
  • Companion Cells: Regulate sieve tube function and metabolic control.
  • Phloem Parenchyma: Stores food and supports transport processes.
  • Phloem Fibres: Provide structural support and are the only dead cells in phloem.

Plant Tissue Functions

Plant Tissues collectively support growth, transport, protection, and metabolic efficiency essential for plant survival.

  • Growth Regulation: Meristematic tissues ensure continuous growth throughout the plant’s life.
  • Transport System: Xylem and phloem maintain internal circulation of water, minerals, and food.
  • Mechanical Support: Collenchyma and sclerenchyma maintain plant posture and resistance.
  • Photosynthesis: Chlorenchyma enables food production using sunlight.
  • Protection: Epidermis and cork prevent dehydration and pathogen invasion.
  • Storage: Parenchyma stores food, water, and metabolic products.

Plant Tissue FAQs

Q1: What is Plant Tissue?

Ans: Plant tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function like growth, transport, storage, or protection.

Q2: Why are Plant Tissues important?

Ans: Plant tissues ensure efficient division of labour, allowing plants to grow, transport food and water, and survive in different environments.

Q3: What are the main types of Plant Tissues?

Ans: Plant tissues are mainly classified into meristematic tissues (dividing/ growing tissues) and permanent tissues (non dividing/ mature tissues).

Q4: Which Plant Tissue is responsible for growth?

Ans: Meristematic tissue is responsible for plant growth as its cells continuously divide throughout the plant’s life.

Q5: What is the function of Vascular Plant Tissues?

Ans: Vascular tissues are Xylem and Phloem which transport water, minerals, and food to different parts of the plant.

Districts of India, State Wise Number of Districts, Population

January 2, 2026
Districts of India

India comprises 28 states and 8 Union Territories which further subdivided into multiple districts. These Districts of India are the administrative divisions, facilitating governance, public administration, and the execution of government initiatives. The district is administered by a District Collector or District Magistrate. As of 2026, India has nearly 800 districts spread across its 28 states and 8 Union Territories. The number of districts has steadily increased over time due to administrative reorganization and population growth

What are Districts?

In India, a district serves as the administrative body within a state or Union Territory which is governed by a District Magistrate (DM) or District Collector who operates as a semi-autonomous body, overseeing the implementation of government policies, maintaining law and order, managing revenue collection, and developmental initiatives. To make the administration process smoother, districts are further divided into talukas, tehsils, or subdivisions.

Current Number of Districts in India

By the records of 2024, there are 800 Districts of India, with a latest update of 787 Districts of India, from which Uttar Pradesh has 75 districts, Rajasthan includes 50 districts, and Tamil Nadu with 38 districts.

  • Total number of districts: Around 800
  • Source for data: Government of India’s Local Government Directory 
  • Key states with high district count: Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu

List of Districts of India State Wise

Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of districts in India, with a total population of 199,812,341. In contrast, Goa has the fewest districts, with just two, and a population of 1,458,545.

List of Districts of India State Wise
S.No. State/Union Territory No. of districts Population

1

Uttar Pradesh

75

199,812,341

2

Madhya Pradesh

57

72,626,809

3

Rajasthan

55

68,548,437

4

Bihar

38

104,099,452

5

Tamil Nadu

38

72,147,030

6

Maharashtra

36

112,374,333

7

Assam

35

31,205,576

8

Gujarat

33

60,439,692

9

Telangana

33

35,003,674

10

Chhattisgarh

33

25,545,198

11

Karnataka

31

61,095,297

12

West Bengal

30

91,276,115

13

Odisha

30

41,974,218

14

Andhra Pradesh

26

49,577,103

15

Arunachal Pradesh

26

1,383,727

16

Jharkhand

24

32,988,134

17

Punjab

23

27,743,338

18

Haryana

22

25,351,462

19

Uttarakhand

17

10,086,292

20

Manipur

16

2,570,390

21

Nagaland

16

1,978,502

22

Kerala

14

33,406,061

23

Himachal Pradesh

13

6,864,602

24

Meghalaya

12

2,966,889

25

Mizoram

11

1,097,206

26

Tripura

8

3,673,917

27

Sikkim

6

610,577

28

Goa

2

1,458,545

List of Districts in Union Territory

Jammu and Kashmir has the highest number of districts among Union Territories, with a total of 20 and a population of 12,258,093. On the other hand, Lakshadweep has the fewest, comprising just one district with a population of 64,473.

List of Districts in Union Territory
Sno. Union Territory No. of districts Population

1

Jammu and Kashmir

20

12,258,093

2

Delhi

11

16,787,941

3

Puducherry

4

1,247,953

4

Ladakh

4

290,492

5

Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

3

586,956

6

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

3

380,581

7

Chandigarh

1

1,055,450

8

Lakshadweep

1

64,473

Largest and Smallest District in India

  1. Largest district: Kutch, Gujarat, with an area of 45,652 km2
  2. Smallest district: Mahé, Puducherry, with an area of 8.69 km2
  3. Most populated district: North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, with a population of 10,082,852
  4. Least populated district: Dibang Valley, Arunachal Pradesh, with a population of 8,004

Largest District in India

Kachchh district in Gujarat is the Largest District in India. It shares its northern and northwestern borders with Pakistan and its northeastern boundary with Rajasthan. Covering an area of 45,674 square kilometers, it accounts for 23.27% of Gujarat’s total geographical area.

Smallest District in India

Mahe is one of the four districts of the Union Territory of Puducherry, covering the entire Mahe region. It holds the distinction of being the smallest district in India by area. Completely surrounded by the North Malabar region of Kerala, Mahe stands as an enclave within the state.

Most Populated District in India

As per the Census 2011, Thane district in Maharashtra was the most populated District in India, with a population of 11,060,148. On the other hand, Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh had the lowest population, with just 8,004 population. The most populous states in the country include Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Bihar. Below is a list of the top 10 Most Populated District in India as of December 19, 2023, based on provisional population estimates for Q2 FY 2023-24.

Most Populated District in India
S.No. District State Population (lakhs)**

1

Thane

Maharashtra

180.55

2

North 24 Parganas

West Bengal

160.9

3

Bangalore

Karnataka

126.7

4

Delhi East

Delhi

120.12

5

Delhi North

Delhi

118.34

6

Mumbai Suburban

Maharashtra

115.06

7

Kolkata

West Bengal

112.09

8

Hyderabad

Telangana

95.7

9

Pune

Maharashtra

94.27

10

Ahmedabad

Gujarat

87.79

Districts of India FAQs

Q1: How many districts are in India?

Ans: As of 2024, India has approximately 800 districts.

Q2: Which is the 36 district in India?

Ans: Maharashtra is divided into 36 districts, which are grouped into six divisions.

Q3: Are there 75 districts in UP?

Ans: Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state in India, has 75 districts and 1 temporary district.

Q4: Which is India's biggest district?

Ans: Kachchh district of Gujarat is the largest district in India.

Q5: Which is the 1st district in India?

Ans: Salem district was the first district to be formed in India on 4 April 1792 that spread over 7,530 km2.

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 January 2026

January 2, 2026
Daily Editorial Analysis

Mandating Student Presence, Erasing Learning 

 

Context

  • The Delhi High Court’s decision allowing law students to appear for examinations without fulfilling rigid attendance requirements has revived a critical debate in Indian higher education.
  • While administrators fear a decline in discipline, the ruling exposes a deeper misunderstanding of how learning occurs.
  • Compulsory attendance equates obedience with learning, reflecting a bureaucratic and paternalistic model of education.
  • Rather than weakening academic standards, the judgment challenges universities to reconsider whether education should rely on surveillance or on curiosity, autonomy, and intellectual engagement.

 

The Fallacy of Attendance as a Measure of Learning

  • Attendance is often treated as evidence of seriousness and commitment, yet physical presence guarantees neither attention nor understanding.
  • Attendance measures compliance, not intellectual engagement. This fixation thrives where classrooms have been reduced to routine delivery of notes and predictable content.
  • When teaching lacks vitality, institutions substitute inspiration with enforcement.
  • Instead of examining why students disengage, responsibility is displaced onto attendance policies that conceal pedagogical inadequacies.

 

Pedagogy, Autonomy, and the Role of the Teacher

  • Coercive education produces neither depth nor seriousness. Meaningful pedagogy demands confidence in the teacher’s ability to create intellectual value.
  • Absence should provoke reflection, not punishment. This view aligns with Paulo Freire’s rejection of the banking model of education, which treats students as passive recipients.
  • For Freire, learning emerges through dialogue, questioning, and shared inquiry. Education thrives on autonomy and dialogue, not compulsion.
  • Compulsory attendance undermines this vision by privileging discipline over thought.

 

Exemplary Teaching and the Power of Voluntary Engagement

  • The history of education demonstrates that great teachers never relied on enforcement.
  • Figures such as Isaiah Berlin, Terry Eagleton, Germaine Greer, Christopher Bayly, and Frank Kermode drew students through intellectual craftsmanship, originality, and passion.
  • Their lectures were meticulously prepared, emotionally resonant, and intellectually provocative. Students attended not out of obligation but anticipation.
  • Such teaching rendered absence unnecessary by making learning compelling.

 

Learning Beyond the Classroom

  • Transformative learning often occurs when institutional rigidity dissolves.
  • Reading Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey within natural landscapes or engaging with Thoreau’s Walden outdoors allows texts to emerge as living provocations rather than static artefacts.
  • Students interpret, debate, and reflect independently.
  • These experiences reveal learning in its most fundamental form, rooted in curiosity, dialogue, and personal engagement rather than prescribed metrics.

 

Contemporary Knowledge and the Obsolescence of Coercion

  • In an age of digital archives, open-access scholarship, and artificial intelligence tools, compulsory physical presence appears increasingly outdated.
  • Leading global universities trust students’ intellectual maturity and rely on pedagogical quality rather than surveillance.
  • Their authority stems from confidence in teaching, not monitoring. In contrast, Indian universities have become burdened by bureaucratic overreach and administrative control.
  • Mandatory attendance functions within this framework as a tool of pacification, restricting autonomy and critical inquiry.

 

The Philosophical Stakes of the Attendance Debate

  • The attendance debate is fundamentally philosophical. It asks whether universities regard students as autonomous thinkers or as wards requiring constant supervision.
  • Institutions that prioritise attendance over engagement betray their purpose of cultivating critical minds capable of questioning society.
  • Coercion emerges where pedagogy lacks confidence. The High Court’s ruling challenges this erosion by restoring trust in students’ intellectual agency.

 

Conclusion

  • By separating attendance from examination eligibility, the Delhi High Court affirms a foundational educational principle: Intellectual engagement cannot be legislated.
  • Learning flourishes only where freedom, curiosity, and dialogue are central. The ruling compels educators to rethink teaching itself and encourages institutions to replace coercion with creativity.
  • If embraced earnestly, it offers Indian higher education an opportunity to reclaim the university as a space of inquiry, discovery, and intellectual vitality rather than bureaucratic discipline.

 

 

Mandating Student Presence, Erasing Learning FAQs

 Q1. Why does compulsory attendance fail as a measure of learning?
Ans. Compulsory attendance measures physical presence and compliance but does not guarantee intellectual engagement or understanding.

Q2. What educational model does the essay criticise through the attendance debate?
Ans. The essay criticises a bureaucratic and paternalistic model that prioritises control over curiosity and autonomy.

Q3. How does Paulo Freire’s philosophy relate to the argument against compulsory attendance?
Ans. Paulo Freire’s philosophy emphasises dialogue and critical inquiry, which are undermined by coercive attendance policies.

Q4. Why did renowned teachers not need to enforce attendance?
Ans. Renowned teachers attracted students through intellectually compelling and well-crafted teaching rather than administrative compulsion.

Q5. What broader opportunity does the High Court ruling create for universities?
Ans. The ruling creates an opportunity for universities to rethink pedagogy and prioritise meaningful engagement over surveillance.

Source: The Hindu

EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) - Implications for India’s Steel and Aluminium Exports

 

Context:

  • From 1 January 2026, the European Union (EU) will effectively impose a carbon-linked import tax under the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) on select carbon-intensive products, including steel and aluminium.
  • Though certificate payments begin in 2027, the price impact starts immediately in 2026, significantly affecting Indian exporters.
  • This marks a structural shift in global trade, where carbon intensity becomes a determinant of competitiveness.

 

What is CBAM:

  • CBAM is the EU’s instrument to extend its carbon pricing regime (EU Emissions Trading System – ETS) to imports, preventing carbon leakage (shifting production to countries with weaker climate norms).
  • Covered sectors (Phase I): Steel, Aluminium, Cement, Fertilisers, Electricity, Hydrogen (and more sectors likely to be added).
  • Key objective: It will ensure a level playing field between EU producers and foreign exporters by pricing carbon emissions embedded in imports.

 

How CBAM Works:

  • Basis of taxation: CBAM liability depends on -
    • Plant-level carbon emissions during production.
    • EU carbon price (equivalent to €80 per tonne of CO₂):
      • Only Scope 1 (direct fuel) and Scope 2 (electricity) emissions are counted.
      • No company-wide averages; only the exact supplying plant matters.
      • Emissions from mining, transport, or product use are excluded.
    • Who pays:
      • EU importers officially buy CBAM certificates.
      • Actual burden is passed to Indian exporters through lower prices and tougher contracts.

 

Impact on Indian Steel and Aluminium Exports:

  • Shrinking margins:

    • 16–22% reduction in realised prices.
    • Example:
      • Blast Furnace–Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF) steel emits almost 2.4 tonnes CO₂/tonne
      • CBAM cost equivalent to €192 per tonne
      • Exporter bears €95–€133 per tonne after cost pass-through
      • €600 sale price falls to €467–505
    • Export decline:
      • In FY2025, India exported $5.8 billion worth of steel and aluminium to the EU — 24% lower than the previous year — despite no carbon tax.
      • The decline began after new EU rules took effect in October 2023, requiring exporters to report plant-level carbon emissions under CBAM’s transition phase.
      • Compliance costs, data gaps, and verification hurdles forced many Indian firms to scale back exports well before CBAM formally became a tax.

 

Compliance and Verification Challenges:

  • Mandatory plant-level emissions reporting.
  • Risk of default CBAM values (30–80% higher than actual emissions) if data is missing.
  • From 2026, data must be verified by ISO 14065 / EU-approved auditors.
  • Limited availability of eligible Indian auditors.

 

Impacts:

  • On contracts and trade practices:

    • Renegotiation of long-term contracts.
    • Introduction of CBAM adjustment clauses, dual pricing (base price + CBAM-linked price), and price revisions linked to changes in EU carbon prices.
    • Reduced bargaining power of Indian exporters.

  • Production routes and differential impact:

    • CBAM rewards cleaner production -
      • Highest burden: Coal-based BF–BOF steel
      • Moderate burden: Gas-based DRI
      • Lowest burden: Scrap-based / Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steel

  • Equity and protectionism concerns:

    • EU carbon price (almost €80) applied uniformly, even to developing countries.
    • Comparison: China’s carbon price is equivalent to 10% of EU level. India has no nationwide carbon tax.
    • Raises concerns of climate inequity, disguised protectionism, and revenue generation under the garb of climate action.
    • Irony: Steel and aluminium (equivalent to 10% of global emissions) are now among the most protected sectors in developed economies (EU CBAM + US 50% tariff).

 

Challenges for India:

  • Absence of a national carbon pricing mechanism.
  • High dependence on coal-based steel.
  • Weak carbon accounting and verification ecosystem.
  • Risk of losing EU market share (22% of India’s steel and aluminium exports).
  • Slower industrial growth with minimal global emission reduction impact.

 

Way Forward:

  • At the international level: Seek CBAM resolution or exemptions in India–EU FTA negotiations. Push for differentiated responsibilities reflecting development levels.
  • At the domestic level:
    • Strengthen carbon accounting frameworks.
    • Build capacity of emissions auditors.
    • Support transition to gas-based DRI, scrap-based or electric arc furnace (EAF) steel
    • Encourage green steel through incentives, technology upgrades, and financing.
    • Prepare exporters for data discipline and contract restructuring.

 

Conclusion:

  • CBAM is not a temporary compliance hurdle, but a fundamental reordering of global trade rules where carbon becomes a trade currency.
  • For Indian steel and aluminium exporters, continued access to the EU market will depend on accurate emissions measurement, verified data, cleaner production routes, and strategic trade negotiations.
  • In the emerging low-carbon trade regime, competitiveness will be defined not only by cost efficiency, but by carbon efficiency — a critical insight for India’s industrial and trade policy going forward.

 

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) FAQs

Q1. What is the CBAM and why has the EU introduced it?

Ans. CBAM is an EU mechanism that taxes imports based on embedded carbon emissions to prevent carbon leakage.

Q2. How will CBAM impact India’s steel and aluminium exports to the EU?

Ans. CBAM is likely to reduce Indian exporters’ realised prices by 16–22%, weaken bargaining power, etc.

Q3. Why does the absence of a nationwide carbon pricing mechanism in India increase CBAM’s burden on Indian exporters?

Ans. Since India does not price carbon domestically, EU importers cannot claim deductions, forcing Indian exporters to bear the full CBAM charge.

Q4. Why is plant-level emissions data critical for Indian exporters under CBAM?

Ans. CBAM is based on verified plant-specific Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions, and lack of data leads to inflated default values.

Q5. In what way does CBAM influence production choices and industrial strategy in India?

Ans. CBAM incentivises a shift from coal-based BF–BOF steel to cleaner routes such as gas-based DRI to remain globally competitive.

Source: IE

 

Daily Editorial Analysis 2 January 2026 FAQs

Q1: What is editorial analysis?

Ans: Editorial analysis is the critical examination and interpretation of newspaper editorials to extract key insights, arguments, and perspectives relevant to UPSC preparation.

Q2: What is an editorial analyst?

Ans: An editorial analyst is someone who studies and breaks down editorials to highlight their relevance, structure, and usefulness for competitive exams like the UPSC.

Q3: What is an editorial for UPSC?

Ans: For UPSC, an editorial refers to opinion-based articles in reputed newspapers that provide analysis on current affairs, governance, policy, and socio-economic issues.

Q4: What are the sources of UPSC Editorial Analysis?

Ans: Key sources include editorials from The Hindu and Indian Express.

Q5: Can Editorial Analysis help in Mains Answer Writing?

Ans: Yes, editorial analysis enhances content quality, analytical depth, and structure in Mains answer writing.

Cyclone Ditwah, Origin, Naming, IMD Forecast, Impact

January 2, 2026
Cyclone Ditwah

Cyclone Ditwah is the latest tropical cyclone to form over the Southwest Bay of Bengal in November 2025. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has issued multiple alerts for Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh as the system continues to intensify.

The article below discusses the origin, naming, IMD Forecast and Impact of Cyclone Ditwah.

Cyclone Ditwah Origin

Cyclone Ditwah originated from a well-marked low-pressure area over the Southwest Bay of Bengal on 26 November 2025.

Key developing factors include:

  • Warm Sea Surface Temperatures (28-30°C): essential energy source for cyclogenesis.
  • Low Vertical Wind Shear (10-15 knots): enabling vertical development of clouds.
  • Moisture-rich monsoonal winds feed the system.
  • The system intensified from a low-pressure system to a depression to a deep depression and finally converted into a cyclonic storm within 24-36 hours.

Cyclone Ditwah Naming

  • “Ditwah” is a name given by Yemen, as per the WMO-ESCAP (World Meteorological Organization & UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific) cyclone naming list.
  • The name refers to Detwah Lagoon, an ecologically significant coastal waterbody located in the Socotra Archipelago.
  • Names are assigned sequentially from a pre-approved list contributed by 13 member countries, which includes Bangladesh, India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Cyclone Ditwah IMD Forecast

According to the latest IMD bulletins:

  • The system is likely to move north-northwestwards towards the Tamil Nadu-Puducherry-South Andhra Pradesh coast.
  • Expected peak wind speeds: 70-90 km/h, with possible higher gusts near the centre.
  • Landfall prediction: Around 30 November 2025, depending on its track and intensification.
  • IMD has issued:
    • Red Alert for heavy to very heavy rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu & Puducherry.
    • Orange Alert for South Andhra Pradesh districts.
    • Fishermen Warning: Total suspension of fishing in the Southwest and West-Central Bay of Bengal.
    • Sea Condition: Very rough to high.

Cyclone Ditwah and Operation Sagar Bandhu

India has expressed heartfelt condolences to the people of Sri Lanka affected by Cyclone Ditwah and wished for their safety and quick recovery. 

To support emergency needs, India has urgently dispatched relief materials and HADR assistance under Operation Sagar Bandhu. Guided by the Neighbourhood First policy and Vision MAHASAGAR, India remains committed to helping Sri Lanka during this crisis.

Why Cyclones Mostly Form in the Bay of Bengal

The Bay of Bengal is a major cyclogenesis zone, especially in the post-monsoon months (October–December). 

Reasons include:

  • Higher Sea Surface Temperatures than the Arabian Sea due to weaker heat dissipation.
  • Freshwater influx from major rivers (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy) creating layered warm water, ideal for cyclone formation.
  • Low vertical wind shear in the region.
  • Favourable Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) phases enhancing convection.
  • Geographical funnel-shape, amplifying wind convergence.
  • Warm ocean eddies that energize depressions.

Because of these factors, nearly 75% of North Indian Ocean cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal.

Cyclone Ditwah Impact

Cyclone Ditwah Impact on Sri Lanka

  • Sri Lanka has already faced widespread flooding, landslides, and severe storm damage.
  • As per early reports: 120+ deaths, dozens injured, and significant displacement.
  • Transport routes, bridges, and communication lines were disrupted in multiple districts.

Cyclone Ditwah Expected Impact on India

  • Heavy to extremely heavy rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh.
  • Urban flooding likely in Chennai, Cuddalore, and Puducherry.
  • Strong winds may uproot trees, disrupt power supply, and damage kutcha structures.
  • Agricultural losses possible in paddy fields, banana crops, and coastal fisheries.
  • High waves & storm surge threatening low-lying coastal belts.

Cyclone Ditwah FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Ditwah?

Ans: A tropical cyclone that formed over the Southwest Bay of Bengal in and is moving towards the South Indian coast.

Q2: Who named the cyclone “Ditwah”?

Ans: Yemen. The name refers to Detwah Lagoon in the Socotra Archipelago.

Q3: Which states in India will be affected?

Ans: Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, and South Andhra Pradesh are expected to see heavy rainfall, strong winds, and rough seas.

Q4: Why do more cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal?

Ans: Due to warm sea temperatures, low wind shear, humid monsoonal winds, riverine freshwater layers, and favourable geography.

Q5: Will Cyclone Ditwah impact North India?

Ans: No major impact expected. Only minor temperature or wind changes may occur depending on the system’s movement.

Local Winds in India, Formation, Types, Examples, Importance

January 2, 2026
Local Winds

Local Winds are winds that blow over short distances and are shaped by geographic features such as mountains, valleys, coastlines, or deserts. Unlike global winds, which circulate over vast regions, local winds are temporary, predictable, and specific to a particular area.

They form due to differences in temperature and air pressure within a localized region, for example, between land and water or between high and low elevations. These Local Winds play an important role in influencing daily weather patterns.

Local Winds

Local Winds occur across the world and differ from global winds such as the trade winds or westerlies. They blow over small areas and usually last for a short period. Their direction and strength are influenced by local landforms, sea temperatures, and prevailing weather conditions.

These winds are especially common in coastal regions, mountain valleys, and deserts. They are generally predictable, often following regular patterns depending on the time of day or season. Farmers, fishermen, and travelers frequently rely on local winds for planning and safety.

Many Local Winds have distinct names and characteristics. Examples include the Loo in India and the Chinook in North America. These winds play a key role in shaping regional climates and daily weather patterns.

Local Winds Formation

Local winds are primarily shaped by temperature-driven pressure differences, terrain features, and surface characteristics such as vegetation and urban areas. These winds develop over specific regions and often follow predictable patterns:

  • Temperature-Driven Pressure Gradients: Land heats and cools faster than water, giving rise to sea breezes during the day, when cool air moves from sea to land, and land breezes at night, when cool air flows from land to sea. Similarly, valleys and mountains produce valley breezes, as warm air rises up slopes during the day, and mountain breezes, when cool air descends at night.
  • Topographic Influence: Slopes and elevation changes generate anabatic winds (upward-moving warm air) and katabatic winds (downward-moving cold air, such as the strong gusts in Antarctica). Mountain ranges can also force air to ascend and cool, producing Foehn winds warm, dry winds on the leeward side of mountains, exemplified by the Chinook in North America.
  • Urban and Vegetation Effects: Cities create urban heat islands, where hot air rises from buildings, generating localized winds. Forested areas can produce katabatic winds as cooled air flows downward into valleys.

Local Winds Types

Local Winds vary based on direction, region, and season. Some of the most common types around the world include:

  • Sea Breeze: Blows from the sea toward the land during the day. It brings cooler air, lowering temperatures in coastal areas.
  • Land Breeze: Moves from land to sea at night. It is cooler and drier compared to the sea breeze.
  • Valley Breeze: Occurs during the day as warm air rises from the valley floor and moves uphill.
  • Mountain Breeze: Happens at night when cool air flows down slopes into the valley.
  • Loo: A hot, dry wind in northern India during summer. It can cause heatstroke and damage crops.
  • Chinook: A warm, dry wind on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It quickly melts snow and raises temperatures.

Local Winds Examples

Some of the well-known Local Winds from different regions are:

Local Winds Examples

Name

Nature of Wind

Location/Region

Effects/Impact

Chinook

Hot, dry

Eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains (North America)

Rapid snowmelt, temperature rise, drying of soil

Foehn

Hot, dry

The Alps (Europe)

Warms the leeward side of mountains, reduces humidity, can trigger avalanches

Mistral

Cold, strong

France and the Alps

Lowers temperature, clears clouds, brings dry conditions

Sirocco

Hot, moist (sometimes dry)

Sahara to the Mediterranean Sea

Causes dust storms, high humidity, and discomfort

Bora

Cold, dry, gusty

Eastern Europe to northeastern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia

Sudden temperature drop, strong gusts, hazardous for shipping

Harmattan

Hot, dry, dusty

West Africa

Reduces humidity, carries dust, affects health and visibility

Santa Ana

Hot, dry

Southern California

Raises wildfire risk, heats the region, dries out vegetation

Khamsin

Hot, dry

Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean

Sandstorms, high temperatures, discomfort, affects agriculture

Loo

Hot, dry

Northern India and Pakistan

Heatwaves, crop damage, health risks like heatstroke

Cape Doctor

Dry, southeasterly

South African coast

Clears air pollution, dries vegetation, influences coastal weather

Local Winds in India

The table below provides an overview of some of the most prominent Local Winds in India, highlighting their nature, regions of occurrence, seasonal patterns, and impacts. These winds play a significant role in shaping local weather and climate, influencing agriculture, daily life, and regional temperature variations.

Local Winds in India

Name

Nature

Region

Season

Impact/Effects

Loo

Hot, dry, dusty

Northern India (Indo-Gangetic plains)

Summer (April–June)

Causes extreme heat, discomfort, health risks like heatstroke

Mango Showers

Pre-monsoon rains, sometimes with thunderstorms

Southern India (Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

Late April–June

Helps ripening of mangoes, signals onset of southwest monsoon

Nor’westers (Kal Baisakhi)

Violent thunderstorms with strong winds and hail

West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, surrounding areas

Pre-monsoon (April–May)

Can damage crops and property; provides relief from summer heat

Sea Breeze / Land Breeze

Gentle winds: sea to land (day) and land to sea (night)

Coastal areas (Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata)

Throughout the year, pronounced in summer

Moderates coastal temperatures

Aandhi

Dust storms with strong winds

Northern and northwestern India (Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, UP)

Pre-monsoon (April–June)

Reduces visibility, respiratory problems, hazardous for travelers

Role of Local Winds in Weather and Climate Patterns

India experiences a diverse range of local winds due to its varied topography, coastline, and climatic zones. These winds are generally short-lived and region-specific, but they have a significant impact on local weather, agriculture, and daily life. From the scorching and dusty Loo of the northern plains to the cooling sea breezes along the coasts, and from pre-monsoon storms like Nor’westers to seasonal showers such as Mango Showers, local winds in India shape temperature, rainfall patterns, and even crop cycles across different regions.

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Local Winds FAQs

Q1: What are the 4 types of local winds?

Ans: Local winds include land and sea breezes, mountain and valley winds, katabatic winds, and foehn/Chinook winds, varying due to topography and temperature differences.

Q2: What are local winds?

Ans: Local winds are winds blowing over short distances, influenced by terrain, temperature, and pressure differences, unlike global winds that follow planetary circulation patterns.

Q3: What are the local winds of India?

Ans: India’s local winds include Loo (summer plains), Mountain and Valley winds (Himalayas), Sea and Land breezes (coasts), and Foehn winds (Himalayan leeward side).

Q4: What are the 4 types of wind?

Ans: Winds are classified as local, seasonal (monsoon), global (trade, westerlies, polar), and periodic winds based on scale, duration, and origin.

Q5: What are category 4 winds?

Ans: Category 4 winds refer to cyclone classification on the Saffir-Simpson scale, with wind speeds 209-251 km/h causing severe damage.

Rise of Nationalism in India, Major Events, Significance

January 2, 2026
Rise of Nationalism in India

The Rise of Nationalism in India marked a turning point in the country’s history. It began taking shape in the late 19th century, when Indians started developing a shared sense of identity and purpose against British rule. What began as an awakening of collective unity soon grew into a powerful movement that challenged colonial domination. This spirit of nationalism not only inspired reforms and resistance but also laid the groundwork for the freedom struggle that contributed to independence in 1947.

Nationalism in India

Nationalism is the belief and movement that stresses loyalty and devotion to one’s nation. It calls on people to unite around shared identity, history, language, culture, and common aspirations. Often, nationalism grows stronger when a country faces domination or injustice at the hands of outside powers. At its core, it stands for self-rule and collective unity.

Nationalism in India took shape as a response to British colonial rule. The experience of foreign exploitation gradually made Indians recognize their shared past and common future. Literature, social reform, and cultural revival nurtured this collective spirit. Over time, this idea of unity transformed into a powerful movement that bound Indians together in the struggle for independence.

Rise of Nationalism in India

Several developments in the 19th and early 20th centuries pushed Indians toward nationalism:

  • British Rule and Exploitation: Heavy taxation, economic drain, and racial discrimination bred deep resentment.
  • Western Education: Exposure to ideas of liberty, equality, and democracy from European revolutions inspired educated Indians to demand similar rights.
  • Economic Hardship: The collapse of Indian handicrafts, decline of industries, and suffering of farmers revealed the exploitative nature of colonial rule.
  • Social and Religious Reform Movements: Thinkers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda fought social evils and revived cultural pride, fostering unity.
  • Rise of the Press: Regional newspapers and journals spread nationalist thought, evaluate British policies, and mobilise public opinion.
  • Indian National Congress (1885): Provided a common political platform for Indians to voice grievances and demand reforms.
  • Racial Discrimination: Unequal treatment in jobs, education, and law reinforced the need for collective resistance.

Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events

The growth of nationalism in India was not sudden but shaped through a series of turning points. Each major event deepened the people’s resolve against colonial rule and brought India closer to freedom. The table below highlights Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events:

Rise of Nationalism in India Major Events

Event

Year

Significance

Formation of Indian National Congress

1885

Created a political platform for Indians; initially sought reforms but later led the independence struggle.

Partition of Bengal

1905

Sparked the Swadeshi Movement; promoted boycott of British goods and use of indigenous products.

Home Rule Movement

1916

Led by Tilak and Annie Besant, popularized the demand for self-rule across India.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

1919

Massacre of unarmed civilians by British troops in Amritsar; intensified anti-British sentiment.

Non-Cooperation Movement

1920-22

Gandhi’s nationwide movement; boycott of British institutions and goods; united masses in resistance.

Civil Disobedience Movement (Salt March)

1930-34

Gandhi’s Salt March challenged colonial salt laws; inspired widespread nonviolent protest.

Quit India Movement

1942

“Do or Die” call by Gandhi; demanded immediate independence; marked the final mass struggle before 1947.

Legacy of Indian Nationalism

The Indian Nationalist Movement left behind more than just independence in 1947, it gave Indians a new sense of identity and purpose. Its impact can be seen in several ways:

  • Unity in Diversity: It brought together people across castes, religions, and regions, shaping a collective national identity.
  • Democratic Foundations: The values of liberty, justice, and democracy that guided the struggle later became pillars of the Indian Constitution.
  • Social Reform and Awareness: The movement raised awareness against caste discrimination, untouchability, and gender inequality.
  • Inspiration for Future Movements: It became a model for other colonies, proving that peaceful mass resistance could succeed.

Empowerment of Common People: Farmers, workers, students, and women actively participated, discovering their ability to drive change.

Rise of Nationalism in India FAQs

Q1: What is the rise of nationalism in India?

Ans: The rise of nationalism in India was the growing unity and political consciousness against British rule, leading to movements for independence and self-determination.

Q2: What was the main idea of the rise of nationalism?

Ans: The main idea was to unite Indians across regions, religions, and languages against colonial exploitation, demanding political rights, economic freedom, and ultimately self-rule and independence.

Q3: What was the rise of nationalism in 10th class?

Ans: In 10th class history, rise of nationalism explains how colonial oppression, social reforms, and movements like Swadeshi inspired unity, political awakening, and struggles for India’s freedom.

Q4: When was nationalism started in India?

Ans: Nationalism in India started in the late 19th century with the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, slowly uniting Indians against British dominance.

Q5: Who is the father of nationalism?

Ans: Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the father of Indian nationalism for his assertive politics, inspiring slogan “Swaraj is my birthright,” and leadership in independence movements.

Inclusive Growth, Meaning, Need, Features, Factors Affecting

January 2, 2026
Inclusive Growth

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines Inclusive Growth as both the process and the result of ensuring that all groups of people are able to participate in economic growth and share its benefits equally. It emphasizes that growth must not be limited to a few, but should expand opportunities for everyone, especially the marginalized.

This idea directly connects with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10, which seeks to reduce inequality within and among countries. SDG 10 highlights the importance of providing equal opportunities and addressing unequal outcomes by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies, and practices. It also calls for proactive steps through legislation, reforms, and social measures to promote fairness and equity in development.

Inclusive Growth

Inclusive Growth ensures that economic growth benefits all sections of society, reducing poverty and inequality. It is not only about the pace of growth but also about its pattern, how it creates opportunities and distributes benefits. The goal is to expand productive employment rather than merely redistribute income.

Inclusiveness means equal access to markets, resources, and a fair regulatory environment for both individuals and businesses. Growth strategies must be modified to each country’s unique socio-economic conditions. Market forces largely drive inclusive growth, but government intervention is vital to provide support, regulation, and infrastructure.

Focus remains on improving productivity alongside job creation, ensuring long-term and sustainable development.

Inclusive Growth Need

  • Reduce Poverty and Inequality: Rapid growth alone has not guaranteed poverty reduction; inclusiveness ensures benefits reach marginalized groups.
  • Balanced Regional Development: Disparities across states and rural-urban divides call for growth that spreads evenly.
  • Social Justice and Equity: Ensures equal access to opportunities, resources, and markets, upholding constitutional values.
  • Human Development: Better education, healthcare, nutrition, and skill development raise overall productivity.
  • Employment Generation: Moves beyond income redistribution to create quality jobs, especially in agriculture and informal sectors.
  • Sustainable Growth: Focus on environmentally sound and socially inclusive policies avoids long-term risks.
  • Political and Social Stability: Reduces unrest by bringing disadvantaged groups into the growth process.

Inclusive Growth Features

  • Equitable Opportunities: Ensures access to resources and markets for all, regardless of socio-economic background.
  • Reducing Inequality: Seeks to narrow income and wealth gaps, promoting social balance and stability.
  • Social Safety Nets: Strengthens support systems for vulnerable groups during crises or economic transitions.
  • Education and Skill Development: Focuses on quality education and training to enhance employability and productivity.
  • Employment Generation: Prioritizes creation of decent and diverse jobs, especially for marginalized communities.
  • Infrastructure Expansion: Improves healthcare, roads, sanitation, and housing to raise living standards.
  • Gender Equality: Promotes women’s participation and empowerment across sectors.
  • Rural-Urban Linkages: Encourages balanced development to reduce distress migration.
  • Sustainability: Integrates ecological concerns into growth strategies.
  • Participatory Approach: Involves all stakeholders, government, business, and civil society in shaping policies.

Factors Affecting Inclusive Growth

  • Inequality: 
    • Inequalities in society go beyond individual differences; they are sustained by socio-economic and political structures.
    • Rapid globalization has widened these inequities, creating fresh challenges for inclusion.
    • Marginalized groups such as minorities, women, the disabled, and the poor remain excluded unless specific equity-focused measures are taken.
  • Social Exclusion
    • Exclusion is rooted in social structures that deny certain groups full participation in economic and social life.
    • Even developed economies face exclusion, proving that growth alone doesn’t guarantee inclusion.
    • Marginalization limits opportunities and deepens disadvantage.
  • Poverty
    • Poverty is multidimensional, covering not just income but health, education, and dignity.
    • The poor face systemic barriers in decision-making and access to resources.
    • Inclusion is necessary to enhance their capabilities, productivity, and incomes.
  • Disparities
    • Regional, gender, caste, and class disparities remain pervasive.
    • Natural factors (climate, geography), socio-cultural norms, and government policies all shape these gaps.
    • Addressing these disparities is crucial for balanced and equitable growth.
  • Displacement
    • Forced displacements due to projects, conflicts, or disasters disrupt livelihoods and culture.
    • They result in economic loss, social suffering, and resistance movements, slowing inclusive development.

Inclusive Growth Policy Measures

  • Constitutional Provisions
    • Article 15: Prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
    • Article 16: Guarantees equality of opportunity in public employment.
    • 16(4): Allows reservation in promotion for SCs and STs.
    • 16(5): Permits religious/denominational institutions to appoint officeholders from specific faiths.
    • 16(6): Provides for 10% reservation in jobs/education for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
  • National Rehabilitation Policy
    • Designed to protect and rehabilitate displaced persons due to development projects.
    • Focuses on compensation, livelihood support, and social security for affected families.
  • Women Empowerment Measures
    • Institutions like the National Commission for Women (NCW) and the National Council for Empowerment of Women safeguard women’s rights.
    • 33% reservation in local self-government bodies ensures grassroots political participation.
  • Reservation Policies
    • SCs, STs, and OBCs enjoy reservation in education and public sector employment.
    • Reserved seats in Parliament and State Assemblies promote political inclusion.
    • Minority Commissions address welfare and rights of religious minorities.
  • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
    • Launched in 2005 to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to rural households.
    • Ensures 33% participation of women in the workforce.
    • Focuses on irrigation and development works benefiting SCs and STs.

Measures to Promote Inclusive Growth in India

Inclusive Growth requires a holistic approach that touches all key dimensions of development, education, healthcare, employment, infrastructure, and social equality. Below are some major strategies:

  • Education and Skill Development
    • Expand access to quality education for all sections of society.
    • Improve the functioning of government schools and promote vocational training centers.
    • Provide scholarships and financial aid for underprivileged students to ensure equity in higher education.
  • Healthcare Accessibility
    • Ensure affordable healthcare services for all citizens, especially the marginalized.
    • Strengthen healthcare infrastructure in rural and remote areas.
    • Expand coverage of health insurance schemes to reduce out-of-pocket expenses.
  • Poverty Alleviation
    • Design targeted poverty reduction programs for economically weaker sections.
    • Promote direct cash transfers, microfinance support, and livelihood schemes.
    • Focus on sustainable employment generation to reduce dependence on subsidies.
  • Rural Development
    • Invest in agricultural infrastructure, irrigation, and rural industries.
    • Encourage sustainable farming practices and promote rural entrepreneurship.
    • Provide easy credit and financial support to farmers and rural enterprises.
  • Women Empowerment
    • Promote gender equality through education, skill training, and entrepreneurship opportunities.
    • Guarantee equal access to healthcare, legal aid, and jobs for women.
    • Implement women-focused welfare programs to reduce gender disparities.
  • Infrastructure Development
    • Expand transport, electricity, digital connectivity, and sanitation networks across the country.
    • Reduce regional disparities by focusing on backward and underdeveloped regions.
    • Use infrastructure as a driver of economic activity and job creation.
  • Inclusive Governance
    • Encourage citizen participation in policymaking and strengthen transparency.
    • Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governments.
    • Involve marginalized communities directly in the decision-making process.
  • Private Sector Engagement
    • Promote Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives focusing on education, healthcare, and rural development.
    • Encourage businesses to invest in social sectors alongside profit-making activities.
    • Promote public-private partnerships for inclusive projects.
  • Sensitization and Awareness
    • Conduct campaigns, workshops, and programs to address biases and stereotypes.
    • Promote awareness of the importance of inclusivity and equal opportunity.
    • Encourage a culture of social acceptance and equity across communities.

Inclusive Growth FAQs

Q1: What are the three pillars of inclusive growth?

Ans: The three pillars are economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability, ensuring prosperity reaches all sections while safeguarding resources for future generations.

Q2: What is the meaning of inclusion for growth?

Ans: Inclusion for growth means providing equal access to opportunities, resources, and benefits of development so marginalized groups also participate and share economic progress.

Q3: What do you mean by exclusive growth?

Ans: Exclusive growth benefits only certain sections of society, creating inequality, leaving vulnerable groups behind, and widening social, economic, and regional disparities in development outcomes.

Q4: What is the concept of inclusive growth?

Ans: Inclusive growth emphasizes equitable distribution of wealth, opportunities, and access, ensuring sustainable development where every individual contributes to and benefits from overall progress.

Q5: What are the three fundamental pillars of SDG?

Ans: The three pillars are economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection, forming the foundation of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals for global well-being.

Sirkeer Malkoha

January 2, 2026
Sirkeer Malkoha

Sirkeer Malkoha Latest News

The rare Sirkeer Malkoha (Taccocua leschenaultii), a bird species typically found in Uttarakhand's plains, has been recently recorded for the first time in the Uttarkashi district.

About Sirkeer Malkoha

  • The sirkeer malkoha, or sirkeer cuckoo, is a special type of cuckoo bird.
  • Scientific Name: Taccocua leschenaultii
  • Unlike some cuckoos, it does not lay its eggs in other birds' nests.
  • Distribution: This species is widespread across the sub-Himalayan Indian subcontinent, extending into Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and, more patchily, into Pakistan and Rajasthan.
  • Habitat: It is typically found in scrub and thin forest habitats, often favoring hilly terrain but generally residing below an altitude of about 1500 meters above sea level.

Features of Sirkeer Malkoha

  • It is about 42–44 centimetres long.
  • It is notable for its long tail and the rich olive-brown plumage adorning its upper side.
  • The underparts are typically a lighter shade, sometimes with a yellowish tinge.
  • It has a unique curved red beak with a yellow tip.
  • Its legs are grey.
  • These birds are very quiet, and male and female sirkeer malkohas look exactly alike.
  • These birds have special feet called zygodactyle feet. This means two toes point forward and two point backward. This helps them grip branches and move on the ground.
  • They eat small lizards, insects, and sometimes berries and seeds.
  • Conservation Status: IUCN Red List: Least Concern

Source: TOI

Sirkeer Malkoha FAQs

Q1: What is the primary habitat of the Sirkeer Malkoha?

Ans: Dry scrub forest and open woodland

Q2: What is distinctive about the Sirkeer Malkoha's beak?

Ans: It's curved red with a yellow tip

Q3: What is the Sirkeer Malkoha's primary food source?

Ans: Insects and small lizards

Q4: How does the Sirkeer Malkoha typically forage for food?

Ans: On the ground or in bushes

Q5: What is unique about the Sirkeer Malkoha's breeding habits?

Ans: It builds its own nest

Presidents of India, List from 1950 to 2026, Tenure, Key Facts

January 2, 2026
President of India

List of President of India from 1950 to 2026: Draupadi Murmu serves as the 15th President of India, marking a historic moment as the first tribal woman to hold this esteemed position. Her candidacy received substantial backing from various political groups, particularly the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). From the beginning, her victory over Yashwant Sinha, the opposition-backed candidate, was widely anticipated.

President of India

The President of India is the constitutional head of the country and symbolises the unity and integrity of the nation. Article 52 of the Indian Constitution states that "there shall be a President of India." While the President is the head of state, their role is largely ceremonial, with executive powers exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. The President acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and performs functions like assenting to bills, appointing key officials, and representing India in international agreements.

Since India's independence, several leaders have served as the President of India. The first President, Dr Rajendra Prasad, played a vital role in shaping the office's legacy. The current President of India is Droupadi Murmu, who made history by being the first tribal woman to hold the position. She succeeded Shri Ram Nath Kovind after his term ended.

List of Presidents of India from 1950 to 2026

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India, serving from 1950 to 1962, while Droupadi Murmu is the current President, having assumed office in 2022. Below is the List of all 15 Presidents of India from 1950 to 2026:

All Presidents of India from 1950 to 2026

Name

Starting date

Ending date

Profiles

Dr. Rajendra Prasad

January 26th, 1950

May 13th, 1962

He was the first President of republic of India.

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

May 13th, 1962

May 13th, 1967

He was the 2nd President of India.

Dr.the  Zakir Hussain

May 13th, 1967

May 3rd, 1969

He was the 3rd President of India.

Varahagiri Venkata Giri

May 3rd, 1969

July 20th, 1969

He was acting President because of Hussain’s death.

Mohammad Hidayatullah

July 20th, 1969

August 24th, 1969

He was acting President till Giri’s presidency.

Varahagiri Venkata Giri

August 24th, 1969

August 24th, 1974

He was the 4th President of India.

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed

August 24th, 1974

February 11th, 1977

He was the 5th President of India.

Basappa Danappa Jatti

February 11th, 1977

July 25th, 1977

He was a chief minister of the Mysore but got elected as President, After the death of Ahmed.

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

July 25th, 1977

July 25th, 1982

Reddy was the 6th President of India unopposed.

Giani Zail Singh

July 25th, 1982

July 25th, 1987

He was the 7th President of India and was also a member of the Congress party.

Ramaswamy Venkataraman

July 25th, 1987

July 25th, 1992

He was the 8th President of India. He was also a lawyer and a professional politician.

Shankar Dayal Sharma

July 25th, 1992

July 25th, 1997

He was the 9th President of India, and he was also a member of the National Congress party of India.

Kocheril Raman Narayanan

July 25th, 1997

July 25th, 2002

He was the 10th President of India and the best diplomat in India.

Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

July 25th, 2002

July 25th, 2007

He was the 11th President of India, and he was a great scientist. He worked in ISRO and DRDO organizations.

Pratibha Patil

July 25th, 2007

July 25th, 2012

She was the 12th President of India, and she was the first woman to be President.

Pranab Mukherjee

July 25th, 2012

July 25th, 2017

He was the 13th President of India, and he was also a senior leader of the National Congress party.

Shri Ram Nath Kovind

July 25th, 2017

July 21st, 2022

He was the 14th President of India, and he was also ex-governor Of Bihar.

Droupadi Murmu

July 21st, 2022

Working

She is the 15th President of India and was a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party

List of Presidents of India 2026

  • Dr. Rajendra Prasad
    • First President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad served two full terms and played an important role in the freedom movement. 
    • He also presided over the Constituent Assembly and was honoured with the Bharat Ratna in 1962 for his contributions to nation-building.
  • Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
    • A renowned philosopher and academic, Dr. Radhakrishnan was Second President of India.
    • His birthday is celebrated as Teacher’s Day in India, and he was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954.
  • Dr. Zakir Husain
    • The First Muslim President of India, Dr. Zakir Husain was an educationist who passed away while in office.
    • He co-founded Jamia Millia Islamia University and is remembered for his commitment to modern education.
  • V. V. Giri
    • V.V. Giri was the only President elected as an independent candidate and had earlier served as Vice President.
    • He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1975.
  • Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
    • Fifth President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, is remembered for declaring the Emergency under Article 352.
    • He was the second Indian President to die in office, after Dr. Zakir Husain.
  • Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy
    • The Sixth President of India, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, was the youngest to assume office and the only one elected unopposed.
    • He also served as the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh and later as Lok Sabha Speaker.
  • Giani Zail Singh
    • Giani Zail Singh served as President during tough period in Indian history, including Operation Blue Star.
    • He was also Chief Minister of Punjab and known for exercising the pocket veto power during his term.
  • R. Venkataraman
    • R. Venkataraman served as President from 1987 to 1992 and was earlier Vice President and Defence Minister of India.
    • A freedom fighter, he was known for his legal insights and received global honours including the Soviet Land Prize.
  • Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma
    • Before his presidency, Dr. Sharma served as Bhopal’s Chief Minister and as Vice President of India.
    • He received the ‘Living Legend of Law’ award and was respected for his legal and academic contributions.
  • K. R. Narayanan
    • K.R. Narayanan was First Dalit President of India and a distinguished diplomat in the Indian Foreign Service.
    • He was the first Indian President to vote in a general election while in office.
  • Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
    • Known as the “Missile Man of India,” Dr. Kalam was a scientist and the first scientist to become President.
    • He played an important role in India’s 1998 nuclear tests and inspired millions through his speeches and books.
  • Smt. Pratibha Patil
    • Smt. Pratibha Patil was First Woman President of India and served as Governor of Rajasthan before her presidency.
    • She made history by becoming the first woman head of state to fly a Sukhoi fighter jet.
  • Pranab Mukherjee
    • Pranab Mukherjee held key ministries and was known as the “man for all seasons” in Indian politics.
    • He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2008 and earned wide respect across political lines.
  • Ram Nath Kovind
    • Ram Nath Kovind, a lawyer and former Governor of Bihar, served as India’s 14th President from 2017.
    • He focused on social justice, and during his tenure, he advocated for transparency and inclusive governance.
  • Droupadi Murmu
    • Droupadi Murmu became First Tribal President of India and second female President in 2022.
    • A former Jharkhand Governor, she is known for her dedication to tribal welfare and grassroots leadership.

President of India Eligibility Criteria

Article 58 of the Indian Constitution provides a clear framework regarding the qualifications required for an individual to be eligible for the esteemed position of the President of India. The key qualifications are as follows:

Citizenship

The candidate must be a citizen of India. This requirement emphasizes the importance of national allegiance and ensures that the President has a clear interest in the country's welfare.

Age Requirement

The individual must be at least 35 years of age at the time of the election. This criteria ensures that the candidate possesses the maturity and experience required for such a critical role.

Parliamentary Qualification

The candidate should be eligible for election as a member of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament. This means they must meet all the qualifications set under Article 84 of the Constitution, which includes factors such as citizenship, age, and other specified qualifications.

No Office of Profit

The candidate must not hold any office of profit under the Union Government, State Government, or any local or public authority. However, exceptions include positions such as President, Vice President, Governor of a State, or Minister for the Union or State. This provision ensures that the President remains neutral and does not have conflicts of interest arising from other official roles.

President of India Powers

  1. The President of India is the head of the legislature, executive, and judiciary.
  2. The President serves a five-year term but can resign at any time or be removed through impeachment.
  3. The President can continue in office beyond the five-year term until a successor takes over.
  4. The President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of Members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
  5. Members of the Electoral College use preferential voting with single transferable votes.

President of India Important Points

The President of India is the ceremonial head of the state within the parliamentary system of government. Although the President represents the nation at the national and international levels, they do not have the executive power. Instead, the real executive authority rests with the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. The President serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces.

The President is elected through an electoral college consisting of:

  1. Elected members from both Houses of Parliament.
  2. Elected members from the legislative assemblies of the states.
  3. Elected members from the Legislative Assemblies of Delhi and Puducherry (following the 70th Amendment Act of 1992).
  4. The term of office for the President is five years, with the possibility of re-election. There is no limit on the number of terms a President can serve.

In the event of a breach of the Constitution, the President can be removed from office through an impeachment process, which may be initiated in either House of Parliament.

In the absence of the President due to death, resignation, impeachment, or other reasons, the Vice President of India assumes the role of Acting President. If the position of the Vice President is also vacant, the Chief Justice of India steps in as the Acting President until a new President is elected.

President of India Facts

  1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the inaugural President of India, serving for two consecutive terms. He holds the distinction of being the longest-serving President in the country's history.
  2. V.V. Giri stepped in as an interim President after the passing of Dr. Zakir Husain. He remains unique in holding the position of both President and Acting President at the same time.
  3. India has had three Acting Presidents, in addition to the fourteen Presidents who served full terms.
  4. Both Dr. Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed tragically passed away while in office, marking significant moments in India's presidential history.
  5. The President of India holds a ceremonial position within the government, with executive powers vested in the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
  6. Unlike most democracies, the President of India is elected by the members of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies, not directly by the citizens.
  7. In 2007, Pratibha Patil made history by becoming the first woman President of India.
Also Check Related Post
Vice Presidents of India Education Ministers of India
Foreign Ministers of India Finance Ministers of India
Cabinet Ministers of India Prime Ministers of India
Deputy Prime Minister of India Presidents of India
Ministry of External Affairs

Presidents of India FAQs

Q1: Who elects the President of India?

Ans: The President is elected by an Electoral College.

Q2: What is the term of the office of the President?

Ans: The President shall hold office for a term of 5 years.

Q3: Who conducts the election of President of India?

Ans: The Election Commission of India conducts the election of the President of India.

Q4: Who was the first President of India?

Ans: Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the First President of India.

Q5: Who is the present president of India?

Ans: Droupadi Murmu is the present president of India.

Finance Ministers of India, List from 1947 to 2026, Tenure

January 2, 2026
Finance Ministers of India

The Ministry of Finance, known in Hindi as Vitta Mantralaya, functions as the central authority for managing public finances and acts as the national treasury. Its core responsibilities include the formulation and implementation of tax policies, financial laws, and economic regulations. The Ministry supervises financial institutions, manages currency and capital markets, and oversees both central and state government finances. 

A key function of the Finance Ministers of India is the preparation and presentation of the Union Budget. It also serves as the cadre-controlling authority for major civil services such as the Indian Revenue Service, Indian Audit and Accounts Service, Indian Economic Service, and Indian Civil Accounts Service. It also administers the Indian Cost and Management Accounts Service, which plays a significant role in the country's commercial governance.

Finance Minister of India

Nirmala Sitharaman currently holds the position of Finance Minister of India, having taken charge of the Ministry of Finance and Corporate Affairs on May 31, 2019. She holds the distinction of being the country’s first woman to serve as a full-time Finance Minister. Her first Budget speech in Parliament was delivered on July 5, 2019. Between 2019 and 2024, she has tabled six Union Budgets, including the Interim Budget 2024. With the presentation of the Budget in February 2024, she became the First Finance Minister in India to present seven consecutive Union Budgets.

List of Finance Ministers of India

Sir Ramasamy Chetty Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, born on 17 October 1892, served as the independent First Finance Minister of India. He had the historic responsibility of presenting the nation’s first-ever Budget, which he delivered on 26 November 1947. His tenure marked the beginning of India's financial planning in the post-colonial era.

List of Finance Ministers of India

SNo

Name

Term of office

Political Party

Prime Minister

1.

Liaquat Ali Khan

29 October 1946

14 August 1947

All-India Muslim League

Jawaharlal Nehru
(Vice President of the interim Govt.)

2.

R. K. Shanmukham Chetty

15 August 1947

17 August 1948

Indian National Congress

Jawaharlal Nehru

 

3.

John Mathai

 

 

22 September 1948

26 January 1950

26 January 1950

6 May 1950

6 May 1950

1 June 1950

4.

C. D. Deshmukh

1 June 1950

13 May 1952

13 May 1952

1 August 1956

5. 

Jawaharlal Nehru

1 August 1956

30 August 1956

6.

 

T. T. Krishnamachari

 

30 August 1956

17 April 1957

17 April 1957

14 February 1958

7.

Jawaharlal Nehru

14 February 1958

22 March 1958

8.


 

Morarji Desai

 

22 March 1958

10 April 1962

10 April 1962

31 August 1963

9.

T. T. Krishnamachari

31 August 1963

31 December 1965

Jawaharlal Nehru
Lal Bahadur Shastri

10.

 

 

Sachindra Chaudhuri

 

 

1 January 1966

11 January 1966

Lal Bahadur Shastri
Indira Gandhi

 

 

11 January 1966

24 January 1966

24 January 1966

13 March 1967

11.

Morarji Desai

13 March 1967

16 July 1969

Indira Gandhi

12.

Indira Gandhi

16 July 1969

27 June 1970

13.


 

Yashwantrao B. Chavan

 

27 June 1970

18 March 1971

18 March 1971

10 October 1974

14.

Chidambaram Subramaniam

10 October 1974

24 March 1977

15.

Haribhai M. Patel

26 March 1977

24 January 1979

Janata Party

Morarji Desai

16.

Charan Singh

24 January 1979

16 July 1979

17.

Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna

28 July 1979

19 October 1979

Janata Party (Secular)

Charan Singh

18.

R. Venkataraman

14 January 1980

15 January 1982

Indian National Congress

Indira Gandhi

 

19.


 

Pranab Mukherjee

15 January 1982

31 October 1984

31 October 1984

31 December 1984

20.

 

 

 

V. P. Singh

 

 

 

31 December 1984

14 January 1985

Rajiv Gandhi

14 January 1985

30 March 1985

30 March 1985

25 September 1985

25 September 1985

24 January 1987

21.

Rajiv Gandhi

24 January 1987

25 July 1987

22.

N. D. Tiwari

25 July 1987

25 June 1988

23.

Shankarrao B. Chavan

25 June 1988

2 December 1989

24.

Madhu Dandavate

5 December 1989

10 November 1990

Janata Dal

(National Front)

V. P. Singh

25.

Yashwant Sinha

21 November 1990

21 June 1991

Samajwadi Janata Party
(National Front)

Chandra Shekhar

26.

Manmohan Singh

21 June 1991

16 May 1996

Indian National Congress

P. V. Narasimha Rao

27.

Jaswant Singh

16 May 1996

1 June 1996

Bharatiya Janata Party

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

28.

P. Chidambaram

1 June 1996

21 April 1997

Tamil Maanila Congress
(United Front)

H. D. Deve Gowda

29.

I.K. Gujral

21 April 1997

1 May 1997

Janata Dal
(United Front)

I. K. Gujral

30.

P. Chidambaram

1 May 1997

19 March 1998

Tamil Maanila Congress

(United Front)

31.


 

Yashwant Sinha

 

19 March 1998

13 October 1999

Bharatiya Janata Party

(National Democratic Alliance)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

13 October 1999

1 July 2002

32.

Jaswant Singh

1 July 2002

22 May 2004

33.

P. Chidambaram

23 May 2004

30 November 2008

Indian National Congress
(United Progressive Alliance)

Manmohan Singh

34.

Manmohan Singh

30 November 2008

24 January 2009

35.


 

Pranab Mukherjee


 

24 January 2009

22 May 2009

23 May 2009

26 June 2012

36.

Manmohan Singh

26 June 2012

31 July 2012

37.

P. Chidambaram

31 July 2012

26 May 2014

38.

Arun Jaitley

26 May 2014

30 May 2019

Bharatiya Janata Party

(National Democratic Alliance)

Narendra Modi

39. 


Nirmala Sitharaman

31 May 2019

Present

Bharatiya Janata Party

(National Democratic Alliance)

Narendra Modi

First Finance Minister of India

K. Shanmukham Chetty served as First Finance Minister of India from 1947 to 1948. He delivered the First Union Budget of India, which projected total expenditure at Rs. 171.15 crore and a fiscal deficit of Rs. 24.59 crore. A prominent figure in India’s early political and economic landscape, Chetty was not only an economist and lawyer but also held the position of President of the Central Legislative Assembly from 1933 to 1935. His contributions laid the groundwork for India's post-independence fiscal policy.

Female Finance Minister of India

Nirmala Sitharaman holds the position of first full-time Female Finance Minister of India, a role that entrusts her with key responsibilities, including the presentation of the Union Budget. However, she is not the first woman to present a Union Budget. That milestone was achieved by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who assumed charge of the Finance Ministry following Morarji Desai’s resignation in July 1969. Gandhi went on to present the Union Budget for the financial year 1970-71.

Finance Ministers of India Roles and Responsibility

  • Holds a senior position in the Union Cabinet and leads the government’s fiscal policy and economic planning.
  • Prepares and presents the annual Union Budget in Parliament, detailing projected expenditures and revenue for the upcoming financial year.
  • Oversees the country’s public financial management system, ensuring effective financial control, transparency, and accountability.
  • Supervises the formulation and implementation of tax policies, including direct taxes, indirect taxes, tariffs, and other government duties.
  • Guides resource allocation across sectors in line with national development goals and financial priorities.
  • Manages government revenues and expenditures, aligning them with long-term financial and economic objectives.
  • Supports economic stability through policy decisions that influence inflation, growth, investment, and employment.
Also Check Related Post
Vice Presidents of India Education Ministers of India
Foreign Ministers of India Finance Ministers of India
Cabinet Ministers of India Prime Ministers of India
Deputy Prime Minister of India Presidents of India
Ministry of External Affairs

Finance Ministers of India FAQs

Q1: Who is the current Finance Minister of India (2026)?

Ans: As of 2026, Nirmala Sitharaman is the Finance Minister of India.

Q2: Who was the first Finance Minister of India?

Ans: R. K. Shanmukham Chetty was the first Finance Minister, presenting India’s first Union Budget in 1947.

Q3: How many Finance Ministers has India had?

Ans: India has had over 30 Finance Ministers since independence, including interim and full-term appointments.

Q4: Who presented the first Union Budget of India?

Ans: R. K. Shanmukham Chetty presented the first Union Budget of independent India on November 26, 1947.

Q5: Who was the longest-serving Finance Minister of India?

Ans: Morarji Desai served the longest, holding the Finance Ministry portfolio across multiple terms totaling over 7 years.

Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Objectives, Provisions, Significance

January 2, 2026
Wildlife Protection Act 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 is one of India’s most important environmental legislation, providing an important turning point in India’s approach to biodiversity conservation. The act provided a framework to conserve ecosystems, protect endangered species and regulate human interaction with wildlife. This law continues to be a foundation of India’s wildlife conservation strategy and its implementation has evolved through amendments, particularly in line with global conventions such as CITES. In this article, we are going to cover the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, its provisions and objectives its effectiveness. 

Wildlife Protection Act 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 was enacted by the Government of India, 1972 and came into force in 1973. 

  • It provides a framework to protect wild animals, birds, plants and their habitats. 
  • Regulates activities like hunting, poaching and trade of wildlife products. 
  • Creates protected areas such as National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves. 

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Objectives

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 has the following objectives: 

  • Protection of endangered species and prevention of extinction.
  • Regulation of hunting and safeguarding wildlife against poaching.
  • Control of trade and commerce in wildlife and its derivatives.
  • Creation of protected areas to conserve biodiversity in natural habitats.
  • Promotion of coexistence between humans and wildlife.

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Key Provisions

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 has the following provisions: 

1. Wildlife includes animals (terrestrial and aquatic), plants, insects, fish, and vegetation forming part of any habitat.

2. Establishment of Wildlife Advisory Boards

  • Constituted at the state level to advise on:
    • Selection and management of Sanctuaries and National Parks.
    • Conservation policies for wildlife and plants.
    • Harmonizing tribal needs with conservation goals.

3. Schedules of the WPA

The Act categorizes flora and fauna into six schedules with varying levels of protection.

  • Schedule I & II: Endangered species; absolute protection; highest penalties (1–6 years imprisonment + fine). Example: Tiger, Elephant.
  • Schedule III & IV: Species not endangered; lesser penalties. Example: Hyena, Nilgai.
  • Schedule V: Vermin species that may be hunted with license. Example: Crows, Rats.
  • Schedule VI: Regulation of cultivation and trade of specific plants. Example: Beddomes’ cycad.

4. Hunting Regulations

  • General ban on hunting animals from Schedules I–IV.
  • Chief Wildlife Warden may grant permits if animals pose danger or are diseased.
  • Permits can also be issued for education, scientific research, and zoological purposes.

5. Wildlife Sanctuaries

  • Declared by State Governments.
  • Protect ecologically significant areas.
  • Certain activities may be permitted with regulation.

6. National Parks

  • Declared by State Legislatures.
  • No alteration of boundaries without legislative approval.
  • Prohibited activities: hunting, grazing, habitat destruction, and exploitation.

7. Central Zoo Authority

  • Supervises zoos across India.
  • Ensures proper care and conservation practices for captive animals.

8. Ownership of Wildlife & Trophies

  • All wildlife (other than vermin), trophies, and animal products are state property.
  • Illegal possession, trade, or transfer is punishable.

Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act 2021

  • CITES Implementation: Expanded protection for species under international trade regulation.
  • Rationalized Schedules: Reduced from six to four for clarity:
    • Schedule I: Highest protection.
    • Schedule II: Lesser protection.
    • Schedule III: Protected plants.
    • Schedule IV: CITES species.
  • Regulation of Invasive Alien Species: Government empowered to prohibit or control them.
  • Increased Penalties: General fine raised from ₹25,000 to ₹1,00,000.
  • Stronger Management of Sanctuaries: Gram Sabha consultation made mandatory in scheduled areas.
  • Voluntary Surrender: Captive animals and trophies can be surrendered without compensation.
  • Controversial Clause: Commercial trade in live elephants permitted under certain conditions.

Wildlife Protection Act 2021 Amendment Significance

Wildlife Protection Act 2021 has the following significance: 

  • Aligns India’s wildlife laws with global conservation standards (CITES).
  • Provides clarity by simplifying schedules.
  • Strengthens community participation in wildlife management.
  • Introduces better penalties and enforcement mechanisms.
  • Recognizes modern conservation challenges like invasive alien species.

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 FAQs

Q1: What is the Wildlife Protection Act 1972?

Ans: The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 is an Indian law enacted to protect wild animals, plants, and their habitats by creating a legal framework for conservation.

Q2: What are the protected areas under the Wildlife Protection Act?

Ans: Protected areas under the Act include National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.

Q3: What are the objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972?

Ans: Its objectives are to protect endangered species, regulate hunting, control wildlife trade, and establish protected areas.

Q4: What is Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972?

Ans: Schedule I provides absolute protection to endangered species, with the highest penalties for violations.

Q5: What is CITES?

Ans: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international treaty regulating trade in endangered species to ensure it does not threaten their survival.

Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine

January 2, 2026
Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine

Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine Latest News

The Ministry of Defence recently signed defence procurement contracts worth ₹4,666 crore for the acquisition of Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbines for the Indian Army and Navy and Heavyweight Torpedoes for the Indian Navy.

 About Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine

  • The 5.56 x 45 mm CQB Carbine is an indigenously designed, developed, and manufactured (IDDM) compact firearm.
  • It has been designed by DRDO’s Armament Research & Development Establishment (ARDE), Pune, and is being manufactured by Bharat Forge Ltd (a Pune based Indian multinational).
  • CQB carbines are compact, lightweight weapons designed specifically for urban warfare, close-range engagements and counter-terrorism operations.
  • Their reduced size compared to standard rifles offers enhanced manoeuvrability in confined spaces whilst maintaining operational effectiveness.
  • It weighs approximately 3.3 kilograms and has an effective range of 200 meters.
  • The weapon also uses a 30-round curved magazine to ensure reliable feeding during rapid fire.
  • It can fire both NATO-standard and INSAS ammunition.

Source: TH

Close Quarter Battle (CQB) Carbine FAQs

Q1: What is the primary use of a CQB Carbine?

Ans: Close quarter combat

Q2: What is a key feature of a CQB Carbine?

Ans: Short barrel and compact design

Q3: What is the primary advantage of a CQB Carbine?

Ans: Maneuverability in tight spaces

Copper

January 2, 2026
Copper

Copper Latest News

Recently, copper prices recorded a fresh all-time high in December, with the benchmark price climbing to over $12,000 per tonne on the London Metal Exchange (LME). 

About Copper

  • Copper is a naturally occurring chemical element with the symbol Cu.
  • It is a highly versatile and essential metal, and has been at the core of human development for over 10,000 years.
  • Occurrence: It is found as a free metal in nature. It also occurs in minerals like chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and bornite.

Properties of Copper

  • Physical Properties: It is known for its high conductivity, malleability, and corrosion resistance.
  • Recyclability: Copper is 100% recyclable without any loss in quality, making it an eco-friendly metal.

Major Copper Reserves in India and World

  • Rajasthan: Khetri and Jhunjhunu belt.
  • Madhya Pradesh: Malanjkhand mine, the largest open-pit copper mine in India.
  • Jharkhand: Singhbhum copper belt.
  • Major Countries with Copper Reserve: Chile, Australia, Peru and Russia

Applications of Copper

  • Electrical Industry: Used in wiring, motors, and transformers due to its high conductivity.
  • Construction: Roofing, plumbing, and heating systems utilize copper.
  • Automobile Industry: Essential for wiring, radiators, and connectors.
  • Electronics: It is used in integrated circuits and semiconductors rely heavily on copper.
  • Renewable Energy: It is crucial for wind turbines, solar panels, and electric vehicles.

Source: IE

Copper FAQs

Q1: What is the primary ore of copper?

Ans: Chalcopyrite

Q2: Which country is the largest producer of copper?

Ans: Chile

PathGennie

January 2, 2026
PathGennie

PathGennie Latest News

Recently, the Ministry of Science and Technology has developed new open-source software called PathGennie.

About PathGennie

  • It is a novel computational framework developed by scientists that can significantly accelerate the simulation of rare molecular events.
  • It is open source software developed for fast tracking of drug discovery.
  • It is aimed at fast-tracking the drug discovery process by accurately tracking molecular unbinding pathways.
  • It addresses a long-standing challenge in molecular simulations — accurately modelling how drug molecules detach from their target proteins.
    • This process, known as ligand unbinding, plays a key role in determining a drug’s “residence time”, which is often more relevant to therapeutic effectiveness than binding strength alone.
  • It predicts the potential drugs unbind from their protein targets without the artificial distortions commonly used in standard methods.
  • It mimics natural selection on a microscopic scale instead of forcing the molecule to move.

Features of PathGennie

  • It captures rare molecular events without artificial acceleration.
  • It generates multiple competitive unbinding pathways.
  • It estimates residence time of drug molecules.
  • It eliminates bias introduced by external force-based simulations

Potential Applications of PathGennie

  • It addresses problems such as chemical reactions, catalytic processes, phase transitions, or self-assembly phenomena.
  • It is also compatible with modern machine-learning techniques which ensures integration into diverse simulation pipelines.

Source: News On Air

PathGennie FAQs

Q1: Which institute developed PathGennie?

Ans: S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences

Q2: What is the primary application of PathGennie?

Ans: Simulating drug-protein interactions.

National Commission for Men Bill 2025, Objectives, Provisions, Criticism

January 2, 2026
National Commission for Men Bill 2025

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 is a private member bill, introduced in the Rajya Sabha on December 6th 2025, by Member of Parliament Dr. Ashok Kumar Mittal. It is the first major legislative attempt to create a statutory body focused specifically on issues affecting men in India. The Bill proposes an institutional mechanism to examine legal discrimination, mental health concerns, family law biases, and misuse of certain criminal provisions. It has generated wide debate on constitutional equality, gender justice, and balancing protection with accountability within India’s legal framework.

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Objectives

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 aims to create a statutory institution to protect men’s rights and address systemic legal and social challenges.

  • Establish an independent National Commission for Men
  • Review laws that disproportionately impact men
  • Address mental health and suicide among men
  • Ensure gender-neutral access to justice
  • Promote fairness in family and criminal laws

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Provisions

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 introduces structural, legal, social, and financial reforms to address men’s welfare comprehensively.

  1. Institutional Structure
  • Statutory body under the Ministry of Law and Justice
  • Chairperson appointed by the President of India
  • Six members with gender balance (three men, three women)
  • Legal Advisor nominated by the Chief Justice of India
  • Powers similar to existing statutory commissions
  1. Section 498A IPC Safeguards
  • However replaced by- Section 85 (and 86) of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)
  • Mandatory preliminary police investigation within 30 days before arrest
  • Section 498A to be made bailable and compoundable
  • Penalties for proven false complaints:
    • Up to five years’ imprisonment
    • Fine up to ₹25 lakh
    • Compensation for reputational and career damage
  1. Gender-Neutral Legal Reforms
  • Extension of domestic violence protections to male victims
  • Gender-neutral framework for workplace sexual harassment
  • Gender-neutral sexual offence provisions
  • Punishment for false rape allegations:
    • Seven to ten years’ imprisonment
    • Fine up to ₹10 lakh
  1. Child Custody and Family Law Reforms
  • Shared parenting as the default arrangement after separation
  • Equal parental rights unless abuse or neglect is proven
  • Anti-parental alienation provisions:
    • Up to two years’ imprisonment
    • Fine up to ₹10 lakh
  • Continued focus on the welfare of the child
  1. Rapid Courts Jurisdictions
  • Special courts for false accusation cases and custody disputes
  • Mandatory disposal within six months
  • Faster relief for both genuine victims and falsely accused persons
  1. Media Regulation
  • Ban on declaring guilt before judicial determination
  • Penalties for prejudicial reporting:
    • ₹50 lakh fine for media houses
    • Mandatory public apology
  • Social media penalties for spreading unverified allegations:
    • Three years’ imprisonment
    • Fine up to ₹25 lakh
  • Platforms to remove defamatory content within 24 hours of court orders
  1. Financial Allocation
  • ₹3,650 crore allocated for 2025-2030

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Significance

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 seeks to address documented legal, mental health, and family law challenges affecting men through institutional reform.

  • Responds to rising male suicide rates
  • Codifies judicial safeguards into legislation
  • Promotes constitutional equality under Article 14
  • Addresses custody and parental alienation concerns
  • Fills the institutional gap in gender-focused policymaking

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 Criticism

The National Commission for Men Bill 2025 faces several criticisms with debates that it may unintentionally weaken existing protections and overlook structural gender inequalities.

  • Fear of discouraging genuine complaints
  • Risk of counter-case intimidation
  • Concerns over dilution of women-centric laws
  • Mandatory shared parenting may endanger abuse victims
  • Private Member Bill faces low legislative success rate

National Commission for Men Bill 2025 FAQs

Q1: Who introduced the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: The Bill was introduced by Rajya Sabha Member of Parliament Dr. Ashok Kumar Mittal as a private member bill.

Q2: Does the National Commission for Men Bill 2025 remove protections for women?

Ans: No, it proposes additional safeguards for men without repealing existing protections for women.

Q3: What is the proposed budget for the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: A financial allocation of ₹3,650 crore is proposed for the period 2025-2030.

Q4: Why is Section 498A addressed in the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: Due to high acquittal rates, misuse concerns, and repeated judicial calls for procedural safeguards under the Section 498A of IPC (85-86 of BNS).

Q5: What is the current status of the National Commission for Men Bill 2025?

Ans: It is a Private Member Bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha in Dec 2025 and requires broad parliamentary support to pass.

National Parks in India 2026, State Wise List, Map, Facts

January 2, 2026
National Parks in India

National Parks in India: India is home to a diversity of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, each serving as a hub for biodiversity conservation. These government-protected areas are established to safeguard native wildlife, conserve plant and animal species, and help restore ecological balance. Currently, there are 107 National Parks in India and 544 Wildlife Sanctuaries across the country, with Madhya Pradesh and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands leading in numbers, each hosting nine National Parks.

National Parks in India

National Parks in India play a vital role in protecting wildlife and their natural habitats. These areas have strict rules that ban hunting, poaching, industrial activities, and farming to keep the environment undisturbed. With secure boundaries, no outside activities are allowed near or within these parks. The main purpose of National Parks in India is to conserve India’s diverse wildlife. Below is a List of National Parks in India 2026, which is useful for competitive exams and general knowledge.

List of National Parks in India 2026 State-wise

India proudly hosts around 107 national parks, each dedicated to preserving its remarkable biodiversity and distinctive landscapes. Here’s a List of National Parks in India 2026 State-wise, for easy reference.

List of National Parks in India 2026 State-wise

State/Union Territory

Total Parks

National Parks Name

Establishment Year

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

9

Campbell Bay National Park

1992

Galathea Bay National Park

1992

Mahatama Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) National Park

1982

Middle Button Island National Park

1987

Mount Harriett National Park

1987

North Button Island National Park

1987

Rani Jhansi Marine National Park

1996

Saddle Peak National Park

1987

South Button Island National Park

1987

Andhra Pradesh

3

Papikonda National Park

2008

Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) National Park

2005

Sri Venkateswara National Park

1989

Arunachal Pradesh

2

Mouling National Park

1986

Namdapha National Park

1983

Assam

5

Dibru-Saikhowa National Park

1999

Kaziranga National Park

1974

Manas National Park

1990

Nameri National Park

1998

Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park

1999

Bihar

1

Valmiki National Park

1989

Chhattisgarh

3

Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park

1981

Indravati (Kutru) National Park

1982

Kanger Valley National Park

1982

Goa

1

Mollem National Park

1992

Gujarat

4

Vansda National Park

1979

Blackbuck (Velavadar) National Park

1976

Gir National Park

1975

Marine (Gulf of Kachchh) National Park

1982

Haryana

2

Kalesar National Park

2003

Sultanpur National Park

1989

Himachal Pradesh

5

Great Himalayan National Park

1984

Inderkilla National Park

2010

Khirganga National Park

2010

Pin Valley National Park

1987

Simbalbara National Park

2010

Jammu and Kashmir

4

City Forest (Salim Ali) National Park

1992

Dachigam National Park

1981

Kishtwar National Park

1981

Jharkhand

1

Betla National Park

1986

Karnataka

5

Anshi National Park

1987

Bandipur National Park

1974

Bannerghatta National Park

1974

Kudremukh National Park

1987

Nagarhole National Park

1988

Kerala

6

Anamudi Shola National Park

2003

Eravikulam National Park

1978

Mathikettan Shola National Park

2003

Pambadum Shola National Park

2003

Periyar National Park

1982

Silent Valley National Park

1984

Madhya Pradesh

9

 Bandhavgarh National Park

1968

Fossil National Park

1983

Pench National Park

1975

Kanha National Park

1955

Madhav National Park

1959

Panna National Park

1981

Sanjay National Park

1981

Satpura National Park

1981

Van Vihar National Park

1979

Maharashtra

6

Chandoli National Park

2004

Gugamal National Park

1975

Nawegaon National Park

1975

Pench (Jawaharlal Nehru) National Park

1975

Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) National Park

1983

Tadoba Andhari National Park

1955

Manipur

1

Keibul-Lamjao National Park

1977

Meghalaya

2

Balphakram National Park

1985

Nokrek Ridge National Park

1986

Mizoram

2

Murlen National Park

1991

Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park

1992

Nagaland

1

Intanki National Park

1993

Odisha

2

Bhitarkanika National Park

1988

Simlipal National Park

1980

Rajasthan

5

Mukundra Hills National Park

2006

Desert National Park

1992

Keoladeo Ghana National Park

1981

Ranthambhore National Park

1980

Sariska National Park

1992

Sikkim

1

Khangchendzonga National Park

1977

Tamil Nadu

5

Guindy National Park

1976

Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park

1980

Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National Park

1989

Mudumalai National Park

1990

Mukurthi National Park

1990

Ladakh

1

Hemis National Park

1981

Telangana

3

Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park

1994

Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National Park

1994

Mrugavani National Park

1994

Tripura

2

Clouded Leopard National Park

2007

Bison (Rajbari) National Park

2007

Uttar Pradesh

1

Dudhwa National Park

1977

Uttarakhand

6

Corbett National Park

1936

Gangotri National Park

1989

Govind National Park

1990

Nanda Devi National Park

1982

Rajaji National Park

1983

Valley of Flowers National Park

1982

West Bengal

6

Buxa National Park

1992

Gorumara National Park

1992

Jaldapara National Park

2014

Neora Valley National Park

1986

Singalila National Park

1986

Sunderban National Park

1984

National Parks in India Map

There are 107 National Parks in India as of 2026 covering around 44,403 km2 covering the diverse including the Himalayas to coastal regions. The First National Park in India is Jim Corbett National Park which was initially known as Hailey National Park established in 1936 in Uttarakhand where as South Button Island NP in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, which is referred as the Smallest National Park in India about 5 km². Below we have provided the National Park of India Map for the reference.

What is a National Park?

A National Park is a protected area established by the government under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 to conserve wildlife, flora, and natural ecosystems. These parks aim to safeguard biodiversity and provide a secure habitat for endangered species. Human activities like hunting, poaching, and commercial use of resources are strictly prohibited within their boundaries. National Parks also promote eco-tourism, environmental education, and scientific research to maintain ecological balance and awareness.

National Park in India Features

  • Legal Protection: National Parks are legally protected; activities like hunting, grazing, and forestry are prohibited.
  • Wildlife Conservation: They serve as safe habitats for endangered and native species of animals and birds.
  • Ecological Balance: Helps in preserving ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural landscapes.
  • Public Access: Generally open to visitors for education and eco-tourism under strict rules.
  • Scientific Research: Provide opportunities for research, wildlife monitoring, and conservation studies.

Oldest National Parks in India

Corbett National Park, established in 1936, is the Oldest National Parks in India. Located in the Himalayas in Uttarakhand, it was initially named Hailey National Park. Renowned for its rich biodiversity, the park is especially famous for being the first area to come under the Project Tiger initiative in 1973. Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve is home to Bengal tigers, elephants, leopards, and hundreds of bird species, making it one of the most prominent wildlife sanctuaries in India.

Oldest National Parks in India

S.No

National Parks in India

Location

Year

1

Corbett National Park

Uttrakhand

1936

2

Kanha National Park

Madhya Pradesh

1955

3

Tadoba National Park

Maharashtra

1955

Smallest National Parks in India

South Button Island National Park is the Smallest National Parks in India covering an area of just 5 sq.km. It is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, off the southeastern coast of the Indian mainland. Despite its small size, the park is rich in marine biodiversity, offering vibrant coral reefs, sea turtles, and exotic fish species. It forms part of the Rani Jhansi Marine National Park and is a popular site for scuba diving.

Smallest National Parks in India

Rank

National Park

Location

Area (km^2)

1

South Button Island NP

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

0.03

2

Fossil National Park

Madhya Pradesh

0.3

4

North Button Island National Park

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

0.4

5

Middle Button Island National Park

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

0.9

7

Dinosaur Fossils National Park

Madhya Pradesh

1.4

8

Pambadum Shola National Park

Tamil Nadu

1.4

Newest National Parks in India

Dihing Patkai National Park is the Newest National Parks in India, established in June 2021. It is located in the Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts of Assam and spans an area of 231.65km2. Known as the "Amazon of the East," the park is rich in biodiversity and forms part of the largest stretch of lowland rainforest in India. It is home to rare and endangered species like the clouded leopard, hoolock gibbon, and several species of hornbills.

Newest National Parks in India

Rank

National Parks 

Location

Year

1

Dihing Patkai National Park

Assam

2021

2

Raimona National Park

Assam

2021

3

Jaldapara National Park

West Bengal

2014

Largest National Parks in India

Hemis National Park is the Largest National Parks in India in India by area. It is located in the eastern part of Ladakh (previously part of Jammu and Kashmir) in northern India and spans an area of approximately 4,400 square kilometers. Nestled in the trans-Himalayan region, this park is renowned for being the highest altitude national park in the country and serves as a vital sanctuary for the elusive snow leopard, along with other rare wildlife like the Tibetan wolf, red fox, and bharal (blue sheep).

Largest National Parks in India

Rank

National Park

Location (State/UT)

Area (km²)

1

Hemis National Park

Ladakh

3,350

2

Desert National Park

Rajasthan

3,162

3

Gangotri National Park

Uttarakhand

2,390

4

Namdapha National Park

Arunachal Pradesh

1,808

5

Khangchendzonga National Park

Sikkim

1,784

6

Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park

Chhattisgarh

1,441

7

Sundarbans National Park

West Bengal

1,330

8

Indravati (Kutru) National Park

Chhattisgarh

1,258

9

Papikonda National Park

Andhra Pradesh

1,013

10

Kanha National Park

Madhya Pradesh

940

11

Bandipur National Park

Karnataka

874

12

Kaziranga National Park

Assam

859

13

Simlipal National Park

Odisha

846

14

Rajaji National Park

Uttarakhand

820

15

Great Himalayan National Park

Himachal Pradesh

754

16

Khirganga National Park

Himachal Pradesh

710

17

Pin Valley National Park

Himachal Pradesh

675

18

Nagarahole National Park

Karnataka

643

19

Nanda Devi National Park

Uttarakhand

625

20

Kudremukh National Park

Karnataka

600

21

Satpura National Park

Madhya Pradesh

585

22

Panna National Park

Madhya Pradesh

543

23

Corbett National Park

Uttarakhand

521

24

Manas National Park

Assam

500

25

Dudhwa National Park

Uttar Pradesh

490

26

Mouling National Park

Arunachal Pradesh

483

27

Govind National Park

Uttarakhand

472

28

Sanjay National Park

Madhya Pradesh

467

29

Bandhavgarh National Park

Madhya Pradesh

449

30

Campbell Bay National Park

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

426

National Parks in India 2026 Facts

  1. Hemis National Park (Jammu & Kashmir): The largest national park in India, famous for its snow leopard population.
  2. South Button Island National Park (Andaman & Nicobar Islands): The smallest national park in India, known for its coral reefs and marine life.
  3. Rann of Kutch (Gujarat): The largest wildlife sanctuary in India, home to the Indian wild ass and migratory birds.
  4. Bor Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra): The smallest wildlife sanctuary in India, critical for tiger conservation.
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National Parks in India FAQs

Q1: How many National Parks are there in India?

Ans: There are a total of 107 National Parks in India.

Q2: Which is the largest national park in India?

Ans: Hemis National Park, situated in the Leh district of Jammu and Kashmir, holds the distinction of being India's largest national park, covering an expansive area of approximately 4,400 square kilometers.

Q3: Which state has the maximum number of national parks?

Ans: Madhya Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the leaders in India when it comes to the number of National Parks, each boasting a total of nine parks.

Q4: Which is the first national park in India?

Ans: India's inaugural national park was Hailey National Park, established in 1936. It is currently known as Jim Corbett National Park.

Indian Railways in 2025: Expansion Achieved, Challenges Ahead

January 2, 2026
Indian Railways

Indian Railways Latest News

  • 2025 marked a landmark year for Indian Railways, as it completed rail connectivity to Kashmir Valley and Aizawl (Mizoram), bridged major geographic frontiers, advanced freight corridors and technology.
  • At the same time, the Railways faced challenges in safety, crowd management, and financial sustainability.

From Kashmir to Mizoram: Railways Reach India’s Final Frontiers

  • In 2025, Indian Railways achieved historic milestones by extending the rail grid to: Kashmir Valley in the North; Aizawl in the East.
  • These connections brought the country’s last major unlinked regions into the national railway network, symbolising territorial integration and strategic connectivity.

Kashmir Rail Link: A Century-Old Dream Realised

  • The idea of a railway line to the Kashmir Valley dates back to 1898, when Maharaja Pratap Singh first conceived it. 
  • However, after Partition, the Jammu–Sialkot rail link went to Pakistan, cutting off Jammu and Kashmir from India’s rail grid.
  • While Jammu was connected by rail in 1972, the Valley remained unlinked. 
  • The long-cherished dream was realised in June 2025, when PM Modi inaugurated the final 63-km Katra–Sangaldan section of the 272-km Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL). 
    • A Vande Bharat train began services between Katra and Srinagar.
  • The project’s most challenging stretch was the 111-km Katra–Banihal section, featuring:
    • T-50, India’s longest operational transport tunnel (12.77 km)
    • Chenab Bridge, the world’s highest railway arch bridge (359 metres above the riverbed)
    • Anji Bridge, Indian Railways’ first cable-stayed bridge

Mizoram: Railways Overcome Geography

  • Mizoram’s late rail arrival was largely due to its difficult terrain and landlocked location—bordering Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern states. 
  • Until recently, the state depended almost entirely on roads for passenger and freight movement.
  • The breakthrough came with the inauguration of the Bairabi–Sairang line in September 2025, linking Bairabi to Sairang, near Aizawl. 
  • This marked the first-ever rail connectivity to the Mizoram capital.
  • With this, Aizawl became the fourth northeastern capital—after Guwahati (Dispur), Agartala, and Itanagar—to be linked to the Indian Railways network.

Pamban Bridge: Reconnecting South India’s Maritime Edge

  • Another landmark in 2025 was the inauguration of the 2.08-km new Pamban Bridge, replacing the 110-year-old cantilever bridge. 
  • It is India’s first vertical-lift railway sea bridge. It connects Rameswaram to the mainland across the Palk Strait.

Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC)

  • First rail car ran on the 102-km Vaitarna–Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) section. 
  • Marks progress in India’s high-capacity, freight-only rail infrastructure.

Strategic Himalayan Connectivity

  • Rishikesh–Karnaprayag Line
    • 125 km line with strategic and pilgrimage significance
    • Includes India’s longest transportation tunnel (14.57 km) (yet to be operational)
    • Serves as a gateway to the China border and boosts Char Dham Yatra connectivity
  • Bhanupalli–Bilaspur–Beri Line
    • Connects Punjab to Himachal Pradesh
    • Proposed extension up to Ladakh
    • Progress delayed due to financial disputes between the state government and Railways

A Year Shadowed by Safety Concerns

  • The year began with tragedy:
    • Stampede at New Delhi Railway Station (February 15, 2025)
    • 18 deaths, 15 injuries, during rush for Prayagraj-bound Mahakumbh trains
  • Railways’ Response
    • Launch of a nationwide project to create holding areas on high-passenger platforms
    • Renewed emphasis on crowd management and passenger safety

Challenges in Freight Loading: Railways’ Revenue Backbone Under Strain

  • Freight transport is the financial backbone of Indian Railways, contributing nearly 65% of its total earnings. 
  • However, despite its importance, the system faces persistent challenges, especially in last-mile delivery and competitiveness with road transport.

High Dependence on Bulk Commodities

  • Indian Railways remains predominantly a bulk commodity transporter.
  • Coal alone accounts for nearly 50% of total freight loading.
    • Seven major commodities—coal, pig iron and steel, iron ore, cement, fertilisers, petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL), and containers—together accounted for 87.3% of total freight loading (in FY 25)
  • Such heavy reliance exposes Railways to demand fluctuations in a few sectors.

Concerns Raised by the Standing Committee on Railways

  • The Standing Committee on Railways has flagged structural risks in the freight basket:
    • Called for diversification into automobiles, FMCG, and e-commerce to cushion demand volatility.
    • Noted that year-on-year revenue growth from coal and iron ore is slowing, raising sustainability concerns.

Need to Raise Rail’s Modal Share

  • Railways’ modal share in freight transport stands at about 27%, significantly lower than road transport. 
  • Enhancing this share is critical for revenue growth and environmental gains.

Operational Focus Areas in 2025

  • Indian Railways prioritised:
    • Removal of traffic bottlenecks
    • Track expansion and capacity augmentation
    • Passenger amenities under the Amrit Bharat Station Scheme
    • Safety upgrades across high-density routes

Ambitious Traffic and Freight Targets

  • With expanded infrastructure, Railways aims to achieve by 2030:
    • 3 billion tonnes of freight loading - Up from 1.6 billion tonnes in FY25
    • 10 billion passengers annually - A 42% increase from nearly 7 billion passengers in FY25
  • These targets reflect Railways’ central role in India’s logistics and mobility strategy.

Technological Advancements

  • Commissioning of Kavach 4.0 (advanced Automatic Train Protection system)
  • Deployed over 738 route kilometres on two high-density corridors
  • Rollout of: 13 Amrit Bharat trains for migrant workers; 2 Namo Bharat Rapid Rail Services for intercity commuters.
  • Trials of Vande Bharat sleeper trains, signalling next-generation long-distance travel.

Financial Stress vs Green Promise

  • Persistent Challenges - High revenue expenditure; Low earnings per route, affecting long-term financial health
  • Green Mobility Advantage
    • Despite financial strain, Railways remains one of India’s cleanest transport modes:
      • Accounts for only ~1% of transport emissions
      • Near-100% electrification of broad-gauge network
      • Hydrogen-powered trains under development
      • 2,626 solar-powered stations
      • 898 MW of solar power used nationwide
      • ~70% used for traction

Source: IE | PIB

Indian Railways FAQs

Q1: Why was 2025 a landmark year for Indian Railways?

Ans: Indian Railways achieved historic connectivity to Kashmir Valley and Aizawl, completing links to India’s last major unconnected regions.

Q2: What were the major infrastructure achievements in 2025?

Ans: Key milestones included the Kashmir rail link, Mizoram connectivity, new Pamban Bridge, and progress on the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor.

Q3: What safety challenges did Railways face in 2025?

Ans: A fatal stampede at New Delhi Railway Station exposed crowd management gaps, prompting nationwide holding areas on high-passenger platforms.

Q4: Why is freight loading a challenge for Indian Railways?

Ans: Freight depends heavily on coal, which limits diversification, while rail’s modal share remains low compared to road transport.

Q5: How is Indian Railways contributing to green mobility?

Ans: Railways account for about 1% of transport emissions, with near-total electrification, solar-powered stations, and plans for hydrogen trains.

Sir Creek Dispute, Map, Origin, Importance, Key Details

January 2, 2026
Sir Creek Dispute

The Sir Creek dispute between India and Pakistan is one of the long-standing territorial disagreements between the two neighbours, with its origins tracing back to pre-independence India. While it often takes a backseat in the broader India-Pakistan relationship, the dispute is important due to its strategic, economic, and ecological implications. Understanding the issue is important for UPSC aspirants, particularly in the International Relations segment. 

Sir Creek Dispute in News

Defence Minister Rajnath Singh recently issued a stern warning to Pakistan over its military build-up near the Sir Creek region, stating that any misadventure would invite a response so strong that it could “change both history and geography.” Speaking at a public event on the occasion of Shastra Pujan, he accused Pakistan of deliberately stirring up the long-standing Sir Creek dispute despite India’s repeated efforts to resolve it through dialogue. Singh discussed that the recent expansion of Pakistani military infrastructure in areas adjoining Sir Creek, a strategically sensitive zone along the Gujarat coastline, indicates Pakistan’s unclear intentions and provocative posture.

Sir Creek

Sir Creek is a 96-kilometre strip of water located in the marshlands of the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. Geographically, it forms a boundary between India’s Kutch region and Pakistan’s Sindh province before opening into the Arabian Sea. Historically, it was known as Ban Ganga and acquired the name “Sir Creek” during the colonial era, named after a British official.

Sir Creek Map

Here is geographical representation of Sir Creek:OK

Sir Creek Nature of the Dispute

  • The core of the Sir Creek Dispute lies in the differing interpretations of the maritime boundary between India and Pakistan. Before India’s independence, the region was part of the Bombay Presidency. Post-partition in 1947, Kutch remained with India while Sindh became part of Pakistan.
  • Pakistan claims the entirety of Sir Creek based on the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914, signed between the Rao of Kutch and the Sindh provincial government. According to Pakistan, the eastern flank of the creek forms the boundary. India, however, considers this green line indicative rather than definitive. Instead, India relies on a 1925 map, along with the mid-channel pillars constructed in 1924, to argue that the boundary lies along the mid-channel of the creek (red line on the map).
  • India invokes the Thalweg Principle of international law, which stipulates that the boundary between two political entities along a waterway should follow the center of the principal navigable channel. Pakistan rejects this argument, claiming that Sir Creek is non-navigable, whereas India maintains that the creek is navigable during high tides, and fishing trawlers regularly use it to reach the Arabian Sea.

Sir Creek Dispute Origin

The Sir Creek Dispute dates back to 1908, when disagreements arose between the ruler of Kutch and the Sindh government over firewood collection in the creek area. To settle the issue, the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 was issued. The resolution contained conflicting provisions:

  • Paragraph 9 said that the boundary should be to the east of the creek, implying the entire creek would belong to Pakistan.
  • Paragraph 10, however, applied the Thalweg Principle, noting that Sir Creek is navigable most of the year, making the mid-channel the effective boundary.

This inherent contradiction has been the basis of prolonged disagreement between the two countries.

Sir Creek Importance

Sir Creek holds strategic, economic, and ecological significance:

  • Strategic Importance: The creek lies near the Rann of Kutch, an area where India and Pakistan clashed during the 1965 war. Control over this region influences maritime security and surveillance.
  • Economic Significance: It is one of the largest fishing grounds in Asia, supporting the livelihoods of thousands of fishermen. Furthermore, potential oil and gas reserves under the seabed could provide significant economic benefits, though exploration remains stalled due to the dispute.
  • Ecological Value: Sir Creek is an ecologically sensitive area, home to flamingoes and other migratory birds during winter, making it important for biodiversity conservation.

Sir Creek Attempts at Resolution

Several attempts have been made to resolve the Sir Creek issue:

  • After the 1965 war, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson intervened, leading to the establishment of a tribunal. The 1968 verdict granted Pakistan only 10% of its claim.
  • During the 1997 composite dialogue, Sir Creek was discussed as a part of broader efforts to improve bilateral relations.
  • Tensions increased in 1999 when an Indian fighter plane shot down a Pakistani surveillance aircraft over the creek. India alleged an airspace violation, while Pakistan denied it.
  • Between 2005 and 2007, joint surveys were conducted to assess the area for potential resolution.

Despite these efforts, a final agreement has remained elusive, largely due to differing interpretations of historical maps and legal principles.

Way Forward

Resolving the Sir Creek dispute is important for many reasons:

  • Humanitarian Aspect: Fishermen from both countries are frequently detained for accidentally crossing perceived borders, creating tensions and disrupting livelihoods.
  • Strategic and Economic Gains: A resolution would allow exploration of oil and gas reserves and better control of maritime boundaries.
  • Low-Hanging Fruit: Among the numerous Indo-Pakistan disputes, Sir Creek is often considered a simpler, less politically charged issue, making it a potential candidate for early resolution.

Sir Creek Dispute FAQs

Q1: What is the Sir Creek issue between Pakistan and India?

Ans: A long-standing border and maritime dispute over the ownership and boundary of the Sir Creek region between India and Pakistan.

Q2: Where is Sir Creek in India?

Ans: In the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat, along the India-Pakistan border.

Q3: Is Sir Creek the westernmost point of India?

Ans: No, the westernmost point of India is Guhar Moti in Gujarat; Sir Creek lies nearby but is not the extreme point.

Q4: What is the Sir Creek Dispute?

Ans: A disagreement between India and Pakistan over the maritime boundary and territorial claims in the Sir Creek area.

Q5: When did the Sir Creek Dispute begin?

Ans: The dispute originated in 1908, during the pre-independence period over territorial and resource claims.

Important Battles of Mughal Empire, List, Outcome

January 2, 2026
Important Battles of Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire ruled India from the 16th century until the mid-18th century, and experienced several important battles that influenced the fall. These conflicts played a major role in both the foundation and expansion of the dynasty. Starting with Babur’s conquest and extending to Aurangzeb’s military campaigns, every ruler engaged in wars that shaped the empire’s destiny.

List of Important Battles of Mughal Empire

The Mughal army was renowned for its superior artillery, skilled cavalry, and innovative battle strategies. The table below outlines List of Important Battles of Mughal Empire, their key opponents, and the results.

List of Important Battles of Mughal Empire
Battle Year Between Outcome

First Battle of Panipat

1526

Mughal Empire vs Delhi Sultanate

Mughal victory; establishment of Mughal Empire

Battle of Khanwa

1527

Mughal Empire vs Rajput Confederacy

Mughal victory; consolidated Babur's rule

Battle of Chanderi

1528

Mughal Empire vs Rajput

Mughal victory; annexation of Malwa

Battle of Ghaghra

1529

Mughal Empire vs Bengal Sultanate

Mughal victory; annexation of Bihar

Battle of Chausa

1539

Mughal Empire vs Sur Empire

Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun

Second Battle of Panipat

1556

Mughal Empire vs Hemu (Suri Empire)

Mughal victory; Akbar established power

Battle of Tukaroi 

1575

Akbar vs. Sultanate of Bengal and Bihar

Akbar defeated the Sultanate, expanding Mughal influence in the east

Battle of Haldighati

1576

Mughal Empire vs Mewar Kingdom

Mughal victory; Maharana Pratap resisted

Siege of Chittorgarh

1567-1568

Mughal Empire vs Mewar Kingdom

Mughal victory; annexation of Chittorgarh

Battle of Samdhara

1616

Mughal Empire vs Ahom Kingdom

Ahom victory, beginning of conflict between the Ahoms and the Mughals

Battle of Kartarpur

1635

Mughals vs Sikhs

Sikh victory, conflict with Sikhs

Battle of Samugarh

1658

Aurangzeb vs Dara Shikoh

Aurangzeb's victory, led to his coronation

Battle of Jajau

1707

Mughal princes Bahadur Shah I and Muhammad Azam Shah

A war of succession after Aurangzeb’s death.

Battle of Bhopal

1737

Mughals, Nizam, Nawabs vs Marathas

Maratha victory, weakening of Mughals

Battle of Karnal

1739

Mughals, Nizam, Oudh vs Afsharid Dynasty

Afsharid victory; decline of the Mughals

Battle of Buxar

1764

Mughals, Awadh, Bengal vs British

British victory, collapse of Mughals

List of Famous Mughal Battles

Every Mughal ruler encountered distinct challenges, ranging from securing their throne to fighting against external invasions and suppressing internal revolts. These significant battles played a major role in both the expansion and stability of the Mughal Empire across the Indian subcontinent. Below is a List of Famous Mughal Battles by the emperors:

Major Battles Fought by Babur

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, engaged in several battles that resulted in the foundation for the Mughal Empire in India.

  1. First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi marked the beginning of Mughal rule in India. His strategic use of gunpowder and field artillery revolutionized Indian warfare.
  2. Battle of Khanwa (1527): Fighting against Rana Sanga, Babur secured victory with superior military tactics, including the use of cannons and muskets. This battle strengthened Mughal authority in North India.
  3. Battle of Chanderi (1528): Babur captured the Chanderi fortress after defeating Medini Rai, an important ally of Rana Sanga.
  4. Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur’s forces overcame Afghan chiefs and the Sultan of Bengal, securing control over the empire’s eastern territories.

Major Battles Fought by Humayun

Humayun faced significant struggles in preserving Mughal rule, encountering both internal and external threats.

  1. Battle of Dohariya (1532): Humayun secured a victory over Mahmud Lodi, strengthening his position against Afghan forces.
  2. Battle of Chausa (1539): Although tensions with Sher Khan began with the Battle of Chunar (1532), Humayun suffered a major defeat at Chausa, forcing him to retreat.
  3. Battle of Kannauj (1540): Another loss against Sher Shah Suri led to the Mughal Empire’s temporary downfall, forcing Humayun into exile.
  4. Battle of Sirhind (1555): After years of efforts, Humayun defeated Sikandar Suri and successfully reclaimed the Mughal throne.

Important Battles of Akbar

Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire through a combination of military campaigns and strategic diplomacy.

  1. Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Under the leadership of Bairam Khan, Akbar defeated Hemu, securing Mughal dominance in India.
  2. Battle of Thanesar (1567): Akbar declared his authority by defeating rival Sanyasi groups in the region.
  3. Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568): After a prolonged four-month struggle, the Mughal forces captured Chittorgarh, marking a significant victory over the Rajputs.
  4. Battle of Gujarat (1573): Akbar unified his control over western India by defeating Muzaffar Shah III and conquered Gujarat.
  5. Battle of Haldighati (1576): Although Akbar’s forces overcame Maharana Pratap’s army, Rajput resistance against Mughal rule persisted.
  6. Battle of Rakht-Talai (1576): The Mughals defeated Afghan forces, securing control over northern territories.
  7. Battle of Lahore (1585-1598): Akbar successfully defended his empire against Afghan and Persian invasions in the northwest.

Important Battles of Jahangir

Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, focused on strengthening internal administration, promoting art and culture, and handling political challenges. Despite his emphasis on governance, he faced multiple rebellions and conflicts.

  1. Rebellion of Prince Khusrau (1606): Jahangir crushed the uprising led by his son, Prince Khusrau, who was later captured and executed.
  2. Deccan Campaigns (1610s): The Mughal forces expanded their influence in the Deccan, securing victories such as the capture of Ahmednagar.
  3. Mewar Campaign (1615): Jahangir successfully negotiated peace with Maharana Amar Singh of Mewar, marking the end of decades-long Mughal-Rajput conflicts.
  4. Conflict with Mahabat Khan (1626): A powerful noble, Mahabat Khan, revolted against Jahangir, but the rebellion was suppressed with the help of Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).

Important Battles of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan's rule was marked by territorial expansion and internal conflicts, though he rarely participated in battles directly. His military campaigns were crucial in consolidating Mughal power.

  1. Siege of Kangra Fort (1620): The Mughals successfully captured the strategically important Kangra Fort from Rajput rulers, strengthening their hold in the region.
  2. Battle of Bundelkhand (1628): Shah Jahan's forces defeated the Bundela Rajputs, further expanding Mughal influence in central India.
  3. Deccan Campaigns (1630-1650): Under his rule, the Mughal Empire extended its dominance over Golconda and Bijapur, controlling over the Deccan.
  4. Conflict with the Portuguese (1631-1632): The Mughals fought against the Portuguese over trade and territorial disputes, particularly in Bengal, leading to the decline of Portuguese influence in the region.

Important Battles of Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb, the last significant Mughal emperor, engaged in various military campaigns to expand and secure his empire. His reign was marked by prolonged conflicts and resistance from regional powers.

  1. Battle of Samugarh (1658): Aurangzeb defeated his brother Dara Shikoh, gaining a decisive advantage in the Mughal succession struggle. He later crushed Dara’s remaining forces at the Battle of Deorai (1659).
  2. Battle of Khajwa (1659): Aurangzeb overcame Shah Shuja, further solidifying his position as the undisputed Mughal ruler.
  3. Maratha Wars (1660-1707): Aurangzeb spent decades fighting against Shivaji and, later, the Marathas, facing strong resistance throughout his reign.
  4. Siege of Golconda (1687): The Mughal forces captured Golconda after defeating the Qutb Shahi rulers, bringing more of the Deccan under Aurangzeb’s control.

Important Battles of Mughal Empire FAQs

Q1: Who defeated Mughal 17 times?

Ans: The Ahom dynasty defeated the Mughals 17 times in a series of conflicts that lasted from 1615 to 1682.

Q2: What were the battles of the Mughal Empire?

Ans: Major battles fought by the Mughal Empire include the First Battle of Panipat (1526), the Battle of Khanwa (1527), the Battle of Ghaghra (1529), the Second Battle of Panipat (1556), and the Battle of Haldighati (1576).

Q3: what are the four battles of Babur?

Ans: First Battle of Panipat (1526), Battle of Khanwa (1527), Battle of Chanderi (1528, Battle of Ghaghra (1529).

Q4: Which Mughal emperor won most battles?

Ans: Akbar, the third Mughal emperor, won many battles and is known for his military conquests.

Q5: Who defeated Shivaji?

Ans: Raja Jai Singh I defeated Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in the Battle of Purandar in 1665.

Oreshnik Missile

January 2, 2026
Oreshnik Missile

Oreshnik Missile Latest News

Russia recently announced that its nuclear-capable Oreshnik missiles have entered active service in Belarus, a neighbouring ally that shares borders with NATO members Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia.

About Oreshnik Missile

  • It is a Russian-made intermediate-range nuclear-capable ballistic missile.
  • It was first launched operationally on November 21, 2024, in a precision strike targeting the Pivdenmash defence-industrial facility in Dnipro, Ukraine.

Features of Oreshnik Missile

  • It is estimated to be 15 to 18.5 metres long, with a diameter of some 1.9 metres.
  • It is mounted on a mobile transporter and launcher for rapid deployment and concealment.
  • With a reported range of 5,000 kilometres (3,100 miles), the missile can strike targets across Europe and even reach the west coast of the United States.
  • Equipped with multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), the “Oreshnik” can carry six to eight warheads, conventional or nuclear, hitting multiple targets simultaneously.
  • It is a hypersonic missile, capable of reaching speeds up to Mach 10 (12,300 km/h or 7,610 mph).

Source: FP

Oreshnik Missile FAQs

Q1: What is the Oreshnik missile?

Ans: An intermediate-range ballistic missile

Q2: What is the range of the Oreshnik missile?

Ans: 2000-5000 km

Q3: What is unique about the Oreshnik missile's speed?

Ans: It travels at hypersonic speeds (Mach 10).

Nimesulide

January 2, 2026
Nimesulide

Nimesulide Latest News

The government recently prohibited the manufacturing, sale and distribution of all oral formulations containing Nimesulide above 100 mg with immediate effect.

About Nimesulide

  • First introduced in Italy in 1985, it is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used for its pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and fever-reducing effects.
  • It is commonly used to manage acute pain, musculoskeletal disorders, dental pain, and symptoms associated with conditions such as osteoarthritis and dysmenorrhea.
  • Nimesulide works by inhibiting the action of cyclooxygenase (COX), an enzyme responsible for the production of prostaglandins-chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever.
  • By blocking this enzyme, Nimesulide reduces the levels of prostaglandins, thus providing relief from pain and inflammation.
  • By targeting the underlying inflammatory process rather than just masking the pain, Nimesulide helps relieve swelling, improves mobility and function in affected areas, and enhances overall comfort and quality of life.

Side Effects of Nimesulide

  • Long-term usage may harm the liver or result in significant side effects, including gastrointestinal bleeding or renal issues.
  • Apart from this, other side effects like sour stomach, dizziness, skin infection, diarrhoea, and increased liver enzymes might be observed in individuals.

Regulation of Nimesulide

  • From its early years, nimesulide attracted safety concerns and was never approved for use in countries including the United States, the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.
  • In 2008, the International Society of Drug Bulletins, a WHO-supported network, called for a global ban on nimesulide.
  • India banned the use of nimesulide in children below 12 years of age in 2011 but continued to allow its use in older patients. However, concerns have persisted.

Source: News On Air

Nimesulide FAQs

Q1: What is Nimesulide primarily used for?

Ans: Pain relief and inflammation

Q2: What type of drug is Nimesulide?

Ans: Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic

Q3: Nimesulide is a COX-2 inhibitor. What does this mean?

Ans: It selectively inhibits COX-2 enzyme.

Q4: Which organ is primarily affected by Nimesulide toxicity?

Ans: Liver

Biosphere Reserves in India, List, Origin, Structure, Importance

January 2, 2026
Biosphere Reserve in India

Biosphere Reserves in India are designated by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) to protect representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes. These areas may cover large terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems, or a combination of both. It protects and maintains the diversity of flora, fauna, and ecosystems and promotes economic and social development that aligns with ecological conservation.

Biosphere Reserves serve as living examples of coexistence between humans and nature, demonstrating how development and conservation can progress together while respecting each other’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves are established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Their main goal is to promote sustainable development through local community involvement and scientific management.

These reserves encompass terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems, conserving all forms of life in situ along with their support systems. They also act as reference sites for monitoring and evaluating ecological changes over time.

Part of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) framework since 1971, Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments. There are over 500 reserves across more than 100 countries, highlighting their importance in preserving ecosystems while supporting human development.

Biosphere Reserves Origin

The Biosphere Reserves programme was initiated by UNESCO in 1971, with the first reserve established in 1979. Since then, the network has grown to 686 reserves across 122 countries, including 20 transboundary sites.

Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the countries where they are located. Despite this, their status is internationally recognized, highlighting their global importance in biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

Biosphere Reserves Structure

Biosphere Reserves are structured into three interconnected zones, each designed to balance conservation with sustainable use. These zones work together to protect biodiversity while supporting research, education, and local livelihoods.

Biosphere Reserve Structure

Zone

Description

Purpose/Function

Core Area

Strictly protected ecosystem.

Conserves landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation.

Buffer Zone

Surrounds or adjoins the core area.

Supports ecological practices, scientific research, monitoring, training, and education.

Transition Area

Outermost zone with human settlements and activities.

Encourages sustainable economic and human development, blending ecological and socio-cultural needs.

Biosphere Reserves Designation Criteria

The core area should represent a typical bio-geographical unit and be large enough to sustain viable populations across all trophic levels.

  • It must include an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core zone with significant value for nature conservation.
  • The site should have potential for preserving traditional tribal or rural lifestyles that reflect harmonious use of the environment.
  • The management authority must involve and cooperate with local communities to integrate biodiversity conservation with socio-economic development.
  • Efforts should focus on managing and containing conflicts while using community knowledge and experience for sustainable outcomes.

Difference Between Biosphere Reserves and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries

To understand conservation in India better, it’s important to know Difference Between Biosphere Reserve and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries. Both aim at protecting biodiversity, but their objectives, legal backing, and approach vary.

Difference Between Biosphere Reserves and National Park & Wildlife Sanctuaries

National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary

Biosphere Reserves

National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, Community Reserves and Tiger Reserves are established as per provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972

There is no law as such under which these Reserves are established.

No grazing or private tenurial rights land rights are allowed in National Parks.

Biosphere reserves serve as ‘living laboratories’ for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity. Thus, limited economic activity (sand and stone mining) is permitted

Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are set up for the protection of mammals normally

They envisage protection of plant species, Invertebrates and biotic community as a whole

List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025

India is home to a rich natural heritage, with ecosystems, to preserve this biodiversity and promote sustainable development, the country has established 18 Biosphere Reserves. Many of these are also recognized under UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, highlighting their global importance. These reserves not only safeguard endangered species but also protect diverse ecosystems and cultural heritage. Below is the complete List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025, along with their year of establishment, states covered, and key species protected.

List of Biosphere Reserves in India 2025

Year

Biosphere Reserves

State(s)

Key Species

Area (km²)

1986

Nilgiri

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

Nilgiri Tahr, Tiger

5,520

1988

Nanda Devi

Uttarakhand

Snow Leopard, Musk Deer

5,860

1988

Nokrek

Meghalaya

Red Panda, Hoolock Gibbon

820

1989

Gulf of Mannar

Tamil Nadu

Dugong, Olive Ridley Turtle

10,500

1989

Sundarbans

West Bengal

Royal Bengal Tiger

9,630

1989

Manas

Assam

Asiatic Elephant, Golden Langur

2,837

1989

Great Nicobar

Andaman & Nicobar

Saltwater Crocodile, Nicobar Megapode

885

1994

Simlipal

Odisha

Gaur, Tiger, Elephant

4,374

1998

Dihang-Dibang

Arunachal Pradesh

Takin, Red Panda

5,112

1997

Dibru-Saikhowa

Assam

Gangetic Dolphin, Bengal Tiger

765

1999

Pachmarhi

Madhya Pradesh

Indian Giant Squirrel

4,981

2000

Khangchendzonga

Sikkim

Red Panda, Snow Leopard

2,620

2001

Agasthyamalai

Kerala, Tamil Nadu

Nilgiri Tahr, Elephant

3,500

2005

Achanakmar-Amarkantak

Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

Wild Dog, Sarus Crane

3,835

2008

Great Rann of Kutch

Gujarat

Indian Wild Ass

12,454

2009

Cold Desert

Himachal Pradesh

Snow Leopard

7,770

2010

Seshachalam Hills

Andhra Pradesh

Slender Loris

4,755

2011

Panna

Madhya Pradesh

Bengal Tiger, Chinkara

2,998

First Biosphere Reserve in India

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, established in 1986, holds the distinction of being the First Biosphere Reserve in India. Spread across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, it forms part of the Western Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot. This reserve shelters a wide range of unique flora and fauna, including the endangered Nilgiri Tahr, the Lion-tailed Macaque, and the Malabar Giant Squirrel. Its diverse landscapes, from montane forests to grasslands, make it a vital ecological region, balancing conservation with the livelihood needs of local communities.

Smallest Biosphere Reserve in India

Nokrek Biosphere Reserve in Meghalaya is known as the Smallest Biosphere Reserve in India covering only 820 km². The location provides shelter to Red Panda, Hoolock Gibbon and unique citrus plant species.

Biosphere Reserve Importance

  • Conservation of Biodiversity - Protects endangered species, rare plants, animals, and ecosystems.
  • Sustainable Development - Encourages eco-tourism, organic farming, and traditional practices supporting local communities.
  • Climate Change Mitigation - Forests and wetlands act as carbon sinks, reducing global warming.
  • Research and Education - Provides opportunities for scientific research, wildlife studies, and conservation awareness.
  • Cultural Preservation - Safeguards indigenous tribes, their traditions, and sustainable lifestyles.

Biosphere Reserve Challenges

  • Human Encroachment - Expansion of agriculture, grazing, and settlements disrupts natural habitats.
  • Deforestation & Poaching - Illegal logging, hunting, and wildlife trade reduce biodiversity.
  • Climate Change - Alters rainfall, temperature, and ecosystem balance, affecting species survival.
  • Lack of Funding - Limited financial support weakens conservation and monitoring programs.
  • Tourism Pressure - Unregulated tourism leads to waste generation and habitat degradation.

Conflict with Locals - Restrictions on resource use often clash with community livelihood needs.

Also Check Other Posts
Biosphere Reserves in India National Parks in India
Waterfalls in India Highest Peak in India
Ramsar Sites in India Wildlife Sanctuaries in India
Dams in India Tiger Reserves in India
Mountain Passes in India Longest Bridge in India

Biosphere Reserves in India FAQs

Q1: What is meant by biosphere reserve?

Ans: A biosphere reserve is a protected area conserving biodiversity, supporting sustainable development, and prompting research and education for environmental protection.

Q2: How many biosphere reserves are in India?

Ans: India has 18 biosphere reserves, of which 12 are part of UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Q3: Is biosphere reserve class 8?

Ans: Yes, the concept of biosphere reserves is introduced in Class 8 NCERT Geography to explain biodiversity conservation.

Q4: What is the difference between a national park and a biosphere reserve?

Ans: A national park protects specific wildlife, while a biosphere reserve conserves biodiversity, includes human settlements, and promotes sustainable use.

Q5: Which is the largest biosphere reserve in India?

Ans: The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu is the largest in India.

EU’s CBAM Begins: Impact on India’s Steel and Aluminium Exports

January 2, 2026
CBAM

CBAM Latest News

  • The European Union implemented its carbon tax on selected carbon-intensive metals from January 1, a move expected to impact India’s steel exports. 
  • The tax applies to goods whose manufacturing processes generate significant carbon emissions, reflecting the EU’s push to curb carbon leakage and promote cleaner production.

EU’s Carbon Border Tax Comes into Force

  • The European Union has begun implementing the world’s first carbon tax under the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) from January 1. 
  • The move has drawn criticism from developing countries, including India, as it imposes a levy on carbon-intensive imports entering the EU.

What CBAM Covers

  • CBAM applies a carbon-related charge on imports from:
    • Power sector
    • Energy-intensive industries such as cement, steel, aluminium, oil refining, paper, glass, chemicals, and fertilisers
  • The mechanism targets goods originating from countries with lower environmental standards than the EU. 
  • Importantly, EU lawmakers retain the power to expand the product list in future.

Impact on India and Developing Countries

  • India’s exports to the EU are dominated by steel, iron, and aluminium, making them particularly vulnerable to CBAM-related costs.
  • Beyond India, the measure is expected to raise trade barriers for many developing economies.
  • A similar carbon border regulation is expected to be implemented by the United Kingdom this year, compounding pressures that already exist due to high US tariffs on metals imposed by the United States.

Global Pushback and Legal Challenges

  • Russia formally launched a dispute against CBAM in May last year, joined by other developing nations.
  • The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has warned that CBAM could:
    • Hurt export-led development
    • Reduce market access for poorer countries
    • Worsen global trade inequalities, especially if countries with carbon taxes and greener production are exempted

Developed vs Developing World Argument

  • EU’s position: CBAM merely extends domestic environmental standards to imports, preventing “carbon leakage” and ensuring fair competition.
  • Developing countries’ concern: CBAM violates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), a core concept in international environmental law recognised by the World Trade Organization.
    • Under CBDR, all countries share responsibility for addressing environmental challenges, but obligations must differ based on: Level of development; Historical contribution to environmental damage; Capacity to respond.

CBAM and the Shift in Steelmaking Technology

  • To comply with the EU’s CBAM, Indian steel exporters are seeking government support to transition from blast furnace–basic oxygen furnace (BF–BOF) routes to electric arc furnaces (EAFs), which use steel scrap and are significantly cleaner.

Emissions Profile of Steel Production Routes

  • Highest emissions: BF–BOF route
  • Moderate emissions: Gas-based direct reduced iron (DRI)
  • Lowest emissions: Scrap-based EAF route
  • Indian steel production is largely dependent on the blast furnace route, making exports more vulnerable under CBAM.

Industry Demands and Trade Negotiations

  • Exporters have urged the government to:
    • Support compliance with CBAM requirements
    • Seek a carve-out for MSMEs in ongoing India–EU trade deal negotiations, expected to conclude early this year
  • The EU has clarified that CBAM is not negotiable, as it is framed as a climate, not trade, measure.

Scrap Availability and Competitive Disadvantage

  • Indian exporters have flagged that the EU is regulating steel scrap exports to strengthen domestic capacity. 
  • The US and EU, the world’s largest scrap producers, extensively use arc furnaces, potentially benefiting their steel industries under CBAM while disadvantaging Indian manufacturers.

CBAM Impact: Price Cuts Likely for Indian Exporters

  • From January 1, 2026, every shipment of Indian steel and aluminium entering the EU will attract a carbon cost under CBAM. 
  • The Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) estimates exporters may need to cut prices by 15–22% to absorb the tax burden.
  • GTRI warns that MSMEs will be hit hardest due to:
    • High compliance, data, and verification costs
    • Risk of being priced out of the EU market altogether

Data Gaps Inflate Carbon Costs

  • A key challenge is the lack of plant-level emissions data:
    • Large producers often do not share verified emissions data with MSME buyers
    • In absence of verified data, EU authorities may apply default (highest) emission values, sharply increasing CBAM costs even if actual emissions are lower
  • Experts suggest reducing compliance costs through Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs):
    • An Indian certifying body’s emissions data could be recognised by the EU.
  • Experts caution that if competitors like China comply faster, Indian exporters could lose competitiveness.

CBAM: Trade Protection or Climate Action

  • Indian trade experts argue that climate–trade measures like the EU’s CBAM are driven more by import curbs and commercial interests of developed countries than genuine environmental protection.
  • A United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) study (2021) estimated that CBAM would reduce global CO₂ emissions by only 0.1%, while significantly restricting exports from developing countries.
  • Amid concerns that CBAM breaches WTO principles, UNCTAD suggested the EU should use CBAM revenues to support cleaner technologies in developing countries.

India’s Official Position

  • Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman termed CBAM unilateral, arbitrary, and a trade barrier, stating that measures like CBAM and the EU deforestation law undermine energy transition efforts. 
  • India has formally conveyed its concerns to the European Union.

Source: IE | ET

CBAM FAQs

Q1: What is the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

Ans: CBAM is the EU’s carbon tax on imports of carbon-intensive goods, aimed at preventing carbon leakage by aligning import costs with EU climate standards.

Q2: Which Indian exports are most affected by CBAM?

Ans: India’s steel, iron, and aluminium exports are most vulnerable, as these sectors are energy-intensive and form the bulk of India’s shipments to the EU.

Q3: Why do developing countries oppose CBAM?

Ans: Developing nations argue CBAM violates Common But Differentiated Responsibilities by imposing uniform climate costs despite differing development levels and historical emissions.

Q4: How could CBAM affect Indian exporters’ competitiveness?

Ans: Exporters may need to cut prices by 15–22% to absorb carbon costs, raising risks of MSMEs being priced out of EU markets.

Q5: What solutions are suggested to reduce CBAM’s impact?

Ans: Experts suggest mutual recognition agreements for emissions certification and using CBAM revenues to support cleaner technologies in developing countries

List of Anglo-Sikh Wars, History, Series of Event, Aftermath

January 2, 2026
Anglo-Sikh Wars

The Anglo-Sikh Wars were two significant battles fought between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company in the mid-19th century. These wars led to the fall of the Sikh Empire and British control over Punjab. The First Anglo-Sikh War happened in 1845 whereas the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848. The fall of the Sikh Empire marked the end of one of the last major independent Indian states before the Revolt of 1857.

Anglo-Sikh Wars

In the early 19th century, the British East India Company aimed to extend its dominance over Punjab, a region governed by the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. However, after Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, internal conflicts and political instability weakened the empire. Utilising this opportunity, the Britishers increased their influence, escalating tensions that eventually led to open conflict. The Anglo-Sikh Wars, fought between 1845-1849, resulted in British control over the Sikh Empire, reshaping the political landscape of the region.

First Anglo-Sikh War

In the between 1845-1846, Maharaja Ranjit Singh expanded and consolidated the Sikh kingdom of Punjab, creating a powerful buffer state as British-controlled territories steadily advanced toward Punjab’s frontiers. To maintain balance, he pursued a cautious alliance with the British, even ceding territories south of the Sutlej River.

Ranjit Singh modernized his army by including Hindu and Muslim contingents and employing European and American officers to train Sikh forces on modern lines. While the British viewed this with suspicion, the deeper causes of conflict were more complex.

First Anglo-Sikh War Course

The British began with around 20,000-30,000 soldiers, while the Sikh army, under Lal Singh and Teja Singh, fielded nearly 50,000 troops. Despite their numerical advantage, the treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh weakened Sikh resistance. Major Battles includes:

  1. Battle of Mudki (18 December 1845): The British won despite strong Sikh resistance.
  2. Battle of Ferozeshah (21-22 December 1845): A battle where the British barely managed to secure victory.
  3. Battle of Baddowal ( 21 January 1846):Ranjodh Singh Majithia led the battle and burned a portion of British cantonment. 
  4. Battle of Aliwal (28 January 1846): The British gained the upper hand by defeating the Sikh army.
  5. Battle of Sobraon (10 February 1846): This decisive battle led to the end of the First Anglo-Sikh War.

First Anglo-Sikh War Treaty

  • Treaty of Lahore (8 March 1846): The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore, which imposed humiliating terms on the Sikhs. The strength of the Sikh army was reduced, and political control shifted to the British. Maharaja Duleep Singh was proclaimed ruler, with Rani Jindan as regent and Lal Singh as wazir. Since the Sikhs could not pay the full war indemnity, Kashmir (including Jammu) was transferred to Gulab Singh, who agreed to pay the Company ₹75 lakhs.
  • Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846): A follow-up treaty formally ceded Kashmir to Gulab Singh, establishing him as the independent ruler of Jammu and Kashmir.
  • Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846): Dissatisfaction over the Kashmir settlement led to Sikh unrest. The Treaty of Bhairowal removed Rani Jindan from the regency. A Council of Regency, composed of eight Sikh sardars, was set up to govern Punjab under the supervision of Henry Lawrence, the British Resident

Second Anglo-Sikh War

Rising tensions between the British and the Sikhs following the Treaty of Lahore led to the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848. The treaty had significantly weakened the Sikh Empire by territorial losses and a weakened Sikh military. This led to uprisings in regions like Multan and Hazara, where the killing of two British officers escalated tensions into a full-scale conflict.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Course

Lord Dalhousie personally supervised the campaign in Punjab. The war was marked by three major battles that decided the fate of the Sikh kingdom:

  • Battle of Ramnagar (22 November 1848): The first clash took place at Ramnagar under Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander-in-chief. The battle ended inconclusively, with neither side gaining a decisive advantage.
  • Battle of Chillianwala (13 January 1849): The second major engagement occurred at Chillianwala. It was one of the bloodiest encounters of the Anglo-Sikh wars, with heavy losses on both sides. Although the British claimed success, the outcome was far from clear, and the Sikhs fought with great determination.
  • Battle of Gujarat (21 February 1849): The battle was fought near Gujarat, close to the Chenab River. The Sikh army suffered a crushing defeat. Their Afghan allies were expelled from India, and the Sikh resistance collapsed soon after.

Meanwhile, at Multan, the British secured victory after a long siege. Mulraj surrendered in January 1849, marking the end of his rebellion. Following the defeat at Gujarat, Sikh commanders like Sher Singh and Chattar Singh surrendered in March 1849.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Impact

The annexation of Punjab was formally completed in March 1849, following the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Under the terms imposed by Lord Dalhousie, the young Maharaja Duleep Singh, only eleven years old at the time, was deposed and later sent to England on a pension. His mother, Rani Jindan (Jind Kaur), was forcibly separated from him, confined at Firozpur, and stripped of her wealth and allowances.

To administer the newly acquired province, Sir John Lawrence was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab. His tenure laid the foundation of British rule in the region, combining military control with administrative reorganisation. In recognition of his role in the conquest, Dalhousie was elevated to the rank of Marquis.

One of the most symbolic spoils of conquest was the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which the British appropriated. Originally part of the Sikh royal treasury, Maharaja Ranjit Singh had expressed in his will that the gem should be donated to the Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha. The British ignored this wish and instead claimed the diamond under the Treaty of Lahore (1849), transferring it to the British Crown.

Anglo-Sikh Wars Impact

The Anglo-Sikh Wars significantly shaped India’s history, leaving lasting political and social effects.

  1. The wars led to the downfall of the Sikh Empire, bringing Punjab under British control.
  2. The annexation of Punjab further strengthened British dominance in India.
  3. The British administration introduced new policies, impacting governance, military structure, and society in Punjab.
  4. The conflicts played a key role in shaping Sikh consciousness and promoting a spirit of resistance.
  5. The Sikh defeat served as a reminder of colonial oppression, inspiring future uprisings against British rule.

Anglo-Sikh Wars FAQs

Q1: How many Anglo-Sikh wars are there?

Ans: There were two Anglo-Sikh Wars: the First (1845–1846) and the Second (1848–1849), both leading to the British annexation of Punjab and the fall of the Sikh Empire.

Q2: Who won the 2nd Anglo-Sikh war?

Ans: The British East India Company won the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849), defeating the Sikh forces and annexing Punjab, marking the complete end of Sikh sovereignty in India.

Q3: Who was the bravest Sikh warrior?

Ans: Hari Singh Nalwa (1791–1837), chief commander of the Sikh Khalsa Fauj, is renowned for leading conquests in Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar, and Jamrud.

Q4: Who led First Anglo-Sikh War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) was led by Governor-General Sir Henry Hardinge and Sir Hugh Gough for the British, while Lal Singh and Tej Singh led the Sikhs.

Q5: Which Treaty ended the First Anglo-Sikh War?

Ans: The First Anglo-Sikh War concluded with the Treaty of Lahore, signed on March 9, 1846.

India’s Tobacco Taxation Reforms – Explained

January 2, 2026
Tobacco Taxation

Tobacco Taxation Latest News

  • India has notified a new taxation regime for tobacco and related sin goods, effective February 1, following legislative changes approved by Parliament.

Taxation on Tobacco and Sin Goods in India

  • Sin goods such as tobacco, pan masala, and alcohol are taxed heavily in India due to their adverse public health and social impacts. 
  • Tobacco taxation serves a dual policy purpose: discouraging consumption through higher prices and generating revenue for public expenditure, particularly in health and social security.

Structure of Tobacco Taxation in India

  • India follows a multi-layered taxation framework for tobacco products, involving:
    • Goods and Services Tax (GST)
    • Central Excise Duty
    • Cess (earlier GST Compensation Cess, now replaced for tobacco)
  • Under GST, tobacco products have always been placed in the highest tax slabs due to their classification as demerit goods. 
  • However, despite high nominal tax rates, tobacco products, especially cigarettes, remained relatively affordable for consumers over the past decade.

Public Health Rationale

  • Global public health bodies, including the WHO, recommend that tobacco prices should rise faster than income growth to reduce affordability and consumption. 
  • In India, stagnation in effective excise duties meant that real prices of cigarettes did not rise sufficiently, weakening tobacco control efforts.

Revenue Considerations

  • Historically, tobacco has been a major contributor to indirect tax revenues. 
  • The GST Compensation Cess, introduced in 2017, was meant to compensate States for revenue losses due to GST implementation. 
  • While it ended for most goods, tobacco remained one of the last items subjected to this cess, reflecting both its revenue potential and public policy priority.

Shift Towards Purpose-Specific Cess

  • The recent reform reflects a shift from a general compensation-oriented cess to a dedicated, non-lapsable cess, designed to ensure predictable funding without raising broad-based taxes. 
  • This approach aligns fiscal objectives with sector-specific policy needs, particularly national security and long-term preparedness.

News Summary

  • The Union Finance Ministry has notified a comprehensive restructuring of tobacco taxation, effective February 1, following the passage of the Central Excise (Amendment) Act, 2025.
  • This marks one of the most significant overhauls of tobacco taxation since the introduction of GST.

End of GST Compensation Cess

  • The GST compensation cess on tobacco products will cease from February 1, as the original objective of compensating States for GST-related losses has largely been met. 
  • The cess had already been extended beyond its original timeline due to pandemic-induced revenue shortfalls.

Introduction of New Excise and Cess Framework

  • To replace the compensation cess, the government has introduced:
    • Revised central excise duties on tobacco products
    • A new cess under the Health Security-cum-National Security Act, 2025, applicable to pan masala and related units
  • This new cess is designed to create a non-lapsable and predictable revenue stream, particularly for long-term security preparedness and capacity building, without increasing the tax burden on the general population.

Revised GST Slabs

  • Significant changes in GST rates include:
    • Beedis shifted to the 18% GST slab from the earlier 28% category
    • All other tobacco products, including cigarettes and chewing tobacco, moved to a 40% GST slab
  • These changes are aimed at simplifying the tax structure while ensuring higher effective taxation on products with greater health risks.

New Valuation Mechanism

  • For smokeless tobacco products such as gutkha, khaini, jarda, and chewing tobacco, GST valuation will now be based on the retail sale price (RSP) declared on packaging. 
  • This is expected to curb under-reporting and tax evasion, a persistent issue in the tobacco sector.

Significance

  • The reform aligns India’s tobacco taxation closer to global public health guidance by:
    • Increasing the real prices of tobacco products
    • Reducing affordability over time
    • Strengthening enforcement through clearer valuation rules
  • At the same time, it ensures fiscal stability by replacing a temporary cess with a purpose-specific, long-term revenue instrument.

Source: TH | TOI

Tobacco Taxation FAQs

Q1: Why are tobacco products taxed heavily in India?

Ans: Tobacco is a demerit good, and high taxation is used to discourage consumption and address public health costs.

Q2: What changes have been made to GST on tobacco products?

Ans: Beedis are now taxed at 18% GST, while all other tobacco products attract 40% GST.

Q3: Why was the GST compensation cess on tobacco removed?

Ans: Its original purpose of compensating States for GST losses has largely been fulfilled.

Q4: What is the new cess introduced on tobacco products?

Ans: A dedicated cess under the Health Security-cum-National Security Act, 2025, applicable mainly to pan masala units.

Q5: How does the new valuation mechanism affect smokeless tobacco?

Ans: GST will now be calculated based on the declared retail sale price, reducing scope for tax evasion.

Article 40 of Indian Constitution, Importance, Panchayati Raj System

January 2, 2026
Article 40 of Indian Constitution

Article 40 of the Indian Constitution directs the state to establish and empower village panchayats to function as self-governing institutions. Being a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy, this article focuses on decentralisation of power and encourages the citizens of India to become a part of governance and foster rural development. To put into action, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act 1992 was implemented and the Panchayati Raj System was institutionalised. In this article, we are going to look into Article 40 and its constitutional importance. 

Article 40 of the Constitution of India

The Article 40 of the Constitution of India states that “The State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self government.” 

Added in the Directive Principle of State Policy, Article 40 aims to build a system of self-governance in villages, where decision-making is localised and people are involved in managing their community affairs.  The article is based on Gandhian principles and emphasises on self-sufficiency and local self-governance while ensuring self-sustaining units within decentralised units. 

Panchayati Raj System of India

The Panchayati Raj System of India has been framed on the lines of local self-governance. The goal has been to promote autonomy in rural areas and make sure people get an equal right to participate in the governance process. Rajasthan was the first state to opt for panchayati raj form of government in India. 

Panchayati Raj System Structure 

The Panchayati Raj System in India was introduced following the recommendations of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957), which advocated a decentralized governance structure. As a result, a three-tier system was established—

  • Village Panchayat- local administration in rural areas
  • Panchayat Samiti – Acts as the intermediate tier that coordinates and links multiple Gram Panchayats
  • Zila Parishad- district level body. Supervises the work of panchayat Samitis within its jurisdiction

Article 40 of Indian Constitution Importance

Article 40, enshrined in Part IV of the Indian Constitution (Directive Principles of State Policy), holds significant importance in shaping India’s democratic and developmental ethos. Though not enforceable by law, it provides a vital constitutional directive for establishing village panchayats, promoting decentralized governance, and strengthening grassroots democracy.

Key Aspects of Article 40 are:

  • Decentralization of Power:
     Article 40 advocates the devolution of authority from the central and state governments to village-level institutions, ensuring that governance is more accessible, accountable, and people-centric.
  • Strengthening Grassroots Democracy:
     By empowering local self-governments, it fosters participatory democracy where citizens are directly involved in planning, implementation, and monitoring of development initiatives.
  • Rural Development and Self-Reliance:
     Panchayats, as envisioned by Article 40, play a critical role in delivering welfare schemes, managing local resources, and resolving community issues, thereby promoting self-sufficiency and sustainable rural development.
  • Realisation of Gandhian Ideals:
     Article 40 reflects Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of self-reliant and self-governing village republics, where governance is transparent, participatory, and rooted in local needs.
  • Constitutional Empowerment through the 73rd Amendment:
     The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, gave constitutional status to panchayats, operationalizing Article 40 by providing a clear framework of powers, functions, and safeguards for local governance.
  • Inclusive Representation:
     By mandating reservations for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women, the panchayati raj system under Article 40 ensures inclusive and representative governance at the village level.

Article 40 Important Cases 

Article 40, as part of the Directive Principles of State Policy, is not legally enforceable in a court of law. However, it plays an important role in shaping India's vision of decentralized governance through village panchayats. Recognizing this, both the judiciary and various expert committees have emphasized the importance of empowering Panchayati Raj institutions to ensure effective self-governance and inclusive rural development.

Judicial Endorsement of Article 40

  • Balwant Raj vs Union of India (2000):
     In this landmark case, the Supreme Court reinforced the constitutional vision of decentralized governance, underscoring the essential role of strong village panchayats in achieving self-reliant and sustainable rural development. The judgment upheld Article 40 as a guiding force for empowering rural India.

  • State of Karnataka vs Ranganatha Reddy (1978):
     This case emphasized the necessity of granting real authority, powers, and financial resources to village panchayats. The Court advocated for meaningful devolution of power, asserting that local bodies must be equipped to fulfill their constitutional responsibilities effectively.

Key Reports Supporting Article 40

  • Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report (1957):
     Regarded as a cornerstone in the history of decentralized governance in India, this report recommended the establishment of the three-tier Panchayati Raj system, laying the foundation for structured grassroots democracy.

National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002):
 The Commission reviewed the performance of local self-government institutions and proposed significant reforms aimed at empowering Panchayati Raj bodies. Its recommendations sought to enhance their effectiveness, accountability, and autonomy in local governance.

Also Check Related Articles
Article 295 of Indian Constitution Article 194 of Indian Constitution
Article 39 of Indian Constitution Article 191 of Indian Constitution
Article 20 of Indian Constitution Article 16 of Indian Constitution
Article 67 of Indian Constitution Article 40 of Indian Constitution
Article 78 of Indian Constitution

Article 40 of Indian Constitution FAQs

Q1: What is the Article 40 of the Constitution?

Ans: Article 40 directs the State to organize village panchayats and empower them as units of self-government.

Q2: What is the importance of Article 40?

Ans: It lays the foundation for grassroots democracy and decentralized governance in rural India.

Q3: What is the 73rd constitutional amendment act?

Ans: The 73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions and added Part IX to the Constitution.

Q4: Why was the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee created?

Ans: It was formed in 1957 to examine and recommend measures for democratic decentralization in rural governance.

Q5: What are the articles under the Panchayati Raj System in India?

Ans: Articles 243 to 243-O under Part IX of the Constitution pertain to the Panchayati Raj System.

Cropping Pattern in India, Types, Importance, Factors Affecting

January 2, 2026
Cropping Pattern in India

Cropping Pattern in India refers to the distribution and arrangement of crops in a region, including the sequence in which they are grown and the share of land allotted to each crop during different seasons. The choice of Cropping Pattern in India is largely shaped by factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil characteristics, and overall climatic conditions of the area.

Cropping Pattern in India

Cropping Pattern in India refers to the variety of crops grown in a region at a given time. In India, this pattern is influenced not just by natural factors such as temperature, rainfall, wind, and soil quality, but also by economic aspects like minimum support prices, market demand, crop value, and the availability of labour. 

For example, rice dominates during years of good monsoon rainfall, whereas in years of weak monsoons, farmers often switch to hardier crops like millets. Similarly, certain regions have developed strong associations with particular crops, cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam, and jute in West Bengal continue to be the mainstay due to favourable conditions for their cultivation.

Cropping Pattern in India Types

  • Mono-cropping: In this system, the same crop is cultivated on the same piece of land year after year. While simple to manage, it often reduces soil fertility over time.
  • Multiple cropping: This involves growing more than one crop on the same land in a single year. It can be of two types:
    • Intercropping: Different crops are grown together on the same field in a planned row arrangement, helping farmers make better use of space and resources.
    • Sequential cropping: Different crops are cultivated one after another in the same field within a year, ensuring continuous use of the land.
  • Mixed cropping: In this method, farmers grow two or more crops simultaneously on the same land, but without a fixed row pattern. It reduces the risk of complete crop failure, as one crop may survive if another is damaged.
  • Relay cropping: A variation of multiple cropping, relay cropping involves planting the next crop before the first one is fully harvested. This overlapping use of time helps maximize productivity.

Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern in India

The Cropping Pattern in India is a mix of geographical, economic, political, and historical factors which are discussed in brief below:

Geographical Factors

  • Relief: The landscape directly influences what can be grown. For example, rice thrives on irrigated hill terraces, while tea and coffee need well-drained slopes with ample rainfall. In irrigated plains with warm climates, crops like rice and sugarcane dominate, while wheat prefers regions with moderate temperatures and rainfall.
  • Rainfall: The amount and distribution of rain create distinct cropping zones:
    • Heavy rainfall areas (150+ cm annually): East India and the West Coast plains grow rice, tea, coffee, jute, and sugarcane. Livestock is also common due to abundant fodder.
    • Medium rainfall areas (75-150 cm): Eastern UP, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh (east), and Vidarbha in Maharashtra support rice (higher rainfall), wheat (lower rainfall), maize, soybeans, and cotton.
    • Low rainfall areas (25-75 cm): Semi-arid stretches cultivate millets, jowar, bajra, ragi, and oilseeds. Wheat is grown in irrigated tracts, and mixed cropping with pulses is common to reduce risk.
  • Soil: Each soil type has its own crop preference. Clayey soils favour rice, loamy soils suit wheat, and black regur soils of the Deccan are perfect for cotton. Coarse grains thrive in lighter soils, while delta soils of Bengal, renewed by annual floods, make jute cultivation ideal. In Darjeeling, the humus-rich soils nurture tea plantations.

Economic Factors

  • Irrigation: Areas with strong irrigation support multiple crops annually—rice in southern belts, wheat in the north, while coarse grains receive less attention.
  • Size of Landholdings: Small farmers often grow subsistence crops like food grains, while larger holdings allow for cash crops and commercial farming. Still, monocultures of rice and wheat dominate many large farms.
  • Risk and Insurance: Access to crop insurance influences patterns. Plantation crops in southern states, for example, expanded because insurance schemes made them less risky.
  • Inputs and Infrastructure: Seeds, fertilisers, water storage, transport, and market access play a big role in deciding what farmers grow.
  • Value and Demand: High-value crops like apples are replacing millets in Himachal and Uttarakhand. Similarly, rice dominates in densely populated regions because of high demand and assured markets.

Political Factors

Government policies often Cropping Patterns in India. Legislation like Food Crops Acts, subsidies, or land reforms can push farmers toward certain crops. The Minimum Support Price (MSP) system has made rice and wheat dominant, leading to monocultures in many regions. In times of drought or inflation, policies shift again, encouraging or discouraging specific crops.

Historical Factors

Tea plantations in Assam and Kangra Valley trace back to British times. Sugarcane expanded in North India because colonial rulers promoted it as a replacement for indigo when artificial dyes killed its market.

Post-Green Revolution, the surplus production of rice and wheat shifted the focus to diversification. Oilseeds and pulses gained more space in fields, marking a new chapter in India’s cropping story.

Cropping Pattern in India FAQs

Q1: What is meant by the cropping pattern?

Ans: Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of land under different crops and the arrangement or sequence of crops cultivated in an area over time.

Q2: What are the major cropping seasons in India?

Ans: India has three main cropping seasons: Kharif (June–October), Rabi (October–March), and Zaid (April–June).

Q3: Which factors influence cropping patterns in India?

Ans: Climate, soil type, rainfall, irrigation, technology, government policies, market demand, and socio-economic conditions affect cropping patterns.

Q4: What is the difference between cropping pattern and cropping system?

Ans: Cropping pattern is the distribution of crops in time and space, while the cropping system includes techniques like intercropping, crop rotation, and mixed farming.

Q5: Which are the main crops grown in India?

Ans: Rice, wheat, maize, millets, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, and plantation crops like tea and coffee dominate Indian agriculture.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, List, Map, Area, Importance

January 2, 2026
Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India are special places where animals can live safely without human interference. These protected areas are designed to keep the natural habitats of animals safe, where activities like hunting, poaching, and trapping are strictly forbidden. India is home to a wide variety of these protected spaces, from lush forests and dense jungles to riverbanks and majestic mountains. Each sanctuary reflects the country’s commitment to preserving its incredible wildlife and diverse landscapes.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India is a specially protected area dedicated to the preservation of both flora and fauna. These sanctuaries are established as natural habitats where tourism is typically restricted, focusing on undisturbed conservation. The inception of these protected zones began with the Wildlife Protection Act of 1947, with further reinforcements introduced through the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, which empowered state governments to officially designate ecologically significant regions as sanctuaries.

India now boasts approximately 553 wildlife sanctuaries that collectively cover around 119,776 square kilometers. Among these, 51 are designated as tiger reserves, primarily serving as safe place for Bengal tigers. Classified under IUCN Category IV, these sanctuaries aim to safeguard ecosystems with high ecological, geomorphologic, and natural significance, reinforcing India's commitment to wildlife preservation.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Provisions

  • Wildlife Sanctuaries are notified by State Governments under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 to conserve wild animals, habitats, and biodiversity.
  • Constitutional backing is provided through Article 48A and Article 51A(g), making wildlife protection a State duty and citizen responsibility.
  • Entry, hunting, exploitation of wildlife, forest produce removal, and setting fires are strictly regulated or prohibited.
  • Certain traditional rights of local communities may continue, and relocation is not compulsory.
  • Sanctuaries are managed by State Forest Departments under the Chief Wildlife Warden.
  • Eco-Sensitive Zones may be declared around sanctuaries to control developmental activities.
  • Violations attract penalties including imprisonment and fines, with stricter punishment for offences involving endangered species.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

The following table provides an updated List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, specifying their respective states and union territories along with the area they cover.

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

S.No.

State & UT

State Area (km²)

No. of Wildlife Sanctuary

Area (km²)

% of State Area

1.

Andhra Pradesh

160229

13

6771.40

4.23

2.

Arunachal Pradesh

83743

13

7614.56

9.09

3.

Assam

78438

17

1728.95

2.20

4.

Bihar

94163

12

2851.67

3.03

5.

Chhattisgarh

135191

11

3760.28

2.78

6.

Goa

3702

6

647.91

17.50

7.

Gujarat

196022

23

16618.42

8.48

8.

Haryana

44212

7

118.21

0.27

9.

Himachal Pradesh

55673

28

6115.97

10.99

10.

Jharkhand

79714

11

1955.82

2.45

11.

Karnataka

191791

38

8216.69

4.28

12.

Kerala

38863

18

2156.21

5.55

13.

Madhya Pradesh

308245

24

7046.19

2.29

14.

Maharashtra

307713

49

7861.70

2.55

15.

Manipur

22327

7

708.14

3.17

16.

Meghalaya

22429

4

94.11

0.42

17.

Mizoram

21081

9

1359.75

6.45

18.

Nagaland

16579

4

43.91

0.26

19.

Odisha

155707

19

7094.65

4.56

20.

Punjab

50362

13

326.60

0.65

21.

Rajasthan

342239

25

5592.38

1.63

22.

Sikkim

7096

7

399.10

5.62

23.

Tamil Nadu

130058

33

7096.54

5.46

24.

Telangana

114840

9

5672.70

4.94

25.

Tripura

10486

4

603.64

5.76

26.

Uttar Pradesh

240928

26

5822.20

2.42

27.

Uttarakhand

53483

7

2690.12

5.03

28.

West Bengal

88752

16

1440.18

1.62

29.

Andaman & Nicobar

8249

97

395.60

4.80

30.

Chandigarh

114

2

26.01

22.82

31.

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

491

1

92.17

18.77

32.

Daman & Diu

112

1

2.19

1.96

33.

Delhi

1483

1

19.61

1.32

34.

Jammu & Kashmir

163090

14

1815.04

1.11

35.

Ladakh

59146

2

9000.00

15.22

36.

Lakshadweep

32

1

0.01

0.03

37.

Puducherry

480

1

3.90

0.81

 

TOTAL

3287263

573

123762.56

3.76

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map

The Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Map highlights the locations of over 570 Wildlife Sanctuaries across India including deserts and wetlands to forests and mangroves. Major clusters are visible in states like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Kerala, and Madhya Pradesh, as well as the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

10 Largest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

The 10 Largest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India cover vast and diverse ecosystems, ranging from arid deserts to dense forests and mangrove wetlands. These sanctuaries play a crucial role in conserving endangered species, maintaining ecological balance, and protecting India’s rich biodiversity.

Rank Wildlife Sanctuary Area (km²) Location
1 Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary 7,506.22 Gujarat
2 Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary 4,954 Gujarat
3 Desert National Park 3,162 Rajasthan
4 Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary 1,222 Maharashtra
5 Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary 914.02 Chhattisgarh
6 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary 950 Assam
7 Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary 423.55 Maharashtra
8 Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary 492.46 Karnataka
9 Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary 3,568 Andhra Pradesh
10 Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuary 362.4 West Bengal

10 Smallest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

The 10 Smallest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India occupy limited geographical areas but play a vital role in protecting region-specific flora and fauna. Despite their small size, they significantly contribute to biodiversity conservation, bird protection, and local ecological balance.

Rank Wildlife Sanctuary Area (km²) Location
1 Mayureshwar Wildlife Sanctuary 5.14 Maharashtra
2 Bor Wildlife Sanctuary 61.1 Maharashtra
3 Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary 15.53 Odisha
4 Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary 7.98 Goa
5 Mahavir Swami Wildlife Sanctuary 5.4 Uttar Pradesh
6 Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary 635.4 Telangana
7 Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary 38.8 Assam
8 Kutch Bustard Sanctuary 2 Gujarat
9 Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary 3 Punjab
10 Thol Wildlife Sanctuary 7 Gujarat

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India State Wise List

Below is the complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India according to the states.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India State Wise List

S No.

States

Wildlife Sanctuaries

1.

Assam

Nambor Wildlife Sanctuary

Dihing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary

East Karbi Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary

Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary

Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary

2.

Bihar

Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

Gautam Budha Wildlife Sanctuary

Pant (Rajgir) Wildlife Sanctuary

Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary

3.

Chhatisgarh

Bhairamgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

Badalkhol Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhoramdev Wildlife Sanctuary

Udanti Wild Buffalo Wildlife Sanctuary

4.

Goa

Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary

Madei Wildlife Sanctuary

5.

Gujarat

Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary

Porbandar Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Jambugodha Wildlife Sanctuary

Wild Ass Wildlife Sanctuary

Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary

Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Sasan Gir Sanctuary

Mitiyala Wildlife Sanctuary

6.

Haryana

Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary

N Khaparwas Wildlife Sanctuary

Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary

7.

Himachal Pradesh

Bandli Wildlife Sanctuary

Daranghati Wildlife Sanctuary

Dhauladhar Wildlife Sanctuary

Talra Wildlife Sanctuary

Pong Dam Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Nargu Wildlife Sanctuary

9.

Jharkhand

Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary

Parasnath Wildlife Sanctuary

Palkot Wildlife Sanctuary

10.

Karnataka

Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary

Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary

Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary

Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

11.

Kerala

Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary

Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary

Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary

Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary

12.

Madhya Pradesh

Bori Wildlife Sanctuary

Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Ken Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary

National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary

Orcha Wildlife Sanctuary

13.

Maharashtra

Koyana Wildlife Sanctuary

Painganga Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary

Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary

Great Indian Bustard Wildlife Sanctuary

14.

Manipur

Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary

15.

Meghalaya

—

16.

Mizoram

Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary (TR)

Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary

Baghmara Pitcher Plant Wildlife Sanctuary

17.

Nagaland

Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary

Rangapahar Wildlife Sanctuary

18.

Odisha

Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary

Chilika (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary

Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

Satkosia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary

19.

Punjab

Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary

Harike Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Jhajjar Bacholi Wildlife Sanctuary

20.

Rajasthan

Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary

Jawahar Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary

Ramsagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Shergarh Wildlife Sanctuary

21.

Sikkim

Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary

Kitam Wildlife Sanctuary (Bird)

Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary

22.

Tamil Nadu

Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) Wildlife Sanctuary

Karaivetti Wildlife Sanctuary

Pulicat Lake Wildlife Sanctuary

Vedanthangal Wildlife Sanctuary

Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary

23.

Tripura

Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary

Rowa Wildlife Sanctuary

Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary

24.

Uttarakhand

Askot Musk Deer Wildlife Sanctuary

Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary

Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary

Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary

Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary

25.

Uttar Pradesh

Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary

Ranipur Wildlife Sanctuary

Sohagibarwa Wildlife Sanctuary

Sur Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary

Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary

National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary

26.

West Bengal

Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary

Chintamani Kar Bird Sanctuary

Haliday Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary

Lothian Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Union Territory List

Below is the complete List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India according to the Union Territory.

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Union Territory List

S No.

UTs

Wildlife Sanctuary

1.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Bamboo Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Barren Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Chanel Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Peacock Island Wildlife Sanctuary

Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary

2.

Jammu & Kashmir

Gulmarg Wildlife Sanctuary

Limber Wildlife Sanctuary

Nandini Wildlife Sanctuary

3.

Lakshadweep

Pitti Wildlife Sanctuary (Bird)

4.

Dadra Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

Dadra & Nagar Haveli Wildlife Sanctuary

Fudam Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India Importance

Wildlife Sanctuaries of India serve as indispensable sanctuaries not only for animals but also for entire ecosystems. Acting as protected areas, these sanctuaries shield endangered species, natural landscapes, and even indigenous cultures from external threats. As vital resources for both nature and humanity, their conservation is crucial.

Protecting Endangered Species

Relocating endangered species is both costly and challenging, which is why preserving them in their natural habitat is essential. Sanctuaries enable these species to survive in an environment free from the risks of poaching and habitat destruction. Here, under the careful watch of sanctuary staff, species can breed, adapt, and grow their populations naturally. For researchers and biologists, sanctuaries provide a unique opportunity to study animal behaviors in a natural setting without disrupting their way of life.

Safeguarding Landscapes and Ecosystems

With urban expansion on the rise, natural forests are increasingly under threat. Wildlife Sanctuaries in India combat this trend by protecting forested areas and allowing natural landscapes to flourish. From dense forests to serene rivers, valleys, and waterfalls, these protected zones maintain essential features of our environment. 

Preserving Indigenous Cultures

For many indigenous tribes, sanctuaries represent both home and heritage. Certain tribes, such as Odisha’s Saara Adivasis, have coexisted with nature for centuries, sustaining forest ecosystems through traditional practices. Sanctuaries not only protect the biodiversity within them but also help preserve these communities' cultures and ways of life. Free from the pressures of urban development, these tribes can continue their customs, which, in turn, support forest conservation.

Conserving Biodiversity

Human activity has posed significant threats to global biodiversity. Sanctuaries offer a haven where ecosystems can exist without interference. Often described as in-situ conservation, sanctuaries maintain the natural balance, supporting ecosystems in their original configuration, thereby aiding species diversity and ecological health.

Promoting Ecotourism

Ecotourism has grown as more people seek meaningful travel experiences that support environmental conservation. Wildlife Sanctuaries in India provide a setting where people can observe animals in their natural, cage-free surroundings, often with their young, unhindered by the limitations of captivity. The revenue generated from ecotourism supports conservation efforts and aids in sanctuary development, creating a cycle where tourism funds the very habitats tourists come to appreciate.

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Wildlife Sanctuaries of India FAQs

Q1: How many wildlife sanctuaries are there in India?

Ans: There are 573 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 123,762.56 km2, which is 3.76% of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database Centre, Nov. 2023).

Q2: Which is the 1st wildlife sanctuary in India?

Ans: The first wildlife sanctuary established in India is Manas National Park, also known as Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.

Q3: Which is the largest wildlife sanctuary of India?

Ans: The Ranthambore National Park, located in the state of Rajasthan, is the largest wildlife sanctuary in India. It serves as a national reserve for the tigers.

Q4: Which is the famous wildlife sanctuary in India?

Ans: Corbett National Park, located in Uttarakhand, is widely regarded as the oldest wildlife sanctuary in India, established in 1936. It's famous for its Bengal tiger population and was named after Jim Corbett.

Q5: Which is the largest wildlife sanctuary in the world?

Ans: Northeast Greenland National Park is the largest terrestrial protected area in the world, encompassing a massive 972,000 sq.km. (375,000 sq mi) in eastern Greenland.

Goods and Services Tax, History, Components, Benefits

January 2, 2026
Goods and Services Tax

The Goods and Services Tax was an important reform introduced on 1st July 2017 by the Government of India to reform the indirect tax structure of the country. This new initiative also helped in improving Ease of Doing Business (EoDB) of India as well as unified and simplified the existing tax system. In this article, we are going to study about the Goods and Services Tax, its features, objectives and benefits. 

Goods and Services Tax (GST)

  • Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services for domestic consumption across India. 
  • While consumers pay this tax at the point of purchase, it is collected and deposited with the government by the businesses providing these goods and services. GST has unified and replaced a range of previous indirect taxes levied by both the Central and State Governments. 
  • It is implemented nationwide and is based on the principle of value addition at each stage of the supply chain.

GST History and Evolution in India

  • The Kelkar Task Force on Indirect Tax, suggested the implementation of Goods and Services Tax in 2003, on the lines of Value Added Tax. 
  • In 2006, the National Goods and Services Tax implementation was suggested in the Budget Speech. 
  • The ‘One Nation One Tax’ system bill was introduced in 2014 as the 122nd Amendment. The bill got passed in 2016. 
  • The Goods and Services Tax was finally implemented in India on 1st July 2017.  

Goods and Services Tax Constitutional Framework

In 2014, the Goods and Services Tax was introduced in the Parliament in order to provide it a constitutional status. The bill got passed in 2016 as the Constitutional 101st Amendment Act. This amendment brought in 3 new articles to the constitution: 

  • Article 246A- The Parliament and State Legislatures both get concurrent powers to make laws about GST. The Parliament will have the power to legislate in inter state trade of goods and services. 
  • Article 269A- the inter-state trade is collected by the central government and then distributed between the centre and state on the basis of the numbers recommended by the GST Council. 
  • Article 279A- The President of India has the power to outline the functioning and composition of the GST Council. 

Goods and Services Tax Features

  1. Tax on Supply, Not Sale or Manufacture:
     GST is levied on the supply of goods and services, unlike the earlier regime where tax was imposed at multiple stages like manufacture or sale.
  2. Destination-Based Consumption Tax:
     GST follows the destination principle—tax revenue goes to the state where goods or services are consumed, not where they are produced.
  3. Dual GST Structure:
     India has adopted a dual model, allowing both the Centre and States to levy GST simultaneously on a common base.
  4. Four Components of GST:
  • CGST (Central Goods & Services Tax)
  • SGST (State Goods & Services Tax)
  • UTGST (Union Territory GST)
  • IGST (Integrated GST on inter-state supply)
  1. Harmonised Tax Rates:
     Tax rates are finalized through mutual agreement between the Centre and States, based on GST Council recommendations.
  2. Multiple Tax Slabs:
     Different goods and services are taxed under various slabs—currently, 7 for goods and 5 for services.
  3. Threshold Exemptions:
     Small businesses with turnover below specified limits are exempt from GST. The exact exemption threshold varies by category and region.

Goods and Services Tax Components

The Goods and Services Tax can be be divided into 4 components: 

Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST) 

  • Levied on intra-state and intra-UT on Goods and services. 
  • The Central Government can levy as well as collect this tax. 
  • All the transactions occurring all over India are to charge this tax alongside the State GST. 
  • CGST is charged uniformly all over the country. 

State Goods and Services Tax (SGST) 

  • The State Government levies and collects this tax from their respective states. 
  • Applied on all transactions happening in the state along with CGST. 
  • The state government has the power to decide their own rates. 

Union Territories Goods and Services Tax (UTGST) 

  • The Union Territory that has its own legislature can collect this tax. 
  • CGST is also collected alongside  the UT translation. 
  • Each union territory has the authority to decide their own GST rates. 

Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST)

  • Levied on inter-state supply of goods and services. This is also known as a combined tax.
  • The central government levies and collects this tax and the collected amount is distributed between the centre and the state.  
  • The IGST rate remains uniform all over the country. 

Indirect Taxes Subsumed under GST 

The following indirect taxes are subsumed under the GST: 

Central Taxes Subsumed under GST

The Goods and Services Tax replaced the following taxes levied and collected by the Centre:

  • Service Tax
  • Central Sales Tax
  • Central Excise Duty
  • Duties of Excise (Medicinal and Toiletries Preparations)
  • Additional Duties of Excise (Goods of Special Importance)
  • Additional Duties of Excise (Textiles and Textile Products)
  • Additional Duties of Customs (commonly known as CVD)
  • Special Additional Duty of Customs (SAD)
  • Central Surcharges and Cess, so far as they relate to the supply of goods and services.

State Taxes Subsumed under GST

State taxes subsumed under the Goods and Services Tax are:

  • State VAT/Sales Tax
  • Purchase Tax
  • Entertainment and Amusement Tax (other than those levied by the local bodies)
  • Luxury Tax
  • Octroi Duty and all other forms of Entry Tax
  • Taxes on lotteries, betting and gambling
  • Mandi Tax
  • Taxes on advertisements
  • State Surcharges and Cess, so far as they relate to the supply of goods and services.

Taxes Exempted from GST 

While maximum indirect taxes have been subsumed under the Goods and Services tax, there are a few taxes that still stand independent. These taxes are: 

  • Basic Customs Duty charged on goods imported in India.
  • Surcharge on Customs Duty.
  • Customs Cess.
  • Motor Vehicle Tax.
  • Stamp Duty.
  • Excise Duty on Liquor (which is levied by State Governments)
  • Excise Duty on Petroleum Products (which is levied by Central Government)
  • VAT on Petroleum Products
  • VAT on Tobacco Products
  • Anti-Dumping Duty and Safeguard Duty
  • Toll Tax and Entertainment Tax levied by Local Bodies

Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council)

The 101st Constitutional Amendment Act introduced Article 279A, empowering the President to establish the GST Council to oversee the implementation and administration of the GST framework in India.

The GST Council plays a central role in recommending key aspects of GST—such as tax rates, exemptions, laws, and procedural rules.

To explore the composition, functioning, and powers of the GST Council in detail, refer to our comprehensive article on the GST Council.

Goods and Services Tax Benefits

The implementation of Goods and Services taxes had the following benefits: 

  • Establishment of a Unified National Market: By subsuming numerous Central and State taxes into a single tax structure, GST has facilitated the formation of a seamless national market.
  • Elimination of Cascading Taxes: GST has removed the burden of tax-on-tax, thereby reducing overall tax incidence and improving business efficiency.
  • Boost to Competitiveness: Lower indirect tax rates have enhanced the cost competitiveness of Indian goods and services, both domestically and globally.

For Business and Industry

  • Simplified Compliance: GST is supported by a robust IT infrastructure, streamlining return filing and tax payments.

  • Uniform Taxation: Harmonized tax rates and structures across the country bring predictability and reduce complexities.

  • Enhanced Competitiveness: Lower transaction costs and removal of cascading taxes improve overall business efficiency and competitiveness.

For Central and State Governments

  • Simplified Administration: Replaces multiple indirect taxes with a single tax, making the system easier to manage through a unified digital platform.

  • Reduced Tax Evasion: Digital trail and simplified procedures enhance transparency and reduce leakages.

  • Improved Revenue Efficiency: Lower cost of tax collection and increased compliance lead to more efficient revenue mobilization.

For Consumers

  • Lower Tax Burden: Elimination of tax-on-tax and rationalized rates reduce the overall tax burden on goods and services.

  • Price Stability: Transparency and efficiency help curb inflationary pressures, offering relief to end consumers.

For States

  • Wider Tax Base: States can now tax the full value chain, including services, expanding their revenue scope.
  • Greater Revenue Autonomy: Empowered to tax the fast-growing service sector, boosting state revenues.
  • Investment Boost: As a destination-based tax, GST benefits consuming states and enhances the investment climate.
  • Higher Compliance: Uniform tax rates across states discourage tax arbitrage and improve tax discipline.

Goods and Services Tax FAQs

Q1: What is the meaning of Goods and Services Tax?

Ans: GST is a comprehensive indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services across India.

Q2: What is the GST tax in India?

Ans: GST in India is a multi-stage, destination-based tax that replaces multiple indirect taxes and is levied at every point of sale.

Q3: How can I check my GST status online?

Ans: You can check your GST status on the official GST portal: www.gst.gov.in using your GSTIN or PAN.

Q4: Who heads the GST Council?

Ans: The Union Finance Minister is the Chairperson of the GST Council.

Q5: What are the benefits of GST implementation?

Ans: GST simplifies taxation, reduces tax cascading, promotes ease of doing business, and creates a unified national market.

List of Countries With the Most Time Zones, Country Wise Time zone

January 2, 2026
List of Countries With the Most Time Zones

Time Zones play a crucial role in maintaining global synchronisation, affecting everything from international trade to travel and communication. While most countries operate within one or two time zones, some nations span vast geographic areas or possess overseas territories, necessitating the management of multiple time zones. 

France leads the world with 12 Time Zones, primarily due to its numerous overseas departments and territories. Russia and the United States follow closely, each encompassing 11 Time Zones owing to their expansive mainland regions and distant holdings.

Why Time Zones Matter

A Time Zone is a geographic region that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Most time zones are defined by their offset from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), such as UTC+5:30 for India. The global system of time zones ensures synchronisation across countries and continents, especially in sectors like aviation, international trade, and broadcasting.

Several factors contribute to a country having multiple time zones:

  • Large east-west landmass (e.g., Russia, USA)
  • Overseas territories scattered across the globe (e.g., France, UK)
  • Seasonal changes due to Daylight Saving Time (DST)
  • Administrative and political divisions

List of Countries With Most Time Zones 2026

Time Zones are established based on one or more deviations from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). In certain regions, these deviations vary according to specific dates due to the implementation of daylight saving time (DST). As a result, such regions may alternate between time offsets throughout the year. The range of UTC offsets extends from UTC−12:00 to UTC+14:00, commonly measured in full-hour increments. However, a few regions, such as India (UTC+5:30), South Australia (UTC+9:30), and Nepal (UTC+5:45), follow non-standard offsets of 30 or 45 minutes.

The table below includes the List of Countries With Most Time Zones 2026:

List of Countries With Most Time Zones 2026
S. No. Countries No. of time zones Time zone

1

France

12

UTC−10:00 — Society Islands, Tuamotus, Austral Islands

UTC−09:30 — Marquesas Islands

UTC−09:00 — Gambier Islands

UTC−08:00 — Clipperton Island

UTC−04:00 (AST) — Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin

UTC−03:00 (PMST)— French Guiana, Saint Pierre and Miquelon

UTC+01:00 (CET) — metropolitan France

UTC+03:00 — Mayotte, Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean

UTC+04:00 — Réunion, Crozet Islands

UTC+05:00 — Kerguelen Islands, Saint Paul and Amsterdam Islands

UTC+11:00 — New Caledonia

UTC+12:00 — Wallis and Futuna

2

Russia

11

UTC+02:00 (Kaliningrad Time) — Kaliningrad Oblast

UTC+03:00 (Moscow Time) — Most of European Russia

UTC+04:00 (Samara Time) — Astrakhan Oblast, Samara Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Udmurtia, and Ulyanovsk Oblast

UTC+05:00 (Yekaterinburg Time) — Bashkortostan, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Khanty–Mansia, Kurgan Oblast, Orenburg Oblast, Perm Krai, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Tyumen Oblast, and Yamalia

UTC+06:00 (Omsk Time) — Omsk Oblast

UTC+07:00 (Krasnoyarsk Time) — Altai Krai, Altai Republic, Kemerovo Oblast, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Novosibirsk Oblast, Tomsk Oblast, and Tuva

UTC+08:00 (Irkutsk Time) — Buryatia and Irkutsk Oblast

UTC+09:00 (Yakutsk Time) — Amur Oblast, western Sakha Republic, and Zabaykalsky Krai

UTC+10:00 (Vladivostok Time) — Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, Primorsky Krai, and central Sakha Republic

UTC+11:00 (Magadan Time) — Magadan Oblast, eastern Sakha, and Sakhalin Oblast

UTC+12:00 (Kamchatka Time) — Chukotka and Kamchatka Krai

3

United States

11

UTC−12:00 (AoE) — Baker Island and Howland Island

UTC−11:00 (ST) — American Samoa, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll and Palmyra Atoll

UTC−10:00 (HT) — Hawaii, most of the Aleutian Islands, and Johnston Atoll

UTC−09:00 (AKT) — most of the state of Alaska

UTC−08:00 (PT) — Pacific Time zone: the Pacific coast states, the Idaho Panhandle and most of Nevada and Oregon

UTC−07:00 (MT) — Mountain Time zone: most of Idaho, part of Oregon, and the Mountain states plus western parts of some adjacent states

UTC−06:00 (CT) — Central Time zone: a large area spanning from the Gulf Coast to the Great Lakes

UTC−05:00 (ET) — Eastern Time zone: roughly a triangle covering all the states from the Great Lakes down to Florida and east to the Atlantic coast

UTC−04:00 (AST) — Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands

UTC+10:00 (ChT) — Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands

UTC+12:00 (WAKT) — Wake Island

4

Antarctica

9

UTC−03:00 (ART) — Palmer Station, Rothera Station

UTC±00:00 (GMT) — Troll Station

UTC+03:00 — Syowa Station

UTC+05:00 — Mawson Station

UTC+06:00 — Vostok Station

UTC+07:00 — Davis Station

UTC+10:00 — Dumont-d'Urville Station

UTC+11:00 — Casey Station

UTC+12:00 — McMurdo Station, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station

5

Australia

9

UTC+05:00 — Heard and McDonald Islands

UTC+06:30 — Cocos (Keeling) Islands

UTC+07:00 (CXT) — Christmas Island

UTC+08:00 (AWST) — Western Australia, Indian Pacific railway when travelling between Port Augusta, South Australia and Kalgoorlie, Western Australia)

UTC+08:45 (CWT) – South Australia (Border Village), Western Australia (Caiguna, Cocklebiddy, Eucla, Madura, Mundrabilla)

UTC+09:30 (ACST) — South Australia, Northern Territory, New South Wales (Yancowinna County)

UTC+10:00 (AEST) — Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, Tasmania

UTC+10:30 — Lord Howe Island

UTC+11:00 (NFT) — Norfolk Island

6

United Kingdom

9

UTC−08:00 — Pitcairn Islands

UTC−05:00 — Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands

UTC−04:00 (AST) — Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat

UTC−03:00 (FKST) — Falkland Islands

UTC−02:00 — South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

UTC±00:00 (GMT in winter/BST in summer) — main territory of the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey

UTC+01:00 (CET) — Gibraltar

UTC+02:00 (EET) — Akrotiri and Dhekelia

UTC+06:00 — British Indian Ocean Territory

7

Canada

6

UTC−08:00 (PT) — larger western part of British Columbia, Tungsten and the associated Cantung Mine in Northwest Territories, Yukon

UTC−07:00 (MT) — Alberta, some eastern parts of British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories, Nunavut (west of 102°W and all communities in the Kitikmeot Region), Lloydminster and the surrounding area in Saskatchewan

UTC−06:00 (CT)— Manitoba, Nunavut (between 85° West and 102°W except for western Southampton Island), Ontario (Northwestern Ontario west of 90°W with some exceptions and Big Trout Lake area east of 90°W), Saskatchewan except Lloydminster

UTC−05:00 (ET) — Nunavut east of 85°W and entire Southampton Island, Ontario east of 90°W (except Big Trout Lake area) plus several more western areas, Quebec (most of the province)

UTC−04:00 (AT) — Labrador (all but southeastern tip), New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern part of Quebec

UTC−03:30 (NT) — Labrador (southeastern), Newfoundland

8

Denmark

5

UTC−04:00 — Pituffik Space Base in Greenland

UTC−03:00 — most of Greenland, including inhabited south coast and west coast

UTC−01:00 — Ittoqqortoormiit and the surrounding area in Greenland's Tunu county

UTC±00:00 — Danmarkshavn weather station and surrounding area in Greenland's Tunu county, Faroe Islands

UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of Denmark

9

New Zealand

5

UTC−11:00 — Niue

UTC−10:00 — Cook Islands

UTC+12:00 — main territory of New Zealand

UTC+12:45 — Chatham Islands

UTC+13:00 — Tokelau

10

Brazil

4

UTC−05:00 (Brasília time −2) — Acre and Southwestern Amazonas

UTC−04:00 (Brasília time −1) — Most part of the Amazonas State, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Rondônia, Roraima

UTC−03:00 (Brasília time) — the Southeast Region, the South Region, the Northeast Region (except some islands), Goiás, Distrito Federal, Tocantins, Pará, Amapá

UTC−02:00 (Brasília time +1) — A few islands on the east coast of Brazil (Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago)

11

Mexico

4

UTC−08:00 (Zone 4 or Northwest Zone) — the state of Baja California

UTC−07:00 (Zone 3 or Pacific Zone) — the states of Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Nayarit, Sinaloa and Sonora

UTC−06:00 (Zone 2 or Central Zone) — most of Mexico

UTC−05:00 (Zone 1 or Southeast Zone) — the state of Quintana Roo

12

Chile

3

UTC−06:00 — Easter Island

UTC−04:00 — main territory of Chile

UTC−03:00 — Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica

13

Indonesia

3

UTC+07:00 (Western Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of Sumatra, Java, Madura, provinces of Bangka Belitung Islands, Riau Islands, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan

UTC+08:00 (Central Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of Sulawesi, Bali, provinces of East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan and South Kalimantan

UTC+09:00 (Eastern Indonesian Standard Time) — islands of the Maluku Islands and Western New Guinea

14

Kiribati

3

UTC+12:00 — Gilbert Islands

UTC+13:00 — Phoenix Islands

UTC+14:00 — Line Islands

15

Democratic Republic of the Congo

2

UTC+01:00 (WAT) — provinces of Équateur, Kinshasa, Kongo Central, Kwango, Kwilu, Mai-Ndombe, Mongala, Nord-Ubangi, Sud-Ubangi and Tshuapa

UTC+02:00 (CAT) — provinces of Bas-Uele, Haut-Katanga, Haut-Lomami, Haut-Uele, Kasaï, Kasaï-Central, Kasaï Oriental, Lomami, Lualaba, Maniema, Nord-Kivu, Sankuru, Sud-Kivu, Tanganyika, Tshopo and Ituri Interim Administration

16

Ecuador

2

UTC−06:00 (GALT) — Galápagos Province

UTC−05:00 (Ecuador Time) — main territory of Ecuador

17

Federated States of Micronesia

2

UTC+10:00 — the states of Chuuk and Yap

UTC+11:00 — the states of Kosrae and Pohnpei

18

Kazakhstan

2

UTC+05:00 — western Kazakhstan (Aktobe, Atyrau, Kyzylorda, Mangystau and West Kazakhstan)

UTC+06:00 — eastern Kazakhstan

19

Kingdom of the Netherlands

2

UTC−04:00 (AST) — Caribbean municipalities and constituent countries

UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of the Netherlands

20

Mongolia

2

UTC+07:00 — the provinces of Khovd, Uvs and Bayan-Ölgii

UTC+08:00 — most of the country

21

Papua New Guinea

2

UTC+10:00 — most of the country

UTC+11:00 — Autonomous Region of Bougainville (Bougainville Standard Time)

22

Portugal

2

UTC−01:00 — Azores

UTC±00:00 (WET) — Madeira and the main territory of Portugal

23

South Africa

2

UTC+02:00 (South African Standard Time) — main territory of South Africa

UTC+03:00 — Prince Edward Islands

24

Spain

2

UTC±00:00 (WET) — Canary Islands

UTC+01:00 (CET) — main territory of Spain

Top Countries With the Most Time Zones (2026)

  • France - 12 Time Zones: France surprisingly tops the list, not due to the size of its mainland, but because of its numerous overseas departments and territories spread across the globe. These include territories in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and even Antarctica.
  • Time zones: UTC−10:00 to UTC+12:00
  • Russia - 11 Time Zones: As the largest country in the world by area, Russia spans 11 time zones from its western exclave of Kaliningrad to the eastern edge of Kamchatka. Unlike France, all of Russia’s time zones exist within its mainland territory.
  • Time zones: UTC+02:00 to UTC+12:00
  • United States - 11 Time Zones: The United States covers a significant expanse and includes several unincorporated territories, which contribute to its 11 time zones.
  • Time zones: UTC−12:00 to UTC+12:00
  • Antarctica - 9 Time Zones: Antarctica is unique because it doesn't have a permanent population, yet hosts various research stations operated by different countries. Each station uses the time zone of the country that runs it or the supply base it connects with.
  • Time zones: UTC−03:00 to UTC+12:00
  • United Kingdom - 9 Time Zones: Despite being relatively small in size, the UK has numerous overseas territories that contribute to its broad time zone coverage.
  • Time zones: UTC−08:00 to UTC+06:00
  • Australia - 9 Time Zones: Australia itself covers three official time zones, but when its external territories are considered, the count rises to nine.
  • Time zones: UTC+05:00 to UTC+11:00
  • Canada - 6 Time Zones: Canada spans from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, resulting in six different time zones. Unlike France or the UK, Canada does not have overseas territories, so all time zones are domestic.
  • Time zones: UTC−08:00 to UTC−03:30
  • Denmark - 5 Time Zones: Denmark's mainland may follow just one time zone, but its autonomous territories, including Greenland and the Faroe Islands, span several others.
  • Time zones: UTC−04:00 to UTC+01:00
  • New Zealand - 5 Time Zones: New Zealand includes several island dependencies, which extend its time zone reach.
  • Time zones: UTC−11:00 to UTC+13:00
  • Brazil - 4 Time Zones: Brazil spans four time zones across its continental mass and distant islands. It’s the largest country in South America and follows Brasília Time as the standard.

Time zones: UTC−05:00 to UTC−02:00

List of Countries With the Most Time Zones FAQs

Q1: Which country has the highest number of time zones in 2026?

Ans: France has the most with 12 official time zones, due to its widespread overseas territories.

Q2: How many time zones does India have?

Ans: India has only one official time zone (IST - UTC+5:30) despite spanning over 29 degrees longitude.

Q3: Why does Russia have so many time zones?

Ans: Due to its east-west expanse, Russia requires 11 time zones to align local time with the solar position.

Q4: Does the US observe all its time zones equally?

Ans: No, most mainland operations follow four time zones, while others apply to territories like Guam and Samoa.

Q5: Is there a country with UTC+14:00?

Ans: Yes, Kiribati’s Line Islands use UTC+14:00, making them among the first places to see each new day.

Bomb Cyclone

January 2, 2026
Bomb Cyclone

Bomb Cyclone Latest News

A powerful “bomb cyclone” barreled across the northern United States recently, triggering severe winter weather in the Midwest and the East Coast.

About Bomb Cyclone

  • It is a large midlatitude storm resulting from explosive cyclogenesis (or, informally, bombogenesis), a type of accelerated extratropical cyclone development in which surface pressure falls substantially over a 24-hour period.
  • In structure, a bomb cyclone is indistinguishable from any other intense midlatitude storm.
    • The center of the storm is a low-pressure cell (or cyclone) that draws winds near the surface inward.
  • However, a bomb cyclone is set apart by its rapid rate of intensification. The intensification required to classify as "bombogenesis" varies by latitude.
    • For example, at 60 degrees latitude, the requirement is 24 millibars in 24 hours.
    • Around 40 degrees latitude, a storm only has to intensify by 17.8 millibars in 24 hours.
  • Bomb cyclones are often associated with atmospheric rivers and typically form in winter when cold and warm air masses collide.
  • The four most active regions where extra-tropical explosive cyclogenesis occurs in the world are
    • the Northwest Pacific,
    • the North Atlantic,
    • the Southwest Pacific, and
    • the South Atlantic
  • The precipitation associated with a bomb cyclone is intense, ranging from heavy downpours to strong thunderstorms to blizzards and heavy snowfalls, along with strong winds.

Source: IE

Bomb Cyclone FAQs

Q1: What causes Bombogenesis?

Ans: Collision of cold and warm air masses

Q2: What is a Bomb Cyclone?

Ans: A rapidly intensifying storm with a pressure drop of 24 millibars in 24 hours.

Q3: What drives the strong winds in a Bomb Cyclone?

Ans: Pressure gradients

Pralay Missile

January 2, 2026
Pralay Missile

Pralay Missile Latest News

Recently, the Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) carried out a salvo launch of two indigenous Pralay missiles.

About Pralay Missile

  • It is an indigenously developed short-range, surface-to-surface missile.

Features of Pralay Missile

  • It is a solid propellant quasi-ballistic missile.
  • The missile is capable of carrying multiple types of warheads against various targets.
  • Range: The missile has a range of 150-500 km and can be launched from a mobile launcher.
  • Payload capacity: It has a payload capacity of 500-1,000 kg.
  • The missile is capable of carrying conventional warheads.
  • It is equipped with guidance systems that provide a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of less than 10 meters.
  • Speed: It reaches terminal speeds of Mach 6.1 and can engage targets such as radar installations, command centers, and airstrips.
  • It has the ability to change its path after covering a certain range midair.
  • Developed by:  It has been developed by Research Centre Imarat and in collaboration with other Defence Research & Development Organisation labs.
  • Industry partners: Bharat Dynamics Limited & Bharat Electronics Limited and many other industries and MSMEs.

Source: TH

Pralay Missile FAQs

Q1: What is the range of the Pralay missile?

Ans: 150-500 km

Q2: What type of missile is Pralay?

Ans: Quasi-ballistic missile

Stingless Bees

January 2, 2026
Stingless Bees_

Stingless Bees Latest News

Amazonian stingless bees have become the first insect in the world to be granted legal rights, after two municipalities — Satipo and Nauta — in Peru passed an ordinance earlier this month.

About Stingless Bees

  • Stingless Bees are a class of bees which either do not have stingers or have stingers that cannot cause much pain.
  • Common genera of stingless bees: Austroplebeia, Melipona, and Tetragonula
  • They do possess stingers, but they are too small to be useful in defense. Instead of stinging, stingless bees use their mandibles to bite their attackers.
  • Stingless bees are among the planet’s oldest pollinators, with a remarkable concentration of species in the Amazon rainforest.
  • Distribution: They are found in tropical regions across the world, and about half of the 500 known species live in the Amazon.
    • Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Americas are the main areas where the stingless bee is found. 
    • In India, these bees are reported primarily from the northeastern, eastern, and southern Indian States.
  • Benefits: Stingless bees can be used for pollination without fear of being stung. They are known for their popular medicinal honey and pollination potential.
  • Threats: Deforestation has reduced nesting sites, while pesticide use, climate change and competition from invasive honeybees have further weakened populations.

Source: IE

Stingless Bees FAQs

Q1: Where are Stingless Bees primarily found?

Ans: Tropical regions of the world

Q2: What is the primary role of Stingless Bees in ecosystems?

Ans: Pollination

Monthly Current Affairs October 2025 for UPSC Prelims & Mains

January 2, 2026
Current Affairs October 2025

UPSC Current Affairs for October 2025 are one of the common and crucial components of the UPSC CSE syllabus. Current affairs are the events and issues that are happening in the present time, both in India and around the world. They cover various domains, such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, sports, etc. In this article, we are going to cover the UPSC Current Affairs for October 2025 for both Prelims and Mains. 

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 

Current affairs October 2025 are an important part of UPSC CSE preparation, and to assist aspirants, Vajiram & Ravi publish Monthly Current Affairs Magazine, The Recitals, daily prelims pointers, mains articles, editorial analysis, daily newspaper analysis video- The Analyst. These sources consolidate and simplify all the important current affairs topics from the month into high-quality, well-researched magazines. Drawing from reliable sources like PIB, Yojana, Kurukshetra, The Hindu, Indian Express, Economic Times, and Down to Earth, the content is presented through text, infographics, charts, and tables, ensuring easy understanding and effective learning.

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 for Prelims & Mains

UPSC Current Affairs October 2025 for Prelims & Mains includes Daily Prelims Pointers and Mains Articles as well as Daily Editorial Analysis that are carefully curated by experts and updated on our website on a daily basis. These topics, derived from The Hindu and Indian Express, simplify the preparation process by providing a thorough analysis of current affairs . They cover both backward and forward linkages, offering a comprehensive understanding of each topic. Designed as concise daily notes, they ensure that aspirants efficiently address all the key subjects. While Prelims Pointers have a more concise and focused approach, the Mains Articles are crafted to enable students to effectively utilize the information for answer writing in the Mains exam. The Daily Editorial Analysis analyses the daily editorial news in the Indian Express and The Hindu Newspaper. The Analyst – Daily Newspaper Analysis Video by Vajiram & Ravi provides a thorough and insightful breakdown of the most significant news stories from The Hindu and Indian Express. Each video is paired with a handout summarizing the key points, presented in a clear, bullet-point format for easy comprehension and effective research.

UPSC October Current Affairs 2025

We publish ten Prelims Pointers, four Main Articles and three Editorial Analysis on a daily basis. Apart from this we also post daily MCQ Quiz for practice and The Analyst- Newspaper Analysis. Here is a link to our Daily Prelims Pointers and Mains Articles, Editorial Analysis, Daily Quiz and The Analyst Video created using multiple sources to ease UPSC preparation for the aspirants: 

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Importance of Current Affairs October 2025 for UPSC Aspirants 

Current affairs remain one of the most crucial components of the UPSC CSE syllabus, covering events and issues of present relevance in India and across the world. They span diverse areas such as politics, economy, society, culture, environment, science, technology, and sports. The importance of current affairs for October 2025 lies in their direct role in shaping the knowledge base and analytical ability of aspirants, making them indispensable for exam success.

  • Testing Awareness and Understanding of the Contemporary World
     Current affairs October 2025 are not just about memorizing facts but about analyzing events and their wider implications. They test your awareness of global and national happenings, along with your ability to understand causes, consequences, and possible solutions. For aspirants, this builds global perspective and critical thinking qualities central to civil services.
  • Connecting Static and Dynamic Portions of the Syllabus
    Current affairs October 2025 act as a bridge between static knowledge and real-time developments. Events such as policy changes, international summits, or socio-economic shifts can be linked to static subjects like history, polity, geography, and economy. This integration strengthens conceptual clarity and improves answer writing by enabling aspirants to connect theory with practice.
  • Unpredictable and Dynamic Nature of UPSC Preparation
     The importance of current affairs for October 2025 also lies in their dynamic and evolving nature. Unlike static subjects, they change daily and require consistent updates. This unpredictability challenges aspirants to remain alert and well-informed, while also adding variety to UPSC preparation. It ensures that aspirants do not rely solely on rote learning but instead develop adaptability and analytical flexibility.

Relevance to Civil Services and Real-World Administration
 Above all, current affairs October 2025 are vital as they reflect the realities future civil servants must deal with. They highlight governance challenges, policy decisions, and social issues that administrators directly engage with. Moreover, they are critical during the interview stage, where aspirants are tested on their opinions and depth of understanding regarding contemporary issues.

Current Affairs October 2025 FAQs

Q1: How to prepare current affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: By consistently reading newspapers, using standard monthly magazines, and revising through reliable compilations with answer writing practice.

Q2: What is the importance of studying current affairs for UPSC CSE?

Ans: Current Affairs link static subjects with real-time issues, test analytical skills, and form a significant part of Prelims, Mains, and Interview.

Q3: What are Vajiram & Ravi Prelims Pointers?

Ans: They are concise, exam-focused current affairs notes prepared by Vajiram & Ravi for UPSC Prelims revision uploaded on their website on a daily basis.

Q4: Which newspaper to read to prepare UPSC Current Affairs?

Ans: The Hindu and The Indian Express are the most recommended newspapers for UPSC preparation.

Q5: How to prepare newspaper notes for UPSC CSE?

Ans: By focusing on exam-relevant issues, summarizing in bullet points, and organizing under GS syllabus topics for quick revision.

Cyclone Montha, Location, Formation, Vulnerable Zones, Impact

January 2, 2026
Cyclone Montha

Cyclone Montha is a cyclonic system forming over the southeast Bay of Bengal in late October 2025, which is expected to make landfall on the east coast of India. The storm is raising significant concern for states such as Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and parts of Tamil Nadu. As preparations intensify and weather alerts are issued, understanding its trajectory, potential impact and the response measures is critical.

Cyclone Montha

Cyclone Montha emerged from a well-marked low-pressure area over the southeast Bay of Bengal on about 24 October 2025, according to the India Meteorological Department (IMD). By 26 October, it had intensified into a deep depression, with wind speeds rising to 80-100 km/h and the likelihood of developing into a severe cyclonic storm by 28 October. The IMD forecast it would make landfall near the coastal area between Machilipatnam and Kalingapatnam, close to Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh, possibly on the evening or night of 28 October. Wind gusts may reach up to about 110 km/h, while sea conditions are labelled “very rough to high”, with storm-surge risk along low-lying zones.

Cyclone Montha Location

As of 27 October 2025, Cyclone Montha is located over the west-central Bay of Bengal, approximately 350 km southeast of Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh. It is moving in a north-northwest direction at nearly 14 km/h and is expected to make landfall between Machilipatnam and Kalingapatnam, close to Kakinada, by the evening of 28 October. Its influence extends to Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and coastal Telangana, bringing widespread rainfall and gusty winds to these regions.

Cyclone Montha Formation

Cyclone Montha developed from a well-marked low-pressure area that formed over the southeast Bay of Bengal around 24 October 2025. The system gradually intensified into a deep depression by 26 October and further strengthened into a cyclonic storm under favourable conditions- warm sea surface temperatures above 28 °C, low vertical wind shear, and sufficient moisture inflow. IMD forecasts show the storm’s intensity could reach the Severe Cyclonic Storm category before landfall.

Cyclone Montha Naming

The name “Montha” was contributed by Thailand to the list of cyclones prepared by the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) regional committee. It means “a fragrant flower” or “beautiful flower” in Thai. Each member country in the region suggests cyclone names sequentially for future systems. This naming practice helps easy public identification, improves communication during warnings, and avoids confusion among multiple active storms in the same season.

Cyclone Montha Response Measures

Authorities are mobilising in full readiness to minimise loss of life and damage:

  • The government of Andhra Pradesh has activated a detailed action plan: stock-piling essential supplies, positioning Public Distribution System (PDS) items, monitoring power and telecom, evacuating pregnant women and preparing temporary shelters.
  • The IMD along with the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), the Indian Coast Guard, Army and other agencies are on high alert; more than 900 fishing vessels have been shepherded ashore.
  • Coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh (including Kakinada, Konaseema, West Godavari, Krishna, Bapatla, Prakasam and Nellore) are under red alerts, while Tamil Nadu, Odisha and others are under orange/yellow alerts based on intensity forecasts.
  • Schools in high-risk districts have been closed till 31 October to restrict movement and ensure safety.
  • The public has been advised not to travel unnecessarily, fishing activities suspended, and constant updates issued via IMD bulletins and state disaster management cells.

Cyclone Montha Vulnerable Zones

The coastal region of Andhra Pradesh including the Godavari delta, interior Rayalaseema and adjoining districts are highly vulnerable due to:

  • Dense population in low-lying areas prone to inundation
  • Agricultural land and fishing communities that depend on sea/ coastal ecosystem
  • Limited local infrastructure in remote mandals, making evacuation and relief logistics challenging
  • Past storms indicate that even moderate cyclonic storms can trigger heavy rainfall and flash-floods in Rayalaseema (>210 mm in 24 hrs forecast) leading to landslips and distress.
  • The fisheries sector is deeply affected: the weather advisory for fishermen and sea-return indicates the concern for livelihood, as 985 fishing boats have been guided to safety.
  • In neighbouring states like Odisha, 30 districts have been alerted, emphasizing regional inter-state cooperation in disaster management.

Cyclone Montha Significance

Cyclone Montha is notable for the reasons listed below:

  • It is the first major land-falling cyclone of 2025 on the Indian mainland after earlier systems moved away.
    The event underscores the need for improved early warning, community preparedness, and resilient coastal infrastructure as India faces increasing frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change.
  • It tests the implementation of the national disaster management framework - from central agencies (NDMA) to state/ district disaster committees - and indicates the increasing role of military and paramilitary readiness in natural disasters.
  • It highlights the vulnerability of coastal ecology, agriculture and fisheries; and reminds of the importance of ecosystem-based adaptation and resilient infrastructure.

Cyclone Montha Impacts

The threat posed by Cyclone Montha is multi-dimensional. The Cyclone is expected to impact in below mentioned ways:

  • Heavy rainfall: The IMD has warned of heavy to extremely heavy rain (≥21 cm in 24 hrs) in isolated places, especially along coastal Andhra Pradesh, south Odisha and nearby states.
  • Strong winds: Sustained winds of 90-100 km/h with gusts up to 110 km/h are predicted during landfall, which could lead to uprooting of trees, damage to buildings and disruption of power/communication.
  • Storm surge and coastal flooding: Low-lying coastal pockets around the landfall zone face the risk of storm-surge inundation of about 1 metre above astronomical tide, as per the IMD advisory.
  • Marine hazards: Fishing communities are especially at risk; advisories have been issued to avoid venturing into the sea between 26 - 29 October off Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Odisha coastlines
  • Wider weather effects: Rain and thunderstorms may also affect adjoining states such as Telangana, Chhattisgarh and parts of West Bengal, delaying relief and transportation.

Cyclone Montha FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Montha?

Ans: Cyclone Montha is a tropical cyclone formed over the southeast Bay of Bengal in October 2025, affecting India’s east coast.

Q2: Which country named the Cyclone Montha?

Ans: The name “Montha” was given by Thailand under the World Meteorological Organization’s regional cyclone naming system.

Q3: Where will Cyclone Montha make landfall?

Ans: IMD predicts Cyclone Montha will make landfall near Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, between Machilipatnam and Kalingapatnam on 28 October 2025.

Q4: What are the expected wind speeds during Cyclone Montha?

Ans: According to IMD, Cyclone Montha may bring winds of 100-110 km/h with very heavy rainfall in coastal Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

Q5: What measures has the government taken for Cyclone Montha?

Ans: NDRF teams, evacuation plans, and relief shelters have been deployed in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha for cyclone preparedness and safety.

SHANTI Bill 2025, Objectives, Provisions, Concerns, Way Forward

January 2, 2026
SHANTI Bill 2025

Why SHANTI Bill 2025 in News?

The Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India, SHANTI Bill 2025, officially called the Atomic Energy Bill 2025, is in the news because the Union Government has approved it to open India’s nuclear energy sector to private and foreign participation.

What is the SHANTI Bill 2025?

The SHANTI Bill 2025 is a proposed law to reform India’s civil nuclear energy sector and make it more open, modern, and investment-friendly. It replaces the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, which earlier kept the sector under strict government control. The Bill allows limited private and foreign participation in nuclear power while retaining state oversight.

SHANTI Bill 2025 Objectives

The SHANTI Bill 2025 aims to reform India’s civil nuclear energy sector to meet future power and climate needs. Its objectives are:

  • Expand nuclear power capacity to provide reliable, round-the-clock (baseload) electricity and reduce dependence on coal.
  • Support India’s climate commitments by promoting low-carbon and clean energy sources alongside renewables.
  • Open the nuclear sector to private and foreign participation in a controlled manner to attract long-term capital and investment.
  • Promote Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for faster deployment, industrial decarbonisation, and captive power use.
  • Improve grid stability as renewable energy capacity increases across the country.
  • Strengthen India’s energy security by diversifying the power mix and reducing fuel import risks.
  • Leverage international nuclear cooperation, including the Indo-US civil nuclear deal, while maintaining strategic oversight.

Provisions of the SHANTI Bill 2025

  • Expanded role of the private sector in areas such as: Exploration and mining of atomic minerals, Nuclear fuel fabrication, Manufacturing of nuclear equipment and components, and Research and Development (R&D) in civil nuclear technologies
  • Minority equity participation: Private companies are permitted to hold up to 49% equity in nuclear power projects, with the government retaining majority control.
  • Promotion of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for industrial use, captive power, and quicker deployment of nuclear capacity.
  • Foreign investment framework through partnerships and sovereign wealth funds, aligned with global nuclear practices.
  • Nuclear Energy Mission support, including a ₹20,000 crore outlay for SMR research and development.
  • Long-term capacity target of achieving 100 GWe nuclear power by 2047.
  • Government oversight and safety control to remain with state agencies such as NPCIL, ensuring nuclear safety and security.
  • Framework for liability and risk-sharing mechanisms to make nuclear projects commercially viable while protecting public interest.

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) is India’s premier authority responsible for ensuring nuclear and radiation safety. It was constituted in November 1983 by the President of India under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962. The AERB derives its regulatory powers from rules and notifications issued under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Key functions include:

  • Regulates nuclear and radiation safety across civilian nuclear installations
  • Issues safety codes, standards, and licensing conditions
  • Enforces safety provisions under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
  • Administers industrial safety provisions of the Factories Act, 1948 for units under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) as per Section 23 of the Atomic Energy Act
  • Conducts safety inspections and reviews to prevent radiation hazards
  • Plays a crucial role in strengthening regulatory oversight under the SHANTI Bill 2025 amid increased private sector participation

SHANTI Bill: Comparison with Existing Laws

The SHANTI Bill 2025 marks a significant shift from India’s earlier nuclear laws by reforming ownership, participation, and liability frameworks in the civil nuclear sector. The comparison of this bill and existing laws has been discussed below:

SHANTI Bill: Comparison with Existing Laws
Aspect Atomic Energy Act, 1962 & CLNDA, 2010 SHANTI Bill 2025

Sector Control

Complete government monopoly over nuclear energy

Government control retained, but limited private participation allowed

Private Participation

No role for private companies

Private firms allowed up to 49% minority equity

Foreign Involvement

Effectively restricted due to legal and policy barriers

Foreign participation permitted through partnerships

Liability Framework

Strict supplier liability under CLNDA

Risk-sharing and liability management mechanisms proposed

Technology Focus

Large, indigenous nuclear reactors

Emphasis on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

Investment Environment

Closed and risk-heavy for investors

More investment-friendly and aligned with global practices

Concerns and Challenges Related to the Bill

  • Nuclear safety concerns: Expanding private participation raises fears about safety standards, making strong and independent nuclear regulation essential.
  • Public trust and acceptance: Nuclear projects often face local opposition due to health, environmental, and displacement concerns.
  • Liability and compensation issues: Changes in nuclear liability rules may raise worries about whether victims will receive timely and adequate compensation in case of an accident.
  • Commercial viability for private players: High costs, long project timelines, and uncertainty in tariff recovery may discourage private investment.
  • Regulatory capacity: Existing regulatory institutions may face challenges in effectively supervising a larger and more complex nuclear sector.
  • Technology and scalability issues: India’s heavy reliance on indigenous reactor designs may limit rapid scaling and global integration.

Way Forward

  • Strengthen nuclear safety regulation by enhancing the autonomy, capacity, and transparency of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB).
  • Ensure clear and fair liability mechanisms that protect victims while providing certainty to investors and suppliers.
  • Promote Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for industrial decarbonisation, captive power, and improved grid stability.
  • Build public trust through stakeholder consultations, transparency, and awareness about nuclear safety.

  • Encourage phased private participation to test commercial viability before large-scale expansion.
  • Integrate nuclear energy into India’s climate strategy, aligning it with renewable energy growth and net-zero targets.

SHANTI Bill 2025 FAQs

Q1: What is the SHANTI Bill 2025?

Ans: The SHANTI Bill 2025 is a proposed law to reform India’s civil nuclear energy sector by replacing the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

Q2: Why was the SHANTI Bill introduced?

Ans: It was introduced to expand nuclear power, attract private and foreign investment, ensure energy security, and support India’s climate and net-zero goals.

Q3: Does the SHANTI Bill allow privatisation of nuclear power?

Ans: No. The Bill allows only limited private participation, with private companies permitted up to 49% minority equity while the government retains control.

Q4: What role do Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) play in the Bill?

Ans: SMRs are promoted for faster deployment, industrial decarbonisation, captive power generation, and improved grid stability.

Q5: How does the Bill address nuclear liability issues?

Ans: It proposes risk-sharing and liability management mechanisms to align India’s laws with global practices while ensuring victim compensation.

List of Governors of RBI from 1935-2026, Tenures, Other Details

January 2, 2026
List of Governors of RBI from 1935-2025

The Central Bank of India also known as the Reserve Bank of India is responsible for governing the monetary policies of India. Under the RBI Act, of 1934, the Reserve Bank of India was established on 1st April 1935, under the “Hilton - Young Commission” recommendation. During its establishment, the RBI was set up as a private bank and was later nationalized on 1st January 1949 after the independence.

The headquarters was situated in Kolkata during the foundation of RBI but eventually transferred to Mumbai in 1937. The Governor is the head of RBI which the Government Of India appoints. Till today, there have been 25 Governors of RBI. Osborne Smith was the First Governor of RBI in 1935 and Sanjay Malhotra is the Current Governor of RBI holding the office since December 12, 2024.

List of Governors of RBI from 1935-2026

The Governor of RBI is the CEO of the Central Bank of India and the Ex-officio Chairman of the Central Board of Directors. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issues the Indian note bearing the signature of the Governor of the Reserve Bank of India. The Government of India appoints the Governors of RBI for a term of three years and can be re-elected for the position. Below is the table we have shared the List of Governors of RBI from 1935-2026:

List of Governors of RBI from 1935-2026

S.N.

Governor Name

Tenure

1. 

Sir Osborne Smith

April 1, 1935 to June 30, 1937

2.

Sir James Braid Taylor

July 1, 1937 to February 17, 1943

3.

Sir C. D. Deshmukh

August 11, 1943 to June 30, 1949

4.

Sir Benegal Rama Rau

July 1, 1949 to 14 January 1957

5.

K. G. Ambegaonkar

January 14, 1957 to 28 February 1957

6.

H. V. R. Iyengar

March 1, 1957 to February 28, 1962

7.

P. C. Bhattacharya

March 1, 1962 to June 30, 1967

8.

L. K. Jha

July 1, 1967 to May 3, 1970

9.

B. N. Adarkar

May 4, 1970 to June 15, 1970

10.

S. Jagannathan

June 16, 1970 to May 19, 1975

11.

N. C. Sen Gupta

May 19, 1975 to August 19, 1975

12.

K. R. Puri

August 20, 1975 to May 2, 1977

13.

M. Narasimhan

May 3, 1977 to November 30, 1977

14.

I.G. Patel

December 1, 1977, to September 15, 1982

15.

Manmohan Singh

September 16, 1982 to January 14, 1985

16.

Amitav Ghosh

January 15, 1985, to February 4, 1985

17.

R. N. Malhotra

February 4, 1985, to December 22, 1990

18.

S. Venkatraman

December 22, 1990 to December 21, 1992

19.

C. Rangarajan

December 22, 1992, to November 21, 1997

20.

Bimal Jalan

November 22, 1997 to September 6, 2003

21.

Y. V. Reddy

September 6, 2003, to September 5, 2008

22.

D. Subbarao

September 5, 2008, to September 4, 2013

23.

Raghuram Rajan

September 4, 2013, to September 4, 2016

24.

Urjit Patel

September 4, 2016, to December 11, 2018

25

Shaktikanta Das

December 12, 2018, to December 12, 2024

26.

Sanjay Malhotra

December 12, 2024 to Present

First Governor of RBI

Sir Osborne Smith was appointed as the First RBI Governor of India. As a professional banker he worked at the Bank of New South Wales for 2 decades and in the Commonwealth Bank of Australia for another decade. He became the Managing Governor at the Imperial Bank of India when he returned back to India and left a great impression. 

His leadership of the Imperial Bank earned him significant recognition within Indian banking circles. However, his policy perspectives on issues such as exchange rates and interest rates often diverged from those of the Government. As a result, he resigned before completing his three-and-a-half-year term. Notably, Sir Osborne did not sign any banknotes during his tenure.

Current Governor of RBI

As of 2026, Sanjay Malhotra is the current RBI Governor, who is an IAS Officer, belonging to the 1990 Rajasthan Cadre. Presently serving as the 26th Governor of RBI. He has played an important role in shaping India's finances. He holds a CS degree from IIT Kanpur and Master’s in Public Policy from Princeton University, USA.

Governor of RBI Eligibility Criteria

The position of RBI Governor is offered to civil servants names like C. D. Deshmukh and Bengal Rama Rao. Over a while, the Governor of RBI Eligibility Criteria elaborated, allowing candidates with diverse backgrounds to be considered. Anyone holding a graduate or postgraduate degree, or qualifications can aspire to become the Governor of RBI.

To be eligible to be a RBI Governor, the following eligibility criteria has to be met: 

  1. Has to be a citizen of India.
  2. Should be in the age group between 40 to 60 years.
  3. Should have at least 20 years of working experience in a banking, finance, economics or related sector. 
  4. Should have held a senior position in a banking or financial institution. 
  5. Should not be connected or associated with any political party or organisation. 

List of Governors of RBI from 1935-2026 FAQs

Q1: What is the salary of an RBI Governor?

Ans: The RBI Governor receives a monthly salary of ₹2.5 lakhs. Before 2016, the basic pay for this position was ₹90,000, but the government implemented two salary hikes in 2017, raising it to the current amount.

Q2: Who was the first Indian Governor of RBI?

Ans: Sir C. D. Deshmukh was the first Indian Governor of RB

Q3: Who is the current RBI Governor?

Ans: Sanjay Malhotra is the current Governor of RBI.

Q4: When was RBI established?

Ans: RBI was established on 1st April 1935 under the RBI Act, of 1934.

Q5: When was RBI Nationalised?

Ans: When was RBI Nationalised?

Cyclone Shakti, Naming, Formation, Location, Classification

January 2, 2026
Cyclone Shakti Maharashtra

Cyclone Shakti is a recent example of a tropical cyclone that formed over the Arabian Sea in 2025. It provides an important case study for understanding cyclone formation, movement, and classification in India. The event highlights the increasing trend of severe cyclones over the Arabian Sea as reported by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) due to warming ocean temperatures.

Cyclone Shakti

Cyclone Shakti was classified as a Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) by the IMD. It formed over the east-central Arabian Sea with wind speeds expected reaching 130-145 km/h. The cyclone serves as a representative example for studying the physical processes of tropical cyclone development, including oceanic heat content, Coriolis force, and atmospheric instability. Such cyclones are part of the tropical storm system in the North Indian Ocean Basin.

Cyclone Shakti 2025 Naming

The naming of Cyclone Shakti 2025 follows the guidelines of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones. The name “Shakti,” proposed by Sri Lanka, symbolizes power and resilience. Names are selected from lists contributed by 13 member countries, including India, Bangladesh, Oman, and Myanmar. The purpose of naming cyclones is to facilitate better communication and public awareness during weather forecasting and disaster management.

 Cyclone Shakti Formation

Cyclone Shakti formed through a process typical of tropical cyclone development. Warm ocean waters above 27°C provided latent heat, fueling convection. Rising moist air created low pressure at the surface, while the Coriolis effect caused rotation, forming a cyclonic system. In the upper troposphere, outflow maintained the system’s structure. The low vertical wind shear over the Arabian Sea in October 2025 allowed the cyclone to intensify into a Severe Cyclonic Storm.

Factors Affecting Cyclone Formation in Arabian Sea

The Arabian Sea has become increasingly favorable for cyclones due to changing climatic and oceanic conditions. According to a 2017 study by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) the annual mean temperature of India has increased by about 1.2℃ since 1901. This warming has enhanced the frequency of intense cyclones. Additionally, reduced vertical wind shear and increased moisture transport from the equatorial region have supported cyclone formation near India’s west coast.

Cyclone Shakti Geographical Location and Path

Cyclone Shakti developed over the east-central Arabian Sea, roughly near 21°N latitude and 66.8°E longitude. Located about 270 km southwest to Naliya, 300km east to Porbandar and 360 km south of Karachi, as of Oct 03, 2025 morning. Its path followed a typical northwestward movement under the influence of subtropical westerly winds. The Arabian Sea’s unique geography- enclosed by landmasses on three sides and open toward the southwest- helps trap heat and moisture, providing ideal conditions for cyclone formation. This path also reflects the regional wind circulation patterns during the post-monsoon season.

Classification of Cyclones in India

The IMD classifies cyclones based on their wind speeds and pressure levels. Cyclone Shakti falls under the “Severe Cyclonic Storm” category with sustained wind speeds between 118 and 165 km/h. The classification of cyclones helps in understanding cyclone intensity and potential damage levels. Such categorization also aligns with the international Saffir-Simpson Scale, though the Indian scale has region-specific terminology for the North Indian Ocean basin.

Classification of Cyclones in India

IMD Category

Wind Speed (km/h)

Example

Cyclonic Storm

62-88

Cyclone Nilam (2012)

Severe Cyclonic Storm

89-117

Cyclone Ockhi (2017)

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm

118-165

Cyclone Hudhud (2014)

Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm

166-220

Cyclone Tauktae (2021)

Super Cyclone

>221

Odisha Super Cyclone (1999)

Cyclone Trends in the Arabian Sea

The Arabian Sea, traditionally less active than the Bay of Bengal, has witnessed a rise in intense cyclones over the past two decades. The IITM and Union Ministry of Earth Sciences’ 2021 Annual Climate Report noted a 52% increase in Severe Cyclonic Storms in the Arabian Sea between 2001 and 2019. Cyclone Shakti exemplifies this growing pattern, showing how climatic warming and Indian Ocean Dipole events influence cyclone frequency and intensity.

Cyclone Shakti Challenges

Cyclone Shakti poses multi-dimensional challenges affecting ecology, economy, and human settlements along the western coast of India.

  • Climate Change Intensification: Rising Arabian Sea temperatures increase cyclone frequency and intensity, stressing existing coastal ecosystems.
  • Coastal Erosion and Landform Damage: Strong winds and storm surges erode beaches, deltas, and mangroves, altering natural buffers.
  • Agricultural Losses: Salinity intrusion and flooding damage crops, fisheries, and aquaculture-based livelihoods.
  • Infrastructure Vulnerability: Roads, power lines, and small coastal settlements face high risk due to inadequate climate-resilient design.
  • Socio-economic Impact: Displacement, loss of income, and disruption of local economies challenge recovery and development in affected areas

Way Forward:

Addressing Cyclone Shakti’s impacts requires integrated approaches combining environmental, social, and infrastructural strategies.

  • Coastal Ecosystem Restoration: Strengthen mangroves, dunes, and wetlands to act as natural storm buffers.
  • Climate-resilient Infrastructure: Upgrade housing, roads, and electricity networks to withstand high winds and flooding.
  • Sustainable Agriculture and Fisheries: Promote salt-tolerant crops, aquaculture planning, and adaptive farming practices.
  • Disaster-Resilient Livelihood Programs: Support local communities with alternate income sources and insurance schemes.
  • Research and Monitoring: Track Arabian Sea warming trends, coastal erosion, and socio-economic vulnerabilities for long-term mitigation planning.

Cyclone Shakti Recent Developments

Cyclone Shakti, the first cyclonic storm of the Arabian Sea season, has intensified into a severe cyclonic storm as of October 4, 2025. Expected 45-55 kmph wind speed, that may intensify. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) reported that the storm is moving west-southwestward at a speed of 18 km/h and is expected to continue intensifying. As of 12 PM on October 4, the storm was located approximately 420 km from Dwarka in Gujarat. The IMD has issued warnings for rough seas and squally winds along the Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts. Authorities have advised fishermen to avoid venturing into the sea, and coastal residents are urged to stay alert.

Impact of Cyclone Shakti

Cyclone Shakti is likely to affect coastal environments, landforms, and ecosystems, demonstrating the geographical and socio-economic effects of severe cyclones.

  • Coastal Erosion: Shorelines experienced sediment displacement and loss of 2-3 meters in vulnerable areas, altering landforms.
  • Flooding: Heavy rainfall leading to temporary inundation of low-lying coastal zones and river mouths.
  • Soil and Agriculture: Saline water intrusion damages soil fertility, affecting crops and mangroves.
  • Fisheries and Livelihoods: Disruption of marine ecosystems and fishing zones impacted local economies dependent on coastal resources.

Government Initiatives for Cyclone Management

India has established multiple institutions and policies to improve disaster preparedness and cyclone resilience across coastal states.

  • National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP): Strengthens early warning, evacuation, and infrastructure along the coast.
  • Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): Promotes sustainable coastal development and environmental conservation.
  • Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC), IMD: Monitors cyclones, issues forecasts, and provides scientific data.

Community Awareness Programs: Focus on training local populations for preparedness and response during severe cyclonic events.

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Cyclone Shakti Maharashtra FAQs

Q1: What is Cyclone Shakti?

Ans: Cyclone Shakti is a Severe Cyclonic Storm that formed over the Arabian Sea in 2025.

Q2: Why was the Cyclone named Shakti?

Ans: The name “Shakti” was proposed by Sri Lanka and approved by the WMO panel.

Q3: What factors caused Cyclone Shakti?

Ans: It was caused by warm sea temperatures, Coriolis force, and low wind shear.

Q4: How are cyclones classified in India?

Ans: IMD classifies them based on wind speed, from Depression to Super Cyclone.

Q5: Why are Arabian Sea cyclones increasing?

Ans: Due to rising sea surface temperatures and changing climatic conditions.

Planning Commission of India, Historical Background, Composition

January 2, 2026
Planning Commission of India

The Planning Commission of India was formed on 15th March 1950 and marked a landmark institution that laid the foundation of India’s economic and social development in the post-independence era. Its responsibilities included formulating and overseeing the five year plans and taking the nation towards planned development, resource mobilization and focusing on socio-economic growth objectives. In this article, we are going to cover all about the Planning Commission, its historical background, its functions and objectives. 

Planning Commission of India

The Planning Commission was an apex body established by a Government of India resolution in 1950, under the chairmanship of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It was a non-constitutional and non-statutory body. Its purpose was to guide India’s economic development through structured Five-Year Plans. Its responsibilities included:

  • Assessing national resources (natural, financial, and human).
  • Formulating plans and setting developmental priorities.
  • Allocating resources for different sectors and ministries.
  • Monitoring plan implementation and making mid-course corrections.
  • Advising the government on policy matters concerning development.
  • In essence, the Commission worked as the chief architect of India’s post-independence economic strategy.

Planning Commission of India Historical Background

The creation of Planning Commission of India can be traced back on the lines of the following historical background: 

  • First Five-Year Plan (1951–1956): Focused on agriculture, irrigation, and energy to address food security and basic needs.
  • Second Plan (1956–1961): Inspired by the Mahalanobis model, it emphasized rapid industrialization and the growth of the public sector.
  • Third Plan (1961–1966): Aimed at making India self-reliant but was disrupted by wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965), along with a severe drought.
  • Plan Holiday (1966–1969): Annual plans were introduced due to resource constraints, inflation, and currency depreciation.
  • Fourth Plan (1969–1974): Restarted the planned development framework with a focus on growth with stability and self-reliance.
  • Eighth Plan (1992–1997): Introduced after the 1991 economic crisis and liberalization, focusing on modernization, privatization, and globalization.
  • Ninth Plan onwards (1997–2002): Shifted attention towards social justice, poverty alleviation, and decentralized planning.
  • The Planning Commission continued its work until the Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012–2017), after which it was abolished and replaced by NITI Aayog. 

Planning Commission of India Composition

The Planning Commission of India consists of the following members: 

  • Chairman: The Prime Minister of India served as the ex-officio Chairman.
  • Deputy Chairman: The de facto executive head responsible for drafting and presenting the Five-Year Plans. Equivalent in status to a Cabinet Minister but without voting powers.
  • Full-time Members: Experts in economics, planning, agriculture, industry, and administration.
  • Part-time Members: Central Ministers holding key portfolios.
  • Ex-Officio Members: The Finance Minister and Planning Minister. 

Planning Commission of India Functions

The Planning Commission body of India served the following functions: 

  1. Formulating Five-Year Plans: Designing developmental blueprints with clear objectives, targets, and investment patterns.
  2. Resource Assessment: Evaluating India’s financial, natural, and human resources.
  3. Prioritization: Allocating resources to sectors based on national priorities.
  4. Monitoring and Evaluation: Reviewing implementation, identifying bottlenecks, and suggesting corrective action.
  5. Inter-Ministerial Coordination: Ensuring policy alignment across ministries and departments.
  6. Research and Innovation: Encouraging scientific research and supporting institutions.
  7. Policy Advisory Role: Advising the government on economic, industrial, and social development strategies.
  8. Regional Balance: Promoting equitable development among states and regions.
  9. Social Justice: Emphasizing inclusion of marginalized sections – women, minorities, and disadvantaged communities.
  10. Stakeholder Participation: Involving experts, industries, and citizens in shaping policies.

Difference Between the Planning Commission and NITI Aayog 

The Planning Commission of India was finally dissolved in 2014 and taken over by the NITI Aayog. This new planning body reflects India’s shift from centralised, top-down planning to a more flexible, decentralised and participatory policy framework. Here is a list of differences between the Planning Commission of India and the NITI Aayog.

Feature Planning Commission NITI Aayog

Nature

Centralized, top-down approach

Decentralized, cooperative federalism

Role

Drafted and enforced Five-Year Plans

Acts as think tank & policy advisory body

States’ Role

Limited, indirect via National Development Council

Direct, full participation of states & UTs

Functioning

Resource allocation and plan implementation

Knowledge hub, innovation, and strategy

Leadership

PM as Chairman, Deputy Chairman as executive head

PM as Chairman, supported by Vice-Chairperson, CEO, and experts

Approach

One-size-fits-all

Flexible, state-specific policy tailoring

Planning Commission of India FAQs

Q1: Who is the current Planning Commission of India?

Ans: The Planning Commission no longer exists; it was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.

Q2: Why did NITI Aayog replace the Planning Commission?

Ans: NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission to promote cooperative federalism, decentralized planning, and flexible policy-making suited to contemporary needs.

Q3: In which year was the Planning Commission of India set up?

Ans: The Planning Commission was established in 1950.

Q4: What is the difference between the Planning Commission and NITI Aayog?

Ans: The Planning Commission followed a centralized, top-down approach with Five-Year Plans, while NITI Aayog is a decentralized think tank promoting state participation and policy innovation.

Q5: What are the functions of the NITI Aayog?

Ans: NITI Aayog functions as a policy think tank, focusing on strategy formulation, innovation, cooperative federalism, monitoring developmental programs, and fostering sustainable growth.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

January 2, 2026
Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

The principles of "Procedure Established by Law" and "Due Process of Law" are pivotal in shaping the constitutional and legal frameworks of democratic nations. While both terms deal with protecting the life and liberty of individuals, their scope, interpretation, and application vary significantly.

Procedure Established by Law

The phrase "Procedure Established by Law" is discussed in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees protection of life and personal liberty. According to this principle:

"No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law."

This means that if a law is duly enacted by the legislature and proper procedure is followed, the state can deprive a person of life or liberty. It does not require that the law itself be just, fair, or reasonable.

Key Features

  • Emphasis on legislative procedure.
  • Focuses on enacted law, not its fairness.
  • More narrow and formalistic in approach.

Due Process of Law

Due Process of Law, a broader concept primarily used in the United States Constitution, ensures not only that a law is followed but also that it is just, fair, and reasonable. It contains two components:

  1. Procedural Due Process - Whether fair procedures were followed.
  2. Substantive Due Process - Whether the law itself is fair and just.

In India, though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the Supreme Court has gradually incorporated Due Process principles through judicial interpretations of Article 21.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law

The Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law reflects the evolution of constitutional protection in India. What began as a strict adherence to legislative procedure has transformed into a more people-centric approach, ensuring that laws do not merely exist, but that they also uphold the values of justice, fairness, and liberty. The table below includes the Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law:

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law
Aspect Procedure Established by Law Due Process of Law

Origin

Derived from British legal system

Originates from the U.S. Constitution

Mention in Indian Constitution

Explicitly mentioned in Article 21

Not mentioned directly; interpreted by judiciary

Focus

Checks if the procedure is legally enacted

Checks if the law is fair, just, and not arbitrary

Scope

Narrower; focuses on legal procedure

Broader; includes substantive fairness

Judicial Review

Limited; courts can’t question the morality of law

Extensive; courts can strike down unfair laws

Protection of Rights

Weaker protection against unjust laws

Stronger protection of individual rights and liberty

Current Application in India

Interpreted broadly post-Maneka Gandhi case (1978)

Partially adopted in Indian jurisprudence via Article 21

Important Supreme Court Judgments

A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950):

  • Held that any law made by the legislature is valid if the procedure is followed.
  • Applied narrow interpretation of Article 21—Procedure Established by Law only.

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)

  • Landmark case where the Supreme Court ruled that the procedure must be fair, just, and reasonable, not arbitrary.
  • Expanded Article 21 to include Due Process elements.
  • Connected Article 21 with Articles 14 and 19, making fundamental rights more integrated and powerful.

Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)

  • Recognized Right to Privacy as a part of Article 21.
  • Reinforced the need for laws to meet the test of reasonableness and fairness.

Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law Key Points

  • India originally adopted only the “Procedure Established by Law”, unlike the U.S., which follows “Due Process of Law”.
  • Through judicial activism and progressive interpretations, Indian courts have incorporated the essence of due process.
  • Today, Article 21 is not limited to procedural legality; it also ensures fairness and non-arbitrariness of laws.
  • This evolution has strengthened the protection of civil liberties in India.
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Difference between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law FAQs

Q1: Which article of the Indian Constitution mentions Procedure Established by Law?

Ans: Article 21 states that no person shall be deprived of life or liberty except according to the procedure established by law.

Q2: Is Due Process of Law part of the Indian Constitution?

Ans: While not explicitly stated, the Supreme Court has read the principles of Due Process into Article 21 through judgments like Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India.

Q3: What is the main drawback of Procedure Established by Law?

Ans: It can allow unfair or unjust laws to be enforced as long as proper legislative procedure is followed.

Q4: Which case introduced Due Process-like interpretation in India?

Ans: The Maneka Gandhi case (1978) was a turning point, interpreting Article 21 to require that the procedure must be just, fair, and reasonable.

Q5: How do these doctrines affect individual rights?

Ans: Due Process offers stronger protection as it questions both the law and its implementation, ensuring fairness in both substance and procedure.

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